Cahiers d’Asie centrale 24 | 2015

Littérature et Société en Asie centrale

Educating the Poets and Fostering Uzbek Poetry of the 1910s to Early 1930s

Ingeborg Baldauf

Electronic version URL: http://journals.openedition.org/asiecentrale/2919 ISSN: 2075-5325

Publisher Éditions De Boccard

Printed version Date of publication: 10 March 2015 Number of pages: 183-211 ISBN: 978-2-84743-112-4 ISSN: 1270-9247

Electronic reference Ingeborg Baldauf, « Educating the Poets and Fostering Uzbek Poetry of the 1910s to Early 1930s », Cahiers d’Asie centrale [Online], 24 | 2015, Online since 10 March 2016, connection on 19 April 2019. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/asiecentrale/2919

© Tous droits réservés (GXFDWLQJWKH3RHWVDQG)RVWHULQJ8]EHN 3RHWU\RIWKHVWR(DUO\V

Ingeborg BALDAUF*

Introduction

,Q&HQWUDO$VLDOLNHHOVHZKHUHRQHDUWKWKHUHPD\KDYHEHHQWKRXVDQGV RISRHWVDERXWZKRPWKHZRUOGZLOOQHYHUNQRZDVWKHQRWLRQRIVDQGLT DGDEL\RWL>OLWHUDWXUHIRUWKHVWRUDJHFKHVW@LQGLFDWHV7KHVHSHRSOHMXVWQHYHU made their marks as poets – by coincidence because they did not meet a VXLWDEOHDXGLHQFHRXWRIVK\QHVVLIWKH\GHHPHGWKHLUZULWLQJVXQZRUWK\ RIVHHLQJWKHOLJKWRIGD\RUHYHQEHFDXVHWKHLUHIIRUWVZHUHWXUQHGGRZQ E\HOGHUVRIWKHZULWLQJHVWDEOLVKPHQW7KHOLWHUDU\PLOLHXLWVHOIZDVWKH LQFXEDWRURISRHWVPXFKOLNHJXLOGVZKLFKZRXOGUDLVHWKHLURZQIXWXUH generations of craftsmen. The milieu provided guidance in shaping literary SHUVRQDOLWLHVDQGLQUHWXUQWKHµFRUUHFWLYHRIWKHFROOHFWLYH¶PDGHVXUHWKDW VLPLODUZRXOGUHSOLFDWHVLPLODUZKLOHH[FHSWLRQDOWDOHQWVRUDOVRVLPSOH RXWVLGHUV OLNH ZRPHQ RU QRQDI¿OLDWHV RI WKH SURSHU FODVV ZRXOG KDUGO\ make it into the milieu, let alone to the top. Most of the literary life of ODWHQLQHWHHQWKDQGHDUO\WZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\7XUNHVWDQIROORZHGWKLVWLPH honoured mode of continuous self-reduplication of poets and poetry in

* Ingeborg Baldauf is a professor of Central Asian languages and cultures at Humboldt Uni- YHUVLW\LQ%HUOLQ*HUPDQ\+HU¿HOGVRIUHVHDUFKLQFOXGH8]EHNODQJXDJHDQGOLWHUDWXUHRI WKHWZHQWLHWKDQGWZHQW\¿UVWFHQWXULHVDQG&HQWUDO$VLDQDQG$IJKDQLVWDQLVRFLRFXOWXUDO issues concerning Turkic- and Persian-speaking communities from the mid-nineteenth cen- tury until today. Contact: [email protected].de.

Cahiers d’Asie centrale, n° 24, 2015, pp. 183-212 184 Ingeborg BALDAUF

FLUFOHV JDWKHULQJ DURXQG DFNQRZOHGJHG SRHWV FRXUW DI¿OLDWHV DQG RWKHU noblemen, and representatives of the Russian imperial administration.

$PRQJWKH7XUNHVWDQLOLWHUDWLWKHUHZDVQRFOHDUGLYLGHEHWZHHQµWUDGL- WLRQDOLVWV¶DQGµLQQRYDWRUV¶PDQ\SRHWVZRXOGPLQJOHZLWKLQFLUFOHVGRPL- QDWHGE\RQHRUWKHRWKHUEDVLFRXWORRN +RML0XLQS:HQQEHUJ SSII ,QWHUHVWLQJO\PDQ\SRHWVZHUHPXFKPRUHFRQVHUYDWLYHLQ style than in thought. While their repertoire of forms and styles remained ERXQG E\ WUDGLWLRQ TXLWH D IHZ RI WKHLU ZULWLQJV PLUURU VRFLDO QRYHOWLHV like the advent of imperial rule, early capitalist economy and European-like OLIHVW\OHVDQGWHVWL¿HVWRDKLJKGHJUHHRISROLWLFDODZDUHQHVV$OWKRXJK old-fashioned in style, poetry of this kind continued to appeal to the tastes RIWKHDXGLHQFHDQGZDVWKHUHIRUHFRQVLGHUHGVXLWDEOHIRUPRGHUQWLPHV into the 1930s and later – under the condition that its contents conformed WRWKHQHZLGHRORJLFDOIUDPHZRUN2QWKHRWKHUKDQGSRVWFODVVLFDOVW\OH O\ULFVWKDWUHPDLQHGFRQ¿QHGZLWKLQROGZD\VRIWKLQNLQJDVZHOOZRXOG be denounced by early Soviet Uzbek critics as ‘PXYDVKVKDK DGDEL\RWL¶1 (Oybek, 1927). The negative connotations of this term appear to echo the overall Jadid Muslim reformist aversion to imitation and epigonism (WDTOLG ZKLFKFDVXDOO\PHUJHGLQWRHDUO\6RYLHWUHYROXWLRQDU\GLVFRXUVH

1HZ2SWLRQV 7KHSHULRGLFDO3UHVVDQG(QOLJKWHQPHQW/LWHUDU\&LUFOHV 7KH HPHUJHQFH RI WKH SHULRGLFDO SUHVV LQ HDUO\ WZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\ 7XUNHVWDQRIIHUHGSRHWVDQHZIRUXPLQDGGLWLRQWRWKHROGRQH7KHHDUO\ HGLWRUVZHUHLQQHHGRISRHWU\WR¿OOWKHSDJHVRIWKHLUQHZVSDSHUVDQGMRXU- QDOVDQGPDNHWKHLURWKHUZLVHGU\SDSHUVPRUHDWWUDFWLYHIRUDQDXGLHQFH WKDWZDVDQ\ZD\UHOXFWDQWWRDFFHSWWKHQHZPHGLXP7KH\QHHGHGSRHWU\ ¿UVW RI DOO WR KHOS FRQYH\ WKHLU LGHRORJLFDO DQG SROLWLFDO PHVVDJHV EXW WKH\ZRXOGDOVRSXEOLVKVRPHDUWIRUDUW¶VVDNHDQGPRVWLPSRUWDQWO\WKH editors did not have excessively prescriptive ideas about literature. Thus WKH\ZRXOGJLYHVSDFHIRUXQH[FHSWLRQDOSRHWU\DVZHOODVJHQXLQHO\SRRU HSLJRQLFZULWLQJDQGDORQJZLWKWKDWWKH\ZHUHQRWVK\RISURPRWLQJLQGL-

1 The term PXYDVKVKDKGHQRWHVDVWURSKLFSRHPZKRVHED\WLQLWLDOVZRXOG\LHOGWKHQDPH RIDSHUVRQ7KHRULJLQDOJHQUH¿JXUHGSURPLQHQWO\LQWKHQLQHWHHQWKDQGWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\ satirical poetry of Turkestan. By extension, the term came to characterise the totality of post-classical lyrics, and carried negative connotations in dominant early Soviet poetic and social discourse. Educating the Poets and Fostering Uzbek Poetry of the 1910s to Early 1930s 185

YLGXDOFUHDWLYLW\DQGLQQRYDWLRQLIWKLVDOORZHGWKHPWRDWWUDFWOLNHPLQGHG ZULWHUVDQGUHDGHUV)URPWKHPLGVWRWKH7XUNHVWDQLDQGWKHQ Uzbekistani press provided ample space for poets to display themselves DQGKDYHWKHLUO\ULFVSXEOLVKHG:KHWKHURUQRWDJLYHQSRHPZRXOGPDNH LWVZD\RQWRWKHSDJHVRIDJLYHQMRXUQDORUQHZVSDSHUGHSHQGHGRQWKH HGLWRUVDQGHGLWRULDOERDUGVZKRGLGQRWKHVLWDWHWRSXEOLFO\UHEXNHVHQG- HUVRISLHFHVWKDWZHUHQRWWRWKHLUOLNLQJ+RZHYHUDVWDWHRIDQDUFK\LQ cultural matters, and the availability of a broad range of mutually indepen- GHQWRUJDQVHQVXUHGWKDWSHRSOHZKRZHUHJHQXLQHO\GHWHUPLQHGWRKDYH WKHLUSRHPVSXEOLVKHGZRXOGVXFFHHGLQGRLQJVR(GLWRUVZRXOGFRQ¿QH WKHLULQSXWDERXWOLWHUDU\TXDOLW\WRJHQHUDOUHPDUNVOLNH³>0LVWHU6XFKDQG VXFK@\RXUSLHFHLVQRWJRRGIRUSXEOLVKLQJ´ZKLOHUHIUDLQLQJIURPFRQFUHWH DGYLFHRQKRZWRDFWXDOO\LPSURYH6XUSULVLQJO\LQVRPHMRXUQDOVWKLVXQ SHGDJRJLFDOPRGHRIµGU\H[KRUWDWLRQ¶SHUVLVWHGZHOOLQWR6RYLHWWLPH2 The press supplied a forum for the poets, but until the mid-1920s did not, as an institution of authority might have done, provide practical sup- SRUWWRZULWHUVQRUGLVFRXUDJHRUIHQGWKHPRII+RZHYHUSHHUWHDFKLQJ OHDUQLQJDPRQJWKHOLWHUDWLWKHPVHOYHVLIZHPD\FDOOLWVXFKGLGH[LVW DQGSDUWRILWKDVFRPHGRZQWRXVWKURXJKWKHSUHVVLWVHOI)HOORZZULWHUV ZRXOGUHDFWWRVSHFL¿FSRHPVLQDSRHWLFIRUPWDNLQJRQPRGHVRIOLWHUDU\ GHEDWHDVSUDFWLFHGLQFRQYHQWLRQDOSRHWV¶FLUFOHVDQGLQWUDGLWLRQDOSRHWU\ LQJHQHUDOIRUH[DPSOHE\ZULWLQJSRHWLFUHVSRQVHVVXFKDVDQD]LUD. In the second half of the 1920s this peer criticism developed into a tool of ideo- ORJLFDOFRQWURYHUV\+RZHYHULWDOVREURXJKWXSLVVXHVRISRHWLFODQJXDJH imagery, stylistics and genre, and thus contributed to the development of individual authors and of Uzbek poetry as such.

3RHWU\ZDVPXFKWRRLPSRUWDQWLQ&HQWUDO$VLDQVRFLHW\IRUDFWLYLVWVLGH- RORJLVWVDQGSROLWLFLDQVWROHWLWOLHIDOORZRUJRXQEULGOHG0DQ\DFWLYLVWV – HYROXWLRQLVWVDVZHOODVUHYROXWLRQDULHV ±ZHUHDWWKHVDPHWLPHOLWHUDWL DQGPRVWRIWKHPZRXOGSULYLOHJHSRHWU\RYHUSURVHLQWKHLUZULWLQJH[HU- FLVHV 7KH\ DJJUHJDWHG DURXQG HGLWRUV DQG MRXUQDOV RU JRW WRJHWKHU LQ informal, self-organised associations similar to the literary circles of olden WLPHV &RQYHUVDWLRQ DERXW O\ULFV PHUJHG ZLWK GHEDWHV RQ SROLWLFDO DQG

2 The pedagogical magazine 0DRULI YD 2¶TLWJ¶XFKL [Education and the Teacher] of all MRXUQDOVLQSXEOLFO\DGPRQLVKHG\RXQJSRHW8\J¶XQWR³FDUHIRUTXDOLW\UDWKHUWKDQ quantity” (Anonymous, 1927a, p. 69). 186 Ingeborg BALDAUF societal issues. During the early 1920s associations of that kind existed in DOOPDMRUWRZQV 7KH FLUFOH ZKLFK KDV FRPH WR EH EHVWNQRZQ ZDV 7DVKNHQWEDVHG &KLJ¶DWR\ *XUXQJL,3LQZKLFKIURPRQZDUGVIRUURXJKO\KDOID GHFDGHPHQIURPDOORYHU7XUNHVWDQDQG%XNKDUDZRXOG JHW WRJHWKHU DQG GLVFXVV ZKDW ODQJXDJH WR SURPRWH IRU WKH VDNH RI PRGHUQLVDWLRQ ZKDW SROLWLFV WR VXSSRUW IRU WKH JRRG RI WKH KRPHODQG DQG QRW OHDVW KRZ WR DFWLYHO\ GHYHORS FXOWXUH LQ JHQHUDO DQG SRHWU\ LQ SDUWLFXODU4 The *XUXQJZDVDQDUHQDIRULQWHOOHFWXDOVOLNHLWVIRXQGLQJIDWKHUWKH IDPRXVVFKRODUDQGZULWHU$EGXUUDXI)LWUDW   PHQ ZLWK DQ RXWORRNRQWKHµ2ULHQW¶DWODUJHDQGIDPLOLDUZLWKODWH2WWRPDQ7XUNLVK poets from romanticists to nationalists and social revolutionaries, but also ZLWKWKH%HQJDOLULVLQJVWDU5DELQGUDQDWK7DJRUH  DQGRWKHU LQWHUQDWLRQDOO\ UHQRZQHG SRHWV 7KH *XUXQJ also accommodated men ZKRVHPHQWDOKRUL]RQLQOLWHUDWXUHZDVWKHµ5XVVLDQ(DVW¶WKDWLVWKH $]HUEDLMDQL7XUNLVKDQGRU7DWDUDQG5XVVLDQOLWHUDU\XQLYHUVHDQGLWZDV KRPHWRVRPHH[WUDRUGLQDU\PHQOLNHWKHSRHW&KR¶OSRQ  DQG WKH \RXQJ FULWLF9DGXG 0DKPXGL\  5ZKRFRPELQHGWKRVH WZRZRUOGVLQWKHLULQWHUHVWVDQGDPELWLRQV7KH*XUXQJ brought together H[SHULHQFHGOLWHUDWLDQGQHZFRPHUVWRWKHOLWHUDU\¿HOGZKLFKPDGHLWD VHPLQDU\WKDWRQHZD\RUDQRWKHUVKDSHGPRVWRI8]EHNOLWHUDU\OLIHIRUD GHFDGHWRFRPHDOWKRXJKDVDOHJDORUJDQLVDWLRQLWZDVGLVEDQGHGDVHDUO\ DV $OOZRUWKSQRVRXUFHLQGLFDWHG  The *XUXQJZDVDERWWRPXSYHQWXUH³DURXQGZKLFKWKHOLWHUDWL TDODP HJDODUL  ZRXOG UDOO\´ DV IRUPHU *XUXQJ member Botu (1904-1938) recalled in a critical essay of 1928 (Botu, 1928, pp. 3-4).6 Regardless of

3/LWHUDOO\µ&KDJKDWD\&LUFOH¶DUHXQLRQRIOLWHUDWLZKRFKHULVKHGKRSHVWKDWIRUDIXWXUH OLWHUDU\ ODQJXDJH WKHLU FRQWHPSRUDULHV ZRXOG SULPDULO\ WDS LQWR WKH UHVRXUFHV RI WKH &KDJKDWD\OLQJXDIUDQFDDQGUHYLWDOL]HµSXUH7XUNLF¶YRFDEXODU\VXFKDV*XUXQJ ‘talk, chat, FRQYHUVDWLRQFLUFOH¶ 4 (GZDUG$OOZRUWK LQ KLV SLRQHHULQJ  ERRN 8]EHN OLWHUDU\ SROLWLFV (chapter on the *XUXQJ pp. 109 ff.), due to the research conditions of his time, primarily relies on Russian- ODQJXDJHSURDQGDQWL6RYLHWSURSDJDQGLVWVRXUFHVZKLFKPDNHVKLVSLFWXUHRIWKH*XUXQJ DSSHDUPRUHULJLGO\SROLWLFLVHGWKDQWRGD\¶VUHDGLQJZRXOGQHFHVVLWDWH 59DGXG0DKPXGL\IRXQGHGD6DPDUNDQGEUDQFKRIWKH*XUXQJ in 1921 or 1922 (Ahmad, 2008). 6%RWX¶VFKURQLFOHVKRXOGEHUHDGZLWKDJUDLQRIVDOW,QDOOVHQLRUPHPEHUVRIWKH *XUXQJKDGFRPHXQGHUVHYHUHSROLWLFDODWWDFNVRPHRIWKHPZHUHSXWWRWULDO,Q %RWXKLPVHOIJRWLQYROYHGLQWKHVRFDOOHGµ1DUNRPSURVDIIDLU¶DVDFFRPSOLFHLQDQWL6RYLHW Educating the Poets and Fostering Uzbek Poetry of the 1910s to Early 1930s 187

WKHSURJUHVVLYHLGHDOVDOOPHPEHUVVKDUHGWKHJURXSZDVVWLOOPXFKRIDQ old-style intellectual circle characterised by hierarchies of age and achieve- PHQWZKHUHH[SHULHQFHGDQGKRQRXUHGPHPEHUVZRXOGUDLVHWKHLUMXQLRU IHOORZV7 As far as external links are concerned, the group made a point RIEHLQJLQGHSHQGHQWRIJRYHUQPHQWDOLQWHUYHQWLRQZKLFKLQ0DUFK ¿QDOO\FDXVHGWKHVWDWHDXWKRULWLHVWRVHWXSDQDFDGHPLFFRPPLVVLRQIRU cultural and educational issues in order to counter the *XUXQJ¶V FRQWL QXRXVLQÀXHQFH

6HPL,QGHSHQGHQW/LWHUDU\&LUFOHV As Soviet rule became consolidated by the mid-1920s, political authori- WLHVVWDUWHGWRUHVKDSHWKHFXOWXUDO¿HOG ZKLFKE\GH¿QLWLRQZDVSDUWRI WKHVRFLDOVXSHUVWUXFWXUH DFFRUGLQJWRWKHQHHGV DQGGHVLUHVRI WKHQHZ UXOLQJFODVV$QLPSRUWDQWSDUWRIWKHVHLQLWLDWLYHVZDVGLUHFWHGDWWKHIRU- PDWLRQRIDFWXDODQGIXWXUHZULWHUV/LWHUDU\DUWLVWLFFLUFOHV DGDEL\EDGLL\ WR¶JDUDNODU ZHUHFDOOHGLQWREHLQJLQPDQ\SODFHV7KHEDODQFHRIWRS GRZQDQGERWWRPXSHOHPHQWVLQWKHVHLQLWLDWLYHVLVGLI¿FXOWWRHVWLPDWH WRGD\0DQ\RIWKHLULQLWLDWRUVDQGVHQLRUPHPEHUVZHUHLQIDFWHPSOR\HHV RI WKH 3HRSOH¶V &RPPLVVDULDW RI (GXFDWLRQ EXW LW VHHPV WKDW QR VWULFW FRQWUROZDVH[HUWHGRYHUWKHPVLQFHDFWXDOO\WKHUHZDVQREDVLVIRUVXFK LQWHUIHUHQFHEHFDXVHWKHVWUXJJOHIRU3DUW\DQGVWDWHSRZHUDQGLGHRORJLFDO

FRQVSLUDF\ZKLFKZDVWUDFHGEDFNWRVRPHRIWKH*XUXQJ members. He may thus have tried WRWDONGRZQKLVRZQUROHDQGRYHUSOD\WKHUROHRI*XUXQJ seniors. 7)RUDQH\HZLWQHVVUHSRUWRQD*XUXQJZULWLQJVHVVLRQXQGHU)LWUDW¶VJXLGDQFHVHH$OOZRUWK 1964, p. 112, fn. n° 4. 8)URPWRWKLVMRXUQDOLQFOXGHGDYROXPLQRXVOLWHUDWXUHVHFWLRQ 97KLVSDJHWH[WERRNZDVSULQWHGE\WKHVWDWHSULQWLQJKRXVH7XUNLVWRQ'DYODW1DVKUL\RWL LQ1RYHPEHU 188 Ingeborg BALDAUF

VXSUHPDF\ZDVLWVHOIDQRQJRLQJSURFHVVXQWLOWKHHQGRIWKHGHFDGH,QDQ\ FDVHWKHFLUFOHVZHUHGULYHQE\DVWURQJHGXFDWLRQDOSDWHUQDOLVWLFLPSHWXV WKHLUPDMRUJRDOZDVWRHGXFDWHDQGJXLGH WDUEL\DTLO) the future poets. $QHDUO\HQWHUSULVHRIWKLVNLQGHVWDEOLVKHGLQZDVLQÀX- enced by the All-Russian Association of Proletarian Writers (9VHURVVLMVNDk $VVRFLDFLk 3UROHWDUVNLNK 3LVDWHOHM ± 9$33), and aimed at establishing a Tashkent branch of the VAPP, designed to absorb minor local cultural ven- WXUHV7KH LQLWLDWLYH ZDV SULPDULO\ GLUHFWHG DW 5HG$UPLVWV PHPEHUV RI WRLOHUV¶FOXEVDQGVWXGHQWVRI 5XVVLDQODQJXDJH KLJKVFKRROV,WIDLOHGWR attract the Uzbek-language enthusiasts of literature, be it for organisational VKRUWFRPLQJV RU IRU D FHUWDLQ ZKLII RI 5XVVLDQ HOLWLVP /DFN RI SURIHV- VLRQDOXQL¿FDWLRQDQGSURGXFWLYLW\ZKLFKVAPP-inspired people had earlier FKDUJHGWKH7XUNHVWDQLZULWHUVZLWK 2ULSRYSSII ZDVZKDW ¿QDOO\OHGWRWKHGLVVROXWLRQRIWKHLURZQDVVRFLDWLRQLQZKLOHLURQL- cally members of the &KLJ¶DWR\*XUXQJLZHUHVWLOOSURGXFLQJLQGLYLGXDO poetry books by the month, had as early as 1922 published a 104-page collective volume 2¶]EHN\RVKVKRLUODUL [Young Uzbek Poets] that included SRHPVE\)LWUDW&KR¶OSRQ%RWXDQG(OEHNDQGZHUHIHDWXULQJSURPLQHQWO\ RQWKHOLWHUDWXUHSDJHVRIDOOMRXUQDOVDQGQHZVSDSHUV While the ideologically strict Proletarian Writers failed to marshal the JURZLQJXS8]EHNOLWHUDWLLQWRDFHQWUDORUJDQLVDWLRQOLWHUDU\FLUFOHVWKDW FRQFHGHGVRPHLQGHFLVLRQDQGGRXEWWRDGROHVFHQWVZHUHLQWKHHDUO\V thriving at many institutions of higher learning. Guided by local teachers, the circle members discussed the literary trends of the day and published WKHLUSRHPVDQGFULWLFDOHVVD\VDERXWOLWHUDWXUHDQGFXOWXUHRQZDOOQHZV- SDSHUVRULQKDQGZULWWHQMRXUQDOVRUHYHQLQSULQWHGFROOHFWLYHYROXPHV To culturally and politically HQJDJp teachers (most of them employees of 6RYLHW VFKRROV  HOGHU VWXGHQWV DQG ORFDO SROLWLFDO DFWLYLVWV ZKR ZHUH DW WKHVDPHWLPHSRHWVRUSOD\ZULJKWVRIVRPHOLWHUDU\UHQRZQWKHVHFLUFOHV offered an excellent forum not only for propagating a particular literary taste, but also for conveying political ideas to the youth.

7XUNHVWDQL\RXWKLQWKHHDUO\VZHUHRSHQWRYDULRXVLGHRORJLHV DQGVRZHUHWKHVHPLLQGHSHQGHQWFLUFOHV7KHµ6KDUT¶ [Orient] circle at WKH7KLUG7DVKNHQW7HDFKHUV7UDLQLQJ&ROOHJHZKLFKZDVJXLGHGE\\RXQJ poet Oybek (1904-1968), in its name bore the anti-imperialist imprint of Educating the Poets and Fostering Uzbek Poetry of the 1910s to Early 1930s 189 the early Comintern,10ZKLOHDQRWKHUFLUFOHUXQE\DWHDFKHURIWKHWKLUG Kokand boarding school, frequently hosted the anti-bourgeois activist, SRHWDQGSOD\ZULJKW+DP]D+DNLP]RGD   0XURGRYD  The principal orientation of a circle did not necessarily predetermine every VLQJOH PHPEHU¶V LQGLYLGXDO RXWORRN QRU ZRXOG HDFK PHPEHU¶V ZULWLQJV necessarily be ideologically consistent in themselves. A good example of this can be seen in the 1922 ‘one time only social, historical, academic, OLWHUDU\DQGVFLHQWL¿F8]EHNMRXUQDO¶$UPXJ¶RQZKLFKZDVDVLWVIURQWSDJH WHOOVDµ*LIW¶11 from a literary circle of Uzbek students of various Tashkent secondary and high schools. In $UPXJ¶RQ young Shokir Sulaymon (1900-  ZKRKDG¿UVWHPHUJHGLQWRWKHOLWHUDU\VFHQHDWWKHVLGHRIKLVVHQLRU $QGLMRQFRPSDWULRW&KR¶OSRQZLWKZKRPKHVKDUHGDQWLLPSHULDOLVWLGHDOV in the early 1920s, published the prose poem 3DUJ¶RQD>)HUJKDQD@ZKLFK RZLQJWRLWV³SHVVLPLVWLFDWWLWXGH´DQG³IDLOXUHWRDFNQRZOHGJHWKHSRVLWLYH DVSHFWV´RIWKH5HG$UP\¶VYLFWRU\LQWKHFLYLOZDURIKLVKRPHUHJLRQZRXOG FDXVHKLPWREHVHYHUHO\FULWLFLVHGRQFH6RYLHWUXOHZDV¿UPO\HVWDEOLVKHG in Uzbekistan (Shokir Sulaymon, 1922, p. 13).12,QWKHVDPHYROXPHKRZ- HYHUZDVDOVRSXEOLVKHG6KRNLU6XOD\PRQ¶VSRHP5HYROXWLRQ, a piece that FHOHEUDWHGWKHRYHUWKURZVLQZKLFKZDVWRHDUQKLPWKHDSSURYDORI later Soviet literary scholarship and helped save his career and perhaps his OLIHLQWKH¿HU\V$VWKHH[DPSOHVKRZVWKHSRHWLFSURGXFWVRIWKH VHPLSURIHVVLRQDODQGVHPLLQGHSHQGHQWOLWHUDU\FLUFOHVUHÀHFWWKHVZD\LQJV DQGZDYHULQJVRILGHRORJ\DQGSRZHULQ7XUNHVWDQWKURXJKWR

3DUW\*XLGHG/LWHUDU\&LUFOHVDQGWKH(GXFDWLRQRI3RHWV :KLOHVWXGHQWV¶FLUFOHVQRWRQO\GLGQRWIROORZVWULFWLGHRORJLFDOOLQHV EXWPD\QRWHYHQKDYHEHHQIXOO\DZDUHRIWKHODWHVWLGHRORJLFDODQGSROLWL- FDOGHYHORSPHQWVWKHOHDGLQJ¿JXUHVRIDQRWKHUHPHUJLQJW\SHRIFLUFOH

107KHWLWOHRILWVRQHWLPHSXEOLFDWLRQRUJDQLQZDV7RQJ0RUQLQJ6WDU@ZLWK 2\EHNDVUHVSRQVLEOHHGLWRU,WHFKRHG)LWUDW¶VVKRUWOLYHG7DVKNHQWMRXUQDO7RQJ>'DZQ@ DQGSHUKDSVDOVRDOOXGHGWR&KR¶OSRQ>9HQXV@WKHSHQQDPHRI$EGXOKDPLG6XOD\PRQWKH most prominent anti-imperialist poet of the Uzbek language. 11 $UPXJ¶RQ>*LIW@ZDVRIIHUHGWRWKHGHSXWLHVRIWKH6HFRQG8]EHN&RQJUHVVRI&XOWXUHDQG (GXFDWLRQZLWKWKHVXSSRUWRIWKHDERYHPHQWLRQHG$FDGHPLF&RPPLVVLRQLWVHGLWRUZDV *XUXQJPHPEHU6D\G$KPDG $UPXJ¶RQ, 1922). 12 7KH LQFULPLQDWHG SDVVDJH UHDGV ³PXQJOL GDUGOL ED[WVL] 3DUJ¶RQD´ [grief-stricken, VRUURZIXOKDSOHVV)HUJKDQD@)RUDW\SLFDOH[DPSOHRI6RYLHWFULWLFLVPRIWKHSRHPVHH %RER[R¶MD\HYS 190 Ingeborg BALDAUF

ZHUHFHUWDLQO\ZHOOLQIRUPHGWKHGLUHFWRUVRIFLUFOHVLQVWDOOHGXQGHUWKH DXVSLFHV RI VWULFWO\ 3DUW\RULHQWHG QHZVSDSHUV ,Q 7XUNHVWDQ XQWLO  DQGLQ8]EHNLVWDQIURPWRWKHHDUO\VDOOSDSHUVDQGMRXUQDOV SXEOLVKHGSRHWU\DVZHOODVDUWLFOHVE\OLWHUDU\FULWLFVZKLFKLPSOLHVWKDWRQ their editorial boards there must have been connoisseurs or at least enthu- siasts of literature. Some papers ran a literary circle headed by young Soviet-educated people.

The most prominent of these circles belonged to E\WKH 3DUW\@´WKHFLUFOHWKHQJDWKHUHGPRPHQWXPDQGZLWKLQD\HDULWVGLUHFWRU as of 1927, the Komsomol activist14 and future literary critic Sotti Husayn  ZRQKLJKSUDLVHIRUWKHFLUFOH¶VDFKLHYHPHQWV 7XUGLHY S ³,IHYHU\ZKHUHZHHGXFDWH\RXQJHQWKXVLDVWLFZULWHUVWKDWZD\ZH ZLOOVRRQPDQDJHWRSURGXFHEULOOLDQWJX\VWRKHOSXVRXWLQRXU¿JKWIRU>WKH ULJKW@LGHRORJ\DQGDQHZOLIH´ 5DP]L\S RQHFROOHDJXHZURWH and another one remarked that texts submitted to the circle for criticism ZRXOG³EHJLYHQGXHDGYLFH´ µ.LWRE[RQ¶S 7KHVHFRPSOLPHQWV LQGLFDWHWKDWWKHQHZOLWHUDU\FLUFOHDLPHGDWHGXFDWLQJLWVPHPEHUVZLWKD clear emphasis on ideological soundness ±ZKLFKLPSOLHGVWUHDPOLQLQJWKH proletarian consciousness of the poets – rather than on aesthetic values, ZKHUHDV HDUOLHU FLUFOHV KDG SXW WKH VWURQJHVW HPSKDVLV RQ DUWLVWLF UH¿QH- PHQWZKLOHDFFRPPRGDWLQJLGHRORJLFDOGLYHUVLW\WRWKHSRLQWRIEUHDNXS DVVKRZVWKHH[DPSOHRI&KLJ¶DWR\*XUXQJLZKLFKLQGLVLQWHJUDWHG ZLWKVRPHSRHWVFRQWLQXLQJWRWUHDGZKDWFDPHWREHODEHOOHGWKHµQDWLRQDO- LVW¶SDWKDQGRWKHUVWXUQLQJWRWKHµSUROHWDULDQ¶GLUHFWLRQ %RWX, 1928a, p. 3). 1925, the founding year of

13 For a short period in 1929-19WKHSDSHUZDVHGLWHGLQ6DPDUNDQG 142Q6RWWL+XVD\Q¶V3DUW\EDFNJURXQGDQGRQKLVZD\VWRJXLGHWKH\RXWKZKRUDOOLHG around $&RPPXQLVWZULWHU@ pp. 369 ff.). 15.DULPRYSPHQWLRQVRQO\DVWKH\HDUZKHQWKHFLUFOHZDVIRXQGHG³RQ the initiative of

/RFDO FLUFOHV DW VFKRROV DQG SDSHUV WKXV QHHGHG WR EH VXSSOLHG ZLWK D FRPSUHKHQVLYH FHQWUDO DVVRFLDWLRQ XQGHU WKH 3DUW\¶V FORVH JXLGDQFH ,Q$XJXVWDW8]EHNLVWDQ¶VQHZFDSLWDO6DPDUNDQGWKH3UROHWDULDQ :ULWHUV¶$VVRFLDWLRQ4L]LO4DODP>5HG3HQ@ZDVHVWDEOLVKHGXQGHUWKHDXV- SLFHVRI3HRSOH¶V&RPPLVVDURI(GXFDWLRQ5DKLP,Q¶RPRYZKRGHOLYHUHG DVSHHFKH[SODLQLQJZK\LWZDVHVVHQWLDOWRXQLWHWKH³UHYROXWLRQDU\ZULW- ers” under a common roof.16$FWXDOO\WKLVFDOOZDVLQGLFDWLYHRIWKHQHZ LGHRORJLFDOH[FOXVLYHQHVVWKDWZRXOGDIHZPRQWKVODWHUFXOPLQDWHLQWKH VRFDOOHG&XOWXUDO5HYROXWLRQ8QWLOUHFHQWO\DOOOLWHUDWLZKRZHOFRPHGWKH GRZQIDOORIWKH5XVVLDQ(PSLUH ±LQFOXGLQJ)LWUDW&KR¶OSRQ(OEHNDQG many others – had been called LQTLOREFKLODU [revolutionary generation], ZKLOHWKH\RXQJPHQZKRZHUHRQO\VRFLDOLVHGLQ%ROVKHYLNWLPHVZRXOG be called RNW\DEUFKLODU [children of October].17 At this particular moment, in mid-1926, the Party monopolised the term LQTLOREFKLODU for literati of its RZQOLNLQJDOPRVWDOORIWKHPEHLQJRNW\DEUFKLODU in the old terminology, ZKLOHYHUEDOO\UHGXFLQJWKHRWKHUVWRWKHUDQNRIµQDWLRQDOFKDXYLQLVWV¶RU µSRHWV RI WKH ERXUJHRLVLH¶ 2XW RI URXJKO\ D GR]HQ UHYROXWLRQDU\ OLWHUDWL DFFRUGLQJWRQHZWHUPLQRORJ\ZKRZHUHSHUVRQDOO\LQYLWHGWRWKHIRXQGD- tion meeting of 4L]LO4DODPon August 12, 1926,186KRNLU6XOD\PRQZDV

16 Speech cited by Shokir Sulaymon, 1929. 17 See an article by Gabdraxman Sagdi, a prominent Tatar pedagogue and literary scholar ZKRKDGOLYHGLQ&HQWUDO$VLDIRUPDQ\\HDUV 6DJGLS  18&DOOSXEOLVKHGDV³,QTLOREFKL\R]XYFKLODUGLTTDWLJD´>7RWKHDWWHQWLRQRIUHYROXWLRQDU\ ZULWHUV@LQWKHFDSLWDOQHZVSDSHU=DUDIVKRQ on August 8, 1926. 192 Ingeborg BALDAUF the only representative of the elder group of poets,19ZKLOHWKHRWKHULQYL- WHHVZHUHHLWKHU\RXQJVWXGHQWVIURPFHQWUDOHGXFDWLRQDOLQVWLWXWLRQVZKR FKHULVKHGOLWHUDU\RUVFKRODUO\DPELWLRQV +DPLG2OLPMRQ6KHUEHN1DLP 6DLG 2WDMRQ +RVKLP  RU RXWULJKW SROLWLFLDQV $NPDO ,NURPRY )D\]XOOD ;R¶MD\HY5DKLP,Q¶RPRY$QTDER\  7KHQHZDVVRFLDWLRQZDVXQGHUSUHVVXUHWRSURGXFHWDQJLEOHUHVXOWV,Q 'HFHPEHUUHQRZQHGZULWHUVDVZHOODVQHZFRPHUVZHUHLQYLWHGWR contribute a hitherto unpublished text to a collective volume to be com- SLOHGE\WKHDVVRFLDWLRQ5DWKHUWKDQDFWLYHO\µHGXFDWLQJ¶LWVPHPEHUV4L]LO 4DODPMXVWVWURYHIRUTXLFNUHVXOWVDVLWVHHPVZKLFKOHGRQHFULWLFWRZULWH WKDW³4L]LO4DODPRXJKWWREHFRXQWHGDPRQJWKHWKLQJVZKRVHQDPHH[LVWV ZKLOHLWVHOIGRHVQRW´ µ.LWRE[RQ¶S 7KHFULWLFXQGHUOLQHGWKDW LWZDVQRZIRUWKHFLUFOHDW

19$FFRUGLQJWR.DULPRY S 6KRNLU6XOD\PRQGLUHFWHGWKHDVVRFLDWLRQZKLOH HOGHU JHQHUDWLRQ PHPEHU %RWX ZDV DOVR DPRQJ WKH HDUOLHVW DFWLYLVWV ,Q D ODWHU ERRN .DULPRY  SS  II  WKH VFKRODU ZULWHV WKDW 2WDMRQ +RVKLP ZKR LQ  KDG UHWXUQHGIURPWKH0RVFRZ,QVWLWXWHRI5HG3URIHVVRUVZLWKRXWDGHJUHHDQGZDVRQWKHVSRW appointed president of the State Academic Commission ('DYODW LOPL\ NHQJDVK), became founding member and president of 4L]LO 4DODP. Actually, a short note in =DUDIVKRQ of December 8, 1926 mentioned Shokir Sulaymon as president, and Rahim Ali as secretary of WKHDVVRFLDWLRQ$OOZRUWK SQRVRXUFHLQGLFDWHG DVVXPHVWKDW2WDMRQ+RVKLP 6RWWL+XVD\QDQG=L\R6DLGZHUHWKH³RI¿FHUVRI4L]LO4DODP´ Educating the Poets and Fostering Uzbek Poetry of the 1910s to Early 1930s 193

WKHIROORZLQJDQDUWLFOHLQSUDLVHRIDQWLERXUJHRLV+DP]D20IROORZHGE\ another that criticised, but at the same time explained, Jadid literature and &KR¶OSRQ¶VO\ULFSRHWU\DQGE\DWUHDWLVHRQ&KDJKDWD\OLWHUDWXUHDXWKRUHG E\)LWUDWWKHFKDSWHUZDVFRQFOXGHGE\WKHWH[WRIDOHFWXUHRQµWKHHVVHQ- WLDOVRIWKHWHFKQLTXHRIOLWHUDWXUH¶WKDWKDGEHHQUHDGE\RQH3RSRYWRWKH members of 4L]LO4DODP ±&XOWXUDO5HYROXWLRQZDVXQGHUZD\DQG5XVVLDQ PRGHOH[SHUWVZHUHQRZWREHFRQVXOWHGIRUDOOSXUSRVHV7KHO\ULFVFKDSWHU RIWKHYROXPHIHDWXUHGULVLQJVWDUVOLNH2\EHN+DPLG2OLPMRQ0LUWHPLU 8\J¶XQDQGSRHWHVV2\GLQEXWDOVRSHRSOHZKRZHUHQRWJRLQJWRPDNHLW LQWRWKHKDOORIIDPHRI8]EHNSRHWU\ (UJDVK%RWLU&KLJ¶D\'DYURQHWF  7RGD\2WDMRQ+RVKLP¶VDELOLW\WREULQJWRJHWKHUGLIIHUHQWJHQHUDWLRQVDQGD variety of outlooks is being praised by Uzbek literary historians (Karimov, S LQFRQFHUWZLWKFRQWHPSRUDU\YRLFHVIURPWKHFRQVHUYDWLYH MRXUQDORIWKH3HRSOH¶V&RPPLVVDULDWRI(GXFDWLRQ0DRULIYD2¶TLWJ¶XFKL21 Soviet literary scholarship of the 1970s-1980s, on the other hand, consi- dered the activities of 4L]LO4DODP a failure,22 thus echoing the predominant assessment by critics and politicians of its day.23

/LWHUDU\&ULWLFLVPDVD:HDSRQ Critics of the late 1920s and early 1930s untiringly pointed out that the SULPDU\GXW\RIZULWHUV¶FLUFOHVRQWKHJURXQGDQGDVVRFLDWLRQVRQUHJLRQDO DQGVWDWHOHYHOZDVWRµHGXFDWH¶WKHSRHWV+RZHYHUVWDUWLQJIURP  ZKHQ WKH 6WDOLQLVW FUDFNGRZQ RQ SROLWLFDO RSSRQHQWV RI DOO VRUWV EHJDQ QRWKLQJ ZDV OHIW RI ZKDWHYHU SHGDJRJLFDO LQWHQWLRQV PD\ KDYH H[LVWHGEHIRUH/LWHUDU\FULWLFLVPZDVWXUQHGLQWRDZHDSRQRIDWWDFNRQ OLWHUDWL DQG FRQVHTXHQWO\ RI VHOIGHIHQFH LQ D UHOHQWOHVV ¿JKW WKDW IURP  WR  ZRXOG H[WLQJXLVK PRVW RI WKH 8]EHN OLWHUDU\ FRPPXQLW\

20 +DP]D KDG MXVW UHFHQWO\ EHHQ NLOOHG E\ RXWUDJHG IROORZHUV RI H[SURSULDWHG ORFDO ODQGRZQHUVZKRVHFRPSODLQWV&KHNDDQG3DUW\RI¿FLDOVKDGIDLOHGWRUHVSRQGWR .DULPRY 2012, pp. 299 ff.). At its time, a myth of Hamza having fallen victim to a religious mob ZDVSURPRWHGLQWKHSUHVV WKHP\WKLVUHODWHGE\$OOZRUWKS DQG+DP]DZDV VXEVHTXHQWO\VW\OHGWKHµIRXQGHURI8]EHNPRGHUQWKHDWUH¶ 216HHIRUH[DPSOHDZHOFRPLQJDUWLFOHRQWKHVHFRQGYROXPHE\DFHUWDLQ)D[UL\LQQƒ of 1929, pp. 12-13. 22 A typical example of this stance can be read in Oripov, 1978, pp. 20 ff. 23$OOZRUWK¶VDVVHVVPHQWRIWKHFLUFOH SSII LVDELWSUREOHPDWLFVLQFHKHIROORZV DXWKRUVOLNH=HNL9HOLGL7RJDQDQG%D\PLU]D+D\LWZKRLQWKHLUZULWLQJVSXUVXHGDSROLWLFDO or ideological agenda, respectively, rather than purely scholarly goals. 194 Ingeborg BALDAUF

OHDYLQJDOLYHRQO\WKHPRVWUHFNOHVVRQHVDQGVRPHOXFN\SHUVRQVZKRP fate had spared.

$SUHOXGHZDVODXQFKHGDVHDUO\DV0DUFKLQWKH3DUW\SDSHU4L]LO 2¶]EHNLVWRQZKHQDSURPLQHQWREVHUYHURI8]EHNOLWHUDU\OLIHUHEXIIHGD SRHWZKRZDVWU\LQJWRUHMRLQ3DUW\VSRQVRUHGPDLQVWUHDP³,IWKDWEOLQG PDQ>@FDQQRW¿QGDQ\PRUHFXUVHZRUGVDQGQRZWULHVWRJHWRQRXU EDQGZDJRQ – can one think of a more perverse disgrace than that?!” (Ziyo 6DLG  7KH DFWXDO SOD\ WKHQ VWDUWHG LQ WKH ZDNH RI WKH HDUO\  ‘unmasking of the 6XOWDQJDOLHYdžina,24¶ZKHQ6WDOLQULGKLPVHOIRIKLVPDMRU adversaries in matters of national culture and class ideology, and after half D GHFDGH¶V IRUHVKDGRZLQJ WKH 3DUW\ ODXQFKHG D ¿QDO DWWDFN RQ QDWLRQDO elites of the revolutionary generation. In the Uzbekistani context this attack ZDVGLUHFWHGRQWKH]L\ROLODU>HQOLJKWHQHUVLQWHOOHFWXDOV@ZKRKDGPRVWO\ HPHUJHGIURPWKH-DGLGPRYHPHQWDQGLQWKHOLWHUDU\¿HOGLWVSULPHWDUJHW ZDV&KR¶OSRQWKHH[FHSWLRQDOSRHWZKRVWUXFNKLVIHOORZZULWHUVZLWKDZH DQGPDGHPDQ\DYHUVL¿HUEXUVWZLWKHQY\ 7KH¿UVWVWRQHZDVFDVWE\µ$\Q¶ZKRLQ4L]LO2¶]EHNLVWRQ of February 14,  SXEOLVKHG DQ DUWLFOH HQWLWOHG ³7KH 8]EHN 3RHWV &KR¶OSRQ´ $\Q, 1927).25$\QXQGHUOLQHGWKDW&KR¶OSRQZDVDVXEOLPHVW\OLVWEXWDWWKHVDPH WLPHWKHIRUHPRVWSRHWRIWKH³QDWLRQDOFKDXYLQLVWHVFDSLVWDQGSHVVLPLVW ]L\ROLODU.”26 Each one of these attributes (PLOODWFKL[D\ROSDUDVWEDGELQ ZDV DYHUGLFWLQLWVHOIVLQFHWKH\ZHUHWKHFRGHZRUGVIRUUHVSHFWLYHO\  KRVWLOLW\ WRZDUGV6WDOLQ¶VQDWLRQDOSROLF\DVLVVXHGLQ  DGKHUHQFHWRUHOL- JLRQ ZKLOHWKHDQWLUHOLJLRXVFDPSDLJQKDGEHHQJDLQLQJPRPHQWXPVLQFH  DQG  GLVWUXVWRIWKH3DUW\LHDYHUVLRQWRZDUGV6WDOLQ¶VFOLTXHZKR ZDVQRZDERXWWRUXOHRXWDOOSROLWLFDOFRPSHWLWRUV:KLOHVXFKDOOHJDWLRQV

246XOWDQJDOLHY¶VµFULPH¶FRQVLVWHGLQSRVWXODWLQJWKHWRWDORIWKHSHRSOHRIWKH6RYLHW(DVW DVDVXEVWLWXWHSUROHWDULDWDQGGHQ\LQJLWVFODVVGLIIHUHQWLDWLRQ+LVµXQPDVNLQJ¶LQ ZDVIROORZHGE\DZKROHVDOHFUDFNGRZQRQWKHQDWLRQDOHOLWHVZKRKDGXQWLO6WDOLQ¶V WDNHRYHULQFXOWXUDOSROLWLFV VSULQJ HQMR\HGWKHIXOOVXSSRUWRIWKH3DUW\LQ³GHYHORSLQJ WKHLUQDWLRQDOFXOWXUHV´DVLWZHUH$Q\WLPHDIWHUHDUO\DOODFWLYLWLHVLQOLQHZLWKWKH policy of NRUHQL]DFLâFRXOGEHGHQRXQFHGDVµ6XOWDQJDOLHYOLNHQDWLRQDOFKDXYLQLVP¶ 25 )RU VRPH LQIRUPDWLRQ RQ 2OLP 6KDUD¿GGLQRY WKH PDQ EHKLQG WKH SHQQDPH ZKRVH PDLQFRQWULEXWLRQWRFULWLFLVPRIFRQWHPSRUDU\OLWHUDWXUHZDVWKLVOHQJWK\DUWLFOHVHHWKH anthology of Uzbek literary criticism, 7DQTLG, 2011, p. 32. 26 In 7DQTLG S WKHSDVVDJHLVUHQGHUHGDV³PLOODWFKLYDWDQSDUDVWEDGELQ´ZKLFK ZRXOGUHDGDV³QDWLRQDOLVWFKDXYLQLVWDQGSHVVLPLVW´7KHRULJLQDOSDSHULVKHOGDW0RVFRZ 1DWLRQDO/LEUDU\ Educating the Poets and Fostering Uzbek Poetry of the 1910s to Early 1930s 195

ZRXOGMXVWKDYHGLVSOHDVHGVHQVLWLYHPLQGVEHIRUH)HEUXDU\IURPWKDW WLPHRQWKH\SXWZULWHUVLQLPPHGLDWHGDQJHUWKHODZRQFHQVRUVKLS LVVXHG on February  PDGH³UHOLJLRXVDQGQDWLRQDOFKDXYLQLVWLQFLWHPHQWRI the masses” punishable, thus potentially criminalizing much of the current and earlier literature.27

Contempt of the QDLYHWpRIWKHZULWHUVZKRUHDFWHGWR$\Q¶VDUWLFOHDERXW &KR¶OSRQ LV LQDSSURSULDWH WRGD\ DV ZH NQRZ ZKDW IROORZHG +RZHYHU ZHPXVWDVVXPHWKDWPRVWZULWHUVRIWKHWLPHZHUHVLPSO\LQFDSDEOHRI WKLQNLQJLQDVHYLOZD\VDVRWKHUVZHUHDOUHDG\LQWHQWWRDFW7KH\VHHP WRKDYHEHOLHYHGWKDWWKHLUGLVFXVVLRQZDVDERXWZKDWLVULJKWDQGZURQJ LQSRHWU\ZKLOHLQIDFWLWZDVDERXWZKRZDVZHOFRPHRUXQZHOFRPHDV D KXPDQ EHLQJ7KH HQVXLQJ GHEDWH H[WHQGHG ZHOO LQWR WKH IDOO RI  and involved, among others, Oybek (Oybek, 1927); many poets of lesser UHSXWDWLRQPRUHFDXWLRXVO\ZDJJHGWKHLUWRQJXHVE\ZULWLQJSRHWLFUHSOLHV (QD]LUD  LQ GLVGDLQ RI VRPH RI &KR¶OSRQ¶V DFWXDO RU DOOHJHG  SROLWLFDO claims. First Secretary Akmal Ikromov himself concluded the debate in a speech delivered in October 1927 to the Second Congress of the Uzbek &XOWXUH:RUNHUVLQZKLFKKHDGPLWWHGWKDWKHZRXOGQRWVHWKLPVHOIXSWR MXGJH&KR¶OSRQ¶VDUWLVWLFPHULWVEXWWKDWKHGRXEWOHVVO\VXSSRUWHG$\Q¶V DQG2\EHN¶VGLVDSSURYDORIWKHSRHW¶VPLQGVHW28 While some literati may have been naive throughout 1927, others immediately understood the VLJQVRIWKHWLPHV6KRNLU6XOD\PRQZDVDSRHWZKRKDGEHHQYHU\FORVH WR&KR¶OSRQDQGWKHHOGHU]L\ROLODU but then shifted to the left, a change ZKLFKPDQLIHVWHGLWVHOIRQWKHIRUPDOSODQHRIKLVSRHPVDVZHOODVLQWKHLU FRQWHQW6KRNLU6XOD\PRQVWD\HGLQ0RVFRZLQHDUO\DQGKDGREYL- RXVO\ PRUH LQVLJKW LQWR WKH EUHZLQJ VWRUP +H LPPHGLDWHO\VXEPLWWHG D YROXPHRI SDUWO\UHYLVHG ROGDQGQHZSRHPVIRUSXEOLFDWLRQVD\LQJ³7KH strange conglomerate of pieces I am putting together here comes from the ERUGHUOLQHRIWZRDJHV,QRUGHUWRGRFXPHQWP\FKDQJHRIPLQGDQGZHOO DZDUHWKDW,PD\IDFHVHYHUHFULWLFLVP>@,DPIHDUOHVVO\KDQGLQJLWLQDOO the same” (Shokir Sulaymon, 1927, p. 6).

7KHDVVDXOWRQ&KR¶OSRQFRUUHVSRQGHGWRWKHLGHRORJLFDOO\DQGSROLWL- FDOO\PRWLYDWHGGHJUDGDWLRQRIPDMRUVHQLRUSRHWVHYHU\ZKHUHLQWKH6RYLHW 8QLRQZKLFKZDVSDUWRIWKH&XOWXUDO5HYROXWLRQDQGHQGHGLQTXLWHDIHZ

27 Decree n° 9 (issued as §§ 52 and 53 of 'LJHVW n° 10, 1927), see 4RQXQODU, 1930, p. 24. 28 The text of Ikromov appeared in the Party paper 4L]LO2¶]EHNLVWRQ of October 10, 1927. 196 Ingeborg BALDAUF

VXLFLGDOWUDJHGLHV&KR¶OSRQLQKLVWXUQZKRKDGIRUVRPH\HDUVSRODULVHG the community and had got used to denigrating poems directed at him, DVZHOODVH[WHQGHGKDQGVWKDWVRXJKWWRKHOSKLPEDFNRQWKHORVWSDWK initially felt strong enough to resist.292YHUWKHFRXUVHRIKRZHYHU pressure on the ]L\ROLODU increased and – again, as in other republics –  &KR¶OSRQ OLNH PDQ\ RWKHU ZULWHUV WRRN UHIXJH WR SHUIRUPLQJ DQ DFW RI contrition (WDYED), hoping to get accepted, if not as a regular proletarian SRHWWKHQDWOHDVWDVDµIHOORZWUDYHOOHU¶LQ7URWVN\¶VXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKH ZRUG X]E\R¶ORYFKL or \R¶OFKL). 4L]LO2¶]EHNLVWRQtriumphantly remarked LQLWVLVVXHRI1RYHPEHU ³6RPH]L\ROLODUZKRLQIRUPHUWLPHV IRXJKWDJDLQVWRXULGHRORJ\DUHQRZVXEPLWWLQJSHWLWLRQVDQGFRQIHVVWKHLU SUHYLRXVPLVWDNHV7KH\DQQRXQFHWKHPVHOYHVDVIROORZHUVRIWKH6RYLHW government” (Anonymous, 1927b).

2Q $SULO   ZKHQ WKH 8]EHNLVWDQL QHZVSDSHU UHDGHUV ZHUH LQIRUPHG RI ZKDW KDG KDSSHQHG DW 6KDNKW\30 4L]LO 2¶]EHNLVWRQ also informed them about the Cultural Revolution and the ]L\ROLODU (P. Sh.31, D S   7KH PDMRULW\ RI LQWHOOHFWXDOV DSSURYHG RI WKH JRYHUQPHQW EHFDXVHWKH\ZHUHWDUDTTLSDUYDU>SURJUHVVLYH@WKHDXWKRUZURWHFDSWXULQJ yet another key term of pre-Bolshevik intellectual life – WDUDTTLSDUYDU had EHHQWKHIDYRXULWHVHOIGHVLJQDWLRQRIWKH-DGLGV7KRVHLQWHOOHFWXDOVZKR ZHUH RSSRQHQWV RI VWDWH SRZHU DQG OLNH WKH 'RQEDVV HQJLQHHUV QHHGHG to be taken under tight control, the author labelled as alamzada [grief- VWULFNHQ@DWHUPZKLFKZDVTXLFNO\DSSURSULDWHGE\HVVD\LVWVDQGVDWLULVWV ZKLOHLQSRHWU\WKH\LJ¶ORTL>VQLYHOOHU@KLWKHUWRDZHOOHVWDEOLVKHGPHWDSKRU IRU&KR¶OSRQDQGKLVIHOORZURPDQWLFLVWVFRQWLQXHGWRSUHYDLODQGKHQFH- forth connoted alamzada, too. Stalin himself, in a speech delivered to the Central Committee and Central Control Commission of the Party, proposed WKHPHWKRGZKLFKRXJKWWREHDSSOLHGE\WUHVSDVVHUVVHOIFULWLFLVP 6WDOLQ  ,QDIROORZXSRQWKH]L\ROLODUSXEOLVKHGRQO\DIHZGD\VODWHUD GHWDLOHGRXWOLQHZDVSUHVHQWHGRQKRZWR³SDWLHQWO\UDLVHWKHLUWKHRUHWLFDO

29 See, for example, his poem 4D\WLVK1D]LUDODUJDQD]LUD [Return. A 1D]LUD to the 1D]LUDs] published in

+RZHYHUWKHKHDWHGDWPRVSKHUHRIWKHXSFRPLQJ¿UVW¿YH\HDUSODQ IDYRXUHGDJHQHUDOUKHWRULFRIVWUXJJOHDQGDFFHOHUDWLRQZKLOHWKHNXODNLVD- WLRQDQGDQWLUHOLJLRXVXQYHLOLQJDQGRWKHUFDPSDLJQVWKDWQRZFXOPLQDWHG in the Cultural Revolution, promoted strife and combat (NXUDVK) as ade- TXDWHGHYLFHVLQWKHEDWWOH¿HOGRILGHRORJ\ PDINXUDPD\GRQL 1HHGOHVV WRVD\WKH¿HU\\RXWKZDVUHDG\WRDGRSWWKLVYHUEDOUDGLFDOLVPUDWKHUWKDQ IROORZLQJVRPH3DUW\SXEOLFLVW¶VFDOOIRUSDWLHQFHRULPLWDWLQJVHQLRUSRHW %RWX¶VJHQWOHQHVVIRUWKDWPDWWHU 7KH8]EHNSUHVVRIDERXQGVLQ¿HUFHDUWLFOHVZKRVHDXWKRUVSUH- WHQGWR¿JKWIRUWKHFDXVHRISRHWU\EXWDOOWRRRIWHQWKHLUZULWLQJVMXVWHQG up being personal insults and mutual allegations of unsound ideology. The SRHW 2OWR\ GDUHG WR ¿QDOO\ XUJH VRXQG FULWLFLVP DORQJ ZLWK VRXQG LGHR ORJ\ZKLFKHDUQHGKLPDYDOLDQWUHEXIIE\%RWLU6HDUFKLQJIRUPHDQLQJLQ 2OWR\¶VIXWXULVWLFSRHPVDQ\ZD\DPRXQWHGWRQRPRUHWKDQWRJR¿VKLQJLQ WKHGHVHUW%RWLUZURWH33 Moderate voices like Sotti Husayn, the successful leader of the

32%RWXKDGEHHQRQWKHHGLWRULDOERDUGRIWKHMRXUQDO$ODQJDZKLFKZDVIRXQGHGWRSURPRWH the Latin alphabet and offered a platform for lyrics of a variety of stylistic and ideological orientations. By the end of 1929, Botu remained as $ODQJD¶VVROHHGLWRU,QPLGKHZDV SXWRQWULDOXQGHUDOOHJDWLRQVRIOHDGLQJD³FRXQWHUUHYROXWLRQDU\DQGFKDXYLQLVWJDQJ´LQWKH Commissariat (Botu, 2004, p. 19). 33 For the controversy that ran from August to October 1928 and involved critic K. Trigulov, poet Oltoy, and Botir, see Yoqubov, 1975, p. 359. 342WDMRQ+RVKLPLQDEHOOLFRVHDUWLFOH  PHQWLRQHG&KR¶OSRQ S OLNHRXWRID VHQVHRIREOLJDWLRQZKLOHKHGHDOWWKHKHDYLHVWEORZVWR2OWR\DQG2\EHNDQGVSHFL¿HGWKDW *¶D\UDWL\¶VSRHWU\ZDVJHQHUDOO\RYHUUDWHGE\FULWLFV 198 Ingeborg BALDAUF

2OWR\DQGRWKHUVZHUHDFFXVHGRIKDYLQJ³SRLVRQHG\RXQJSHRSOH¶VPLQGV ZLWKIHXGDODQGFOHULFDOLGHRORJ\´ 0XKLWGLQRYS ZKLFKVRXQGV TXLWHULGLFXORXVVLQFHRIDOOLQWHOOHFWXDOVLWZDVH[DFWO\WKHVHPHQZKRKDG EHHQPRVWDFWLYHLQWKHDQWLUHOLJLRXVFDPSDLJQRIWKHODVWIHZ\HDUV%RWX ZKRKDGEHHQDOHDGLQJ¿JXUHRI4L]LO4DODP and the chief editor of the MRXUQDO$ODQJD until its issue 6 of 1930 (Botu,S ZDVLQ$ODQJD    WRJHWKHU ZLWK &KR¶OSRQ DQG -XOTXQER\ GHQRXQFHG DV ³¿OWK (D[ODW WKDWKDGEHHQVXEYHUWLQJWKHHGXFDWLRQDOVHFWRU´$ORQJZLWKVHQLRU HGXFDWLRQLVWDQGSXEOLVKHU5DP]L\DQGRWKHUSRHWVDQGDFWLYLVWV%RWXZDV SXWRQWULDOODWHULQLQWKHVRFDOOHG1DUNRPSURVDIIDLUDQGZDVVHQ- WHQFHGWRPDQ\\HDUVLQDODERXUFDPSIURPZKHUHKHQHYHUUHWXUQHGWR peaceful life (LELG, p. 15).

6WUHDPOLQLQJWKH3RHWLF9RLFHV Surprisingly enough, in 1927-1929, regardless of arguments about the WUXHQDWXUHRISRHWU\LWZDVVWLOOSRVVLEOHIRUVXFKDQH[FHSWLRQDOSHUVRQ DV\RXQJFULWLF2WDMRQ+RVKLPWRSXWWRJHWKHUWKHYROXPHV4L]LO4DODP 0DMPXDVL I and II ZKLFK UHSUHVHQWHG WKH WRWDO RI FRQWHPSRUDU\ 8]EHN O\ULFZULWLQJIURPµURPDQWLFLVW¶WRµUHYROXWLRQDU\¶DQGµXOWUDOHIWLVW¶ DVODWHU JHQHUDWLRQVZRXOGODEHOWKHP ,QWKHQZLWKWKHSROLWLFDOGHPRWLRQ RIPDQ\SURPLQHQWSRHWVLQWKH1DUNRPSURVDIIDLUWKHVWDJHZDVVHWIRU VHULRXV VWUHDPOLQLQJ$ORQJ ZLWK WKH SHUVHFXWLRQ RI VRPH RI LWV OHDGLQJ ¿JXUHVWKH4L]LO4DODPDVVRFLDWLRQDVVXFKZDVGHQRXQFHGDQGGLVVROYHG DQGD3UROHWDULDQ:ULWHUV¶$VVRFLDWLRQZDVIRXQGHGLQVWHDG+RZHYHUWKLV organisation did not last long,35DQGLQDFFRUGDQFHZLWKDGHFUHHLVVXHGE\ the Central Asian Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist(b) 3DUW\ LQ$SULO  LW ZDV µUHFRQVWUXFWHG¶ TD\WD TXULO) to become the Uzbekistan Union of Soviet Writers (2¶]EHNLVWRQ VKR¶UR \R]XYFKLODUL VR\X]L ZKLFKVRXJKWWRRYHUFRPHWKH3UROHWDULDQ8QLRQ¶VH[FOXVLYLW\ – ZKLFKKDGOHGWRWKHH[FOXVLRQRIPRVWRIWKHFDSDEOHZULWHUVIURPRI¿FLDO ZRUNDQGSXEOLVKLQJ ±DQGUHLQYLWHGIHOORZWUDYHOOHUVUHDG\WRDFFHSWWKH primate of the Party, to actively participate in literary life (Yoqubov, 1975, S$OOZRUWKSSII 7KH3UROHWDULDQ8QLRQKDGEHHQVXS- SRVHGWREULQJWRJHWKHUWKHµMHZHOWDOHQWV¶ JDYKDUWDODQWODU) from factories,

35 On the UzAPP ZKRVH DFWLYLWLHV KDYH OHIW RQO\ HSKHPHUDO WUDFHV LQ 8]EHN SRHWU\ VHH $OOZRUWKSS Educating the Poets and Fostering Uzbek Poetry of the 1910s to Early 1930s 199 kolkhozes and sovkhozes, and organise them along strictly conformist lines (Anonymous, 1930). The collective volume $OPDQD[, ZKLFKWKHVWHHULQJ FRPPLWWHHRIWKHVXEVHTXHQW6RYLHW:ULWHUV¶$VVRFLDWLRQ ZKLFKWRJHWKHU ZLWK LWV IROORZXS RUJDQLVDWLRQ XQWLO WRGD\ LV VLPSO\ FDOOHG µ6R\X]¶  ZHQW RQ WR SXEOLVK LQ  FRQWDLQVDQ DUWLFOHE\ 2WDMRQ +RVKLP ZKR KDGPLUDFXORXVO\VXUYLYHGWKHSHUVHFXWLRQVRIZKLOHRQDQDFDGHPLF OHDYHLQ/HQLQJUDG .DULPRYS ,QWKLVDUWLFOH2WDMRQ+RVKLP H[SODLQVWKHQHZUROHRIOLWHUDWXUHZKLOHLQZKDWKHFDOOVWKH¿UVWSHULRGRI 6RYLHW8]EHNOLWHUDWXUHLHZULWHUVKDGEHHQREVHUYHUV NX]DW XYFKL) only, they had, in its second period (1929-1932), become an active part of social production (WX]XYFKL). Guidance of the poets had passed into WKHKDQGVRIWKHRPQLVFLHQWDQGZHOOZLVKLQJ3DUW\$XWKRUVLQWKHLUWXUQ ZHUHH[SHFWHGWRQRORQJHU³MXVWREVHUYHQDWXUHRUIDFWRULHV8]EHNJLUOV DQGVRRQ´EXW³ERLOLQWKHFDXOGURQRIUHDOOLIH´DQGOD\WKHLUH[SHULHQFH GRZQLQFRQFUHWHSRHWU\ 2WDMRQ+RVKLPS )RUWKH¿UVWWLPH in Uzbek literary criticism, the notion of WLS – positively stereotyped char- acters and events –,ZKLFKZDVWREHFRPHWKHFRUHSULQFLSOHRIVRFLDOLVW realism, appeared in the $OPDQD[ (Almanax, p. 14). The $OPDQD[ DQG RWKHU SXEOLFDWLRQV SXW IRUZDUG E\ WKH 8QLRQ IURP RQZDUGVDUHDFWXDOO\LQGLFDWLYHRITXLWHDIHZQHZWUHQGVLQOLWHUDU\ OLIH)LUVWRIDOOOLWHUDWXUHKDGEHFRPHDEDWWOH¿HOGZKHUHDORQJZLWKORQJ WHUPHQHPLHVVXFKDVWKHµZULWHUVRIWKHERXUJHRLVLH¶DQGµHWKQLFFKDXYLQ- LVWV¶ EXUMXYDPLOODWFKL ZKLFKUHIHUVWR&KR¶OSRQDQGRWKHUPHPEHUVRI the pre-1925 intelligentsia, alleged ultra-leftists and exclusivists (VR¶OOLT XQVXUODUL  LH WKH 3UROHWDULDQ ZULWHUV ZKR IURP WKH ODWH V RQZDUGV DWWHPSWHGWRVLGHOLQHPDQ\IHOORZWUDYHOOHUV LELGS QRZDOVRFDPH XQGHUDWWDFNDQGZHUHIRXQGWREHLQQHHGRIUHHGXFDWLRQ6HFRQGO\SRHWU\ ZDVQRORQJHUDFNQRZOHGJHGDVWKHSULPHJHQUHGUDPDVQRYHOVDQGVKRUW stories came to be considered more adequate than lyrics in highlighting ³JUHDWHQWHUSULVHVVXFKDVWKHVWUXJJOHIRUFRWWRQDQGWKHXSOLIWLQJRIWKH country” (LELGS 7KHMHZHOWDOHQWVRISRHWU\KDGWRVWUXJJOHWRFDWFK up as valid promoters of state policies, it seems. The volume $FKLHYHPHQWV@   ZKLFK LV D W\SLFDO SURGXFW RI WKH QHZ SHULRG FRQVLVWVRIFKDSWHUVOLNHµ)RU6WDWH5HFRQVWUXFWLRQ¶µ)LJKWLQJIRU&RWWRQ 6HOI6XI¿FLHQF\¶µ=DUEGRUODU,36¶µ,Q'HIHQFHRIWKH6RYLHW6WDWH¶DQGµ:H

36 =DUEGRULVWKH8]EHNUHQGHULQJRIVKRFNZRUNHU UXVVXGDUQLN), a favourite of the period 200 Ingeborg BALDAUF

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PHPEHUVRIVHOIRUJDQLVHGFLUFOHVRUHYHQIUHHODQFHZULWHUVZLWKRXWDQ\ DI¿OLDWLRQ DW DOO ZHUH E\ WKH PLGV URXQGHG XS LQ OLWHUDU\ FLUFOHV dependent on educational institutions, and, in the second half of the 1920s, LQ FLUFOHV DURXQG 3DUW\JXLGHG QHZVSDSHUV DQG MRXUQDOV ZKLFK JUDQWHG WKHZULWHUVHGXFDWLRQLQSRHWLFDQGLGHRORJLFDOPDWWHUV$IWHUIUHH- ODQFHZULWLQJEHFDPHLPSRVVLEOHDVDFFHVVWRSXEOLVKLQJIDFLOLWLHVEHFDPH VWULFWO\OLPLWHGZKHQ6WDOLQLVWVWDWHSRZHUHVWDEOLVKHGLWVHOIDQGSXEOLVK- LQJKRXVHVMRXUQDOVDQGQHZVSDSHUVFDPHXQGHUFORVHFRQWURO'XULQJWKH ¿UVWKDOIRIWKHVOLWHUDU\OLIHZDVWXUQHGLQWRDQDOOHJHGO\LQFOXVLYH yet in fact monopolistic, state-controlled, centralised and Sovietized social phenomenon; or, to put it in ideological terms, it became part of the social VXSHUVWUXFWXUHZKLFKUHÀHFWHGWKHSUROHWDULDQEDVLVRIVRFLDOOLIH

&RQFOXVLRQ7KHHIIHFWVRIµ(GXFDWLRQ¶ 7KHXOWLPDWHTXHVWLRQRIZKHWKHURUQRWWKHHGXFDWLRQDOFODLPZKLFKZDV UDLVHG¿UVWE\VHOIHPSOR\HGHQOLJKWHQHUVWKHQE\VWDWHVSRQVRUHGFULWLFV DQG¿QDOO\E\3DUW\GHSHQGHQWPRQRSROLVWVKDV\LHOGHGDVPXFKHOHYDWLRQ (\XNVDOLVK RI8]EHNSRHWU\DVSURPLVHGFDQQRWEHHDVLO\DQVZHUHG7KH intimidating, sidelining, silencing and even killing of many exceptionally JLIWHGSRHWVZKLFKVWDUWHGDURXQGDQGFXOPLQDWHGLQWKH\HDUVEHWZHHQ 1930 and 1938, beheaded the Uzbek literary community and deprived it of the best of its ingenuity and creative potential. It is necessary to underline that although non-literati may have initiated many of the developments ZKLFKEHJDQDVYHUEDOFRQWHVWDQGHQGHGXSLQOHWKDOSHUVHFXWLRQPDQ\ ZULWHUVSRHWVDQGFHUWDLQO\OLWHUDU\FULWLFVDQGVFKRODUVZHUHLQWXQHZLWK the times ±UHOXFWDQWO\LQRUGHUWRVDYHWKHLURZQFDUHHURUVNLQRUYROXQ- tarily out of conviction, in search of personal advantage, or even out of JULHYDQFHVHQY\DQGKXPDQEDVHQHVV7KHZULWHU$EGXOOD4DKKRU KLPVHOI DYLFWLPRISHUVHFXWLRQXQWLOZD\LQWRSRVW::WLPHV KDVGUDZQDELWWHU LPDJHRIWKRVHOHIWEHKLQG³>@GULYHQE\WKHGHVLUHWRULVHKLJKDVWKHRQO\ RQHLQOLWHUDWXUHOLNHWKHFKLPQH\RIDEXUQWGRZQKRXVHDIWHU¿QGLQJD mistake in everyone else and having them all shot to death.”39

,Q IDFW WKHUH ZDV QRW MXVW RQH VLQJOH FKLPQH\ OHIW DIWHU  EXW D OLWHUDU\ ODQGVFDSH VFDWWHUHG ZLWK D GR]HQ FKLPQH\V RI YDU\LQJ KHLJKW$

39)URP4DKKRU¶VQRWHERRN TXRWHGE\.DULPRYSSII 1DLP.DULPRYUHPDUNV WKDWTXLWHDIHZOLWHUDWLRIWKHVPLJKWKDYHEHHQWKHµKHUR¶RIWKDWVFHQDULR 202 Ingeborg BALDAUF

EHQHYROHQW OLWHUDU\ VFKRODU KDV UHFHQWO\ XQGHUOLQHG WKDW ³>@ LQ D VKRUW ZKLOHDIWHU>@DQHZJHQHUDWLRQHQWHUHGRXUOLWHUDWXUH´ .DULPRY S $FWXDOO\WKDWJHQHUDWLRQRI2\EHN*¶DIXU*¶XORP+DPLG 2OLPMRQ8\J¶XQ0LUWHPLUDQGRWKHUVKDGEHHQZDLWLQJRQWKHWKUHVKROG RI8]EHNOLWHUDWXUHIRUURXJKO\DGHFDGH¿UVWDGPLULQJWKHJUHDWHOGHUVDQG WKHQZHOFRPLQJµ&XOWXUDO5HYROXWLRQ¶DQGWDFLWO\RUDFWLYHO\VXSSRUWLQJ WKHZLSLQJRXWRIWKHHOGHUVZKLFKZRXOGSURPRWHWKHPWRWKHWRS1RPDW- WHUKRZFDXWLRXVO\WKH\WURGWKHLUSDWKDVSRHWVDQ\WLPHDIWHUPDQ\ RIWKHPDOVRIHOOYLFWLPRISHUVHFXWLRQXQWLOWKHHDUO\VDQ\ZD\ LGHP). 7KRVHZKRVXUYLYHGDQGZHUHVXFFHVVIXO¿QDOO\EXLOWDµQDWLRQDO¶6RYLHW 8]EHNSRHWU\DORQJWKHJXLGHOLQHVRIVRFLDOLVWUHDOLVP+RZHYHUPRVWRI WKHIRXQGDWLRQVWKDWKDGEHHQODLGE\WKHLUµHGXFDWRUV¶DQGWKHPVHOYHVLQ the 1920s to early 1930s, has been buried under the avalanches of Stalinist repression, and so has most of their lyric poetry of the pre-WW2 period (and the poetry of their surviving or non-surviving lesser gifted contemporaries ZKRQHYHUPDGHLWWRWKH3DQWKHRQRI8]EHNOLWHUDWXUH :K\LVWKLVVR" As far as poetic genres, fashionable art movements, stylistics, poetic language and many other aspects of form are concerned, Uzbek poetry of the 1920s and early 1930s ±HVSHFLDOO\ZKHQFRPSDUHGZLWKWKHVWUHDPOLQHG poetry of later decades – appears amazingly diverse: from neo-classical PXYDVKVKDK to free verse; from romanticism and folklorism to futurism and realism; from linguistic Ottomanism and Tatarism to Turkist purism and 8]EHNLVWGLDOHFWLVPDQGVRRQDOONLQGVRILVPVDUHUHÀHFWHGLQWKHSRHPV RIWKHWLPH DQGZHUHLQGXHFRXUVHGLVFXVVHGDQGFULWLFLVHG +RZHYHU ZKHQLWFRPHVWRFRQWHQWDQGHVSHFLDOO\WRLPDJHU\WKDWVDPHSRHWU\LV DOPRVWDVFRKHUHQWDQGLQWHUWH[WXDOO\LQWHUZRYHQDV,VODPLFFODVVLFSRHWU\ had been. If one picks out a single metaphor or poetic image of one poem, a ZHERIUHODWHGSRHPVZLOOIROORZVXLWSRHPVWKDWZLOOLQWKHLUWXUQUHIHUEDFN WRPRUHZHEVRIUHODWHGSRHPVDOOWLHGWRJHWKHUWKURXJKDQHYHUUHFXUULQJ imagery. In 1928, an annoyed critic urged the circle around

7KHUHSHWLWLRXVDOOHJHGO\PHDQLQJOHVVVWDQGDUGPHWDSKRUVZHUHDFWXDO- ly part and parcel of the literary discourse that lay behind many debates on cultural, societal and political issues. Indispensable for condensed insider communication, the metaphors served as codes to identify friend and foe; DWWKHVDPHWLPHWKHSRHWVFRXOGVKRZH[WUDVNLOODQGLQJHQXLW\ZKHQJLYLQJ DQRWKHUZLVHIDPLOLDULPDJHDQXQH[SHFWHGWZLVW,QWKHVHYHU\ERG\ ZRXOGNQRZWKDWWKHµVXQ¶PHWDSKRUVWRRGIRUWKH5HYROXWLRQZKLOHVWDUV V\PEROLVHGWKHXQIXO¿OOHGKRSHVIRUQDWLRQDODXWRQRP\DWUHPEOLQJOHDI ZRXOGDOOXGHWRDKHVLWDQWIHOORZWUDYHOOHUDIDOOLQJOHDIWRDVHFHGHUIURP the Bolshevik cause, and so forth. Some metaphors, symbols and images FDQEHWUDFHGIURPHDUO\WZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\HQOLJKWHQPHQWSRHWU\WKURXJK the liberal and bellicose early 1920s until as late as the collectivisation and industrialisation of rural production, and of course their meaning and con- notations unfolded and changed over the years.40 Just as classic Islamic poetry makes little sense to an unfamiliar reader, in order to understand and appreciate the Uzbek poetry of the 1920s one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to explain: the poem 4LVKGD >,Q:LQWHU@ E\ 0LUWHPLU ¿UVW SXEOLVKHG LQ ZKLFKWRWKHEHVWRIP\NQRZOHGJHKDVQRWIRXQGLWVZD\LQWRDQ\ ODWHU6RYLHWHGLWLRQRI0LUWHPLU¶VSRHWU\DOWKRXJKLWFRXQWVDPRQJWKHPRVW EHDXWLIXODQGFHUWDLQO\ZLWWLHVW8]EHNO\ULFSLHFHVRIWKHODWHV

407KHFKDQJHVRIWKHZLOGWXOLS OROD) metaphor, for example, have been traced from classic SRHWU\DOOWKHZD\GRZQWRWKHVLQ%DOGDXI2008, pp. 194 ff. 204 Ingeborg BALDAUF

Oq guldan chaman – Lawns of white owers – dalada, qirda... out there in the steppes... har yerda! everywhere! Qarg’a-zog’ ‘sayraydi’. Crows are ‘singing.’ Mamnun. Happy they are. Kun bulut... yulduzli, €e day is shrouded in clouds... yet starry, oyli, moonlit, ziyoli, bright, oq tun; oppoq tun, white night; dazzlingly white night, uyg’oq – tun! ... wide awake – night! ... Tumon bosadi... €e fog is rising... Yuzlarni o’padi sovuq izg’iriq Chilly frost kisses the cheeks. Tollarda oq barg. White leaves on willows. Quyosh-da kulishni, guyo, etdi tark! Even the sun, though, has ceased from laughing! Bulutlar ortidan boqadi Now and then goho; it looks out from behind the clouds; oq gullar bag’rini yoqadi. setting on "re the white owers’ hearts. Tomchilar oqadi... Drops ow... Turmush – uyg’oq; Life is awake; haryon oq-oppoq! white on all sides, shiny white! Zavudlar hamon kuladi: €e factories haven’t stopped laughing: gurrrrr...... qoh, qoh, zoooom...... haha, qoh .... qoh .... ho! ha ... ha ... ha!

(Mirtemir, 1928, p. 4)

(DUO\ 6RYLHW 8]EHN SRHWU\¶V IDYRXULWH VHDVRQV ZHUH VSULQJ DQG VXP- PHU ZKLFK FRQQRWHG DZDNHQLQJ ÀRXULVKLQJ DQG WKULYLQJ PDWXULQJ DQG bearing rich fruit. According to a rather simplistic ascription of meaning IDYRXUHGE\FULWLFVDQGWKHQFHE\SRHWVZKRVWURYHWRSOHDVHWKHPDXWXPQ LQLWVWXUQZRXOGHYRNHLPDJHVRIGHFD\DQGGHVSDLUDQGZLQWHUVLJQDOOHG GHDWKDQG¿QDOORVVZKLFKZRXOGFDXVHRQO\RPLQRXVFURZV WRUHMRLFH $OWKRXJKWKHIURVW\QLJKWVDQGVSDUNOLQJVQRZRIWKH5XVVLDQ1RUWKZKLFK PDQ\8]EHNSRHWVH[SHULHQFHGIRUWKH¿UVWWLPHLQWKHHDUO\VZHUH D ULFK VRXUFH RI LQVSLUDWLRQ ZLWKRXW HFKRLQJ WKH VSHFL¿FDOO\ QDWLRQDOLVW RYHUWRQHVRI5XVVLDQZLQWHUSRHWU\RIFRXUVH VWDUWLQJIURPWKHPLGV SRHWVSUHIHUUHGQRWWRFHOHEUDWHWKHZLQWHU OHWDORQHDXWXPQ VRDVWRVSDUH WKHPVHOYHVWKHUHSURDFKRIKRSHOHVVQHVVDQGGHVSDLUIURPZKLFKZDVDOO WRRUHDGLO\LQIHUUHGWKHLUGLVEHOLHILQWKHQHZVRFLDORUGHUDQGKHQFHHQPLW\ WRZDUGVWKH6RYLHWV 3RHWVKDGE\OHDUQHGWREHFDXWLRXV0LUWHPLU¶VSRHWLFLPDJH RIWKHZLGHVWHSSHVVKURXGHGLQZKLWHLVGDULQJDQGQRYHO – the regular LPDJHZRXOGKDYHEHHQWKHVSULQJOLNHVWHSSHVFRYHUHGZLWKZLOGUHGWXOLSV (ORODODU) that had in Jadid times stood as the metaphor for the blood of Educating the Poets and Fostering Uzbek Poetry of the 1910s to Early 1930s 205

PDUW\UVRIFRORQLDORSSUHVVLRQ 6D\GDKPDG[R¶MD6LGGLTL\ DQGZHUH consequently inverted to symbolise the red Soviet banner, the red necktie RISLRQHHUVRUWKHOLEHUDWHG6RYLHW8]EHNZRPHQJLUOV:KLWHÀDNHVRQ the other hand had not too long ago, in a 1924 poem 4RU>6QRZ@E\)LWUDW ZKLFKIHDWXUHGLQWKHZLGHO\XVHGWH[WERRN*R¶]DO\R]J¶LFKODU, stood as DPHWDSKRUIRUDOOWKHKHDUWVWKDWORQJHGIRUDXWRQRP\WKHVHÀDNHVZHUH GXULQJ)LWUDW¶VPRPHQWLQWLPHWURGGHQLQWRWKHGLUWEXWZRXOGDFFRUGLQJ WRWKHSRHW¶VKRSHVUHHPHUJHZKHQNLVVHGE\WKHVXQDQGZRXOG³GDQFH DJDLQ´VRPHWLPH )LWUDW 7KHZKLWHOHDYHVDJDLQIRUDQ\FRQVFLRXV OLVWHQHU RI WKH WLPH PXVW KDYH HFKRHG &KR¶OSRQ¶V IDPRXV OLWWOH 6XKEDW >&RQYHUVDWLRQ@SXEOLVKHGLQLQZKLFKDOHDIZKHQTXHVWLRQHGZK\LW KDGWKURZQLWVHOILQWKHDUPVRIWKHEODFNVRLOUHEXIIVWKHTXHVWLRQLQJµVPDUW VODYH¶E\UHIHUULQJWRLWVDUGHQWORYHRIWKHQDWLYHVRLODQGSUHGLFWLQJWKDW ZKLOHNLOOLQJLWWRGD\WKHVRLOZRXOGOHWLWVSURXWDJDLQVRPHGD\ &KR¶OSRQ   7KH XOWLPDWH PHWDSKRU HPSOR\HG LQ 0LUWHPLU¶V WH[W KRZHYHU LVWKHµFORXG¶:KHQLQ&KR¶OSRQZURWHKLVIDPRXVSRHP%X]LOJDQ R¶ONDJD[To the Ruined Land], he metaphorised colonial rule (Soviet rule over Turkestan included) by a cloud that deprives his homeland of the sun &KR¶OSRQS 5 $WLWVWLPHWKHSRHPFDXVHGDQRXWUDJHIURPZKLFK &KR¶OSRQZDVQHYHUWRUHFRYHUIURPXQWLOWKHHDUO\VDQ\YHUVL- ¿HUZKRVRXJKWIDPHZRXOGZULWHDGLVGDLQIXOQD]LUD [poetic response] to WKDWSRHPRUDWOHDVWDOOXGHWRWKHRPLQRXVFORXGLPDJHLQWKHLUZULWLQJV – the colonial cloud had of course long since been removed by the sun of 5HYROXWLRQDVLWZHUH41 0LUWHPLUKDGRQO\RQH\HDUEHIRUHWKHSXEOLFDWLRQRIKLVZLQWHUSRHP UHDSHGDKDUVKµHGXFDWLYH¶UHPDUNIRUKLVIRUPHUSRHPV³7U\WRZULWHOHVV EXWEHWWHU´DQDQRQ\PRXVFULWLFWROGKLPRQWKHSDJHVRIWKHWHDFKHUV¶ MRXUQDO0DRULIYD2¶TLWJ¶XFKL (Anonymous, 1927a, p. 69). Mirtemir indeed VHHPVZLWKLQDIHZPRQWKVWRKDYHOHDUQHGDELJOHVVRQLQSRHWLFVDVZHOO DVLGHRORJ\PRVWSUREDEO\ZLWKWKHVXSSRUWRIKLVPHQWRU6RWWL+XVD\QDQG the literary circle of

417KLVDXWKRUKDVWUDFHGSDUWRIWKHLQWHUWH[WXDOGHEDWH %DOGDXI KRZHYHUWKHDFWXDO FRQWH[WLVPXFKZLGHUWKDQGHVFULEHGWKHUH 42)RUH[DPSOH)LWUDW¶V0LUUL[\XOGX]LJD>7R0HUFXU\@DQG&KR¶OSRQ¶V

XSVLGH GRZQ DQG PDGH WKH QLJKW WKH DFWXDO ORFXV RI VRFLDOLVW ZRUN DQG OLIH+HPDVWHUHGWKHFODVVLFDOGHYLFHRIGHFHLYHGH[SHFWDWLRQZKHQVHHP- ingly sketching a frosty ]L\ROL night, then having the sun (of Revolution?!) FDXVLQJSDLQDQGWHDUVIRUWKHOHDYHVDQGVQRZÀDNHV>@EXWOHWWLQJLWDOO end up in the triumphant laughter of incessant socialist labour. :LWKRXWLWVZHDOWKRILQYHUWHGDQGUHLQWHUSUHWHGPHWDSKRUVDOOXVLRQV WRUHFHQWO\ZULWWHQSRHPVE\IULHQGDQGIRHDQGLPSOLFLWUHIHUHQFHVWRKLV VHQLRU ZULWHU FROOHDJXHV 0LUWHPLU¶V SRHP,Q :LQWHU ZRXOG SHUKDSV VWLOO PDNHVRPHVHQVHLWVDFWXDOPHULWVKRZHYHUFDQRQO\EHDSSUHFLDWHGLILWV OLWHUDU\DQGVRFLHWDOEDFNJURXQGLVUHYHDOHG%XWKRZFRXOGLWKDYHEHHQ revealed after 1938, since most of it directly concerns the greatest Uzbek SRHWVDQGZULWHUVZKRVHKXPDQH[LVWHQFHKDGEHHQH[WLQJXLVKHGDQGWKHLU SRHWLFRHXYUHWDERRHG,I0LUWHPLU¶V,Q:LQWHU, and many other early Uzbek poems of the 1920s and 1930s for that matter, had been re-published, ques- WLRQVZRXOGKDYHDULVHQWKDWPLJKWKDYHFDXVHGXQZHOFRPHGHEDWHVDQG also serious troubles for some of the survivors of the purges. The post- ::6RYLHW8]EHNOLWHUDU\FRPPXQLW\ZLVHO\JXLGHGE\LWVRZQPHQWRUV and educators, decided for the lesser evil: not to re-publish most of the early 6RYLHW8]EHNSRHWU\QRWWRKDYHLWVWXGLHGQRWWRUDLVHGLI¿FXOWTXHVWLRQV There is still a lot to be detected about it.

5HIHUHQFHV AHMAD 6LURMLGGLQ  «9DGXG 0DKPXG» UHSXEOLVKHG IURP WKH QHZVSDSHU 0D¶ULIDW>ZZZ]L\RX]FRPDFFHVVHG$XJXVW@ ALLWORTH(GZDUG8]EHN/LWHUDU\3ROLWLFV, London & Paris: Mouton. ALMANAX, 1932, 2¶]EHNLVWRQ VKR¶UR DGDEL\RWLGDQ DGDEL\ DOPDQD[ 2NW\DEU LQTLORELQLQJR¶QEHVK\LOOLJLJDEDJ¶LVKODQDGL>/LWHUDU\$OPDQDFRI8]EHNLVWDQ¶V Soviet Literature. Dedicated to the 15th Anniversary of the October Revolution], Tashkent-Samarkand. ANONYMOUS, 1927a«,GRUDGDQMDYREYDNHQJDVKODU» [Response and Advice by the Editors], 0DRULIYD2¶TLWJ¶XFKL 3-4, pp. 68-69. —, 1927b, «=L\ROLODUJD QLVEDWDQ WXWTDQ \R¶OLPL] WR¶J¶UL FKLTGL» [The Path We Have Taken in Relation to the =L\ROLODU Has Proven Correct], 4L]LO2¶]EHNLVWRQ 1RYHPEHU 22.

the Bright Star], both published in 2¶]EHN7KDW¶V(QRXJK@IURPSXEOLVKHGLQ(OEHNS 27. 43 =L\ROLPHDQVµEULJKW¶EXWDWWKHVDPHWLPHWKHFRGHZRUGIRUWKH-DGLGHQOLJKWHQHUVDVZH remember Educating the Poets and Fostering Uzbek Poetry of the 1910s to Early 1930s 207

—, 1930, «Butun ittifoq proletar yozuvchilarining birlashtiruvchi assotsiatsiyasi» [An Association That Will Unite the All-Union Proletarian Writers], $ODQJD 7-8, p. 9. $508*¶21, 1922, ,NNLQFKL R¶]EHN PDGDQL\DW YD PDRULI TXUXOWR\L YDNLOODULJD EL]QLQJ$UPXJ¶RQ%LUQR¶PLUOLNLMWLPRL\WDUL[L\LOPL\DGDEL\SDQQL\R¶]EHNFKD MXUQDO$UPXJ¶RQTLOJ¶XFKL ±R¶UWDROL\PDNWDEODUGDR¶TXFKLR¶]EHN\RVKODULQ- LQJµ$GDEL\RW7R¶JDUDJL¶ [Our Gift to the Deputies of the 2nd Congress of the 8]EHN&XOWXUHDQG(GXFDWLRQ:RUNHUV2QHRII6RFLDO+LVWRULFDO6FLHQWL¿F /LWHUDU\DQG6FKRODUO\8]EHN-RXUQDO3UHVHQWHGE\WKHµ/LWHUDWXUH&LUFOH¶RI the Young Uzbeks Studying at Middle and High Schools], Tashkent, April 8. µ$<1¶ 1927, «2¶]EHNVKRLUODUL&KR¶OSRQ»>7KH8]EHN3RHWV&KR¶OSRQ@4L]LO 2¶]EHNLVWRQ, February 14. BAJBULATOV D., 1967, «%LEOLRJUD¿þHVNLM XND]DWHO¶ SHULRGLþHVNRM SHþDWL Uzbekistana» [Bibliographical Index of the Periodical Press of Uzbekistan], 3HþDW¶8]EHNLVWDQD 6. %$/'$8),QJHERUJ³$/DWH3LHFHRI1D]LUDRU$6\PERO0DNLQJLWV:D\ through Early Uzbek Poetry,” in Shirin Akiner (ed.), &XOWXUDO &KDQJH DQG &RQWLQXLW\LQ&HQWUDO$VLD, London: Kegan Paul u.a., pp. 29-44. —, 2008, «Orient und Frau in der frühen uzbekischen Lyrik: Szenen vom Ausbruch aus Dichtungs- und Denktraditionen», in HelgaAnetshofer, Ingeborg Baldauf & Christa Ebert (eds.), hEHU*HUHLPWHVXQG8QJHUHLPWHVGLHVVHLWVXQGMHQVHLWV GHU7XUFLD6FK|QHLFKHVFUvSYD]SS %2%2;2¶-$<(9 M., 1979, .XUDVK SRH]L\DVL  \LOODU R¶]EHN VRY\HW SRH]L\DVLPDWHULDOODULPLVROLGD >7KH3RHWU\RI6WULIH ([HPSOL¿HGE\0DWHULDOV from Soviet Uzbek Poetry from 1917-1929)], Tashkent. BOTU, 1928a, «1D¿VDGDEL\RWVRKDVLGDR¶]R¶]LQLWDQTLG» [Self-Criticism in the Field of Belles-Lettres], $ODQJD 6-7 (July-August), p. 2. —, 1928b, «2¶]EHNDGDEL\RWLQLQJR¶NW\DEULQTLORELGDQVR¶QJJLGDYULJDELUTDUDVK» [A Look at the Post-October Revolution Period of Uzbek Literature], $ODQJD  1RYHPEHU SS 3-4. —, 2004, 7DQODQJDQ$VDUODU [Selected Works], Tashkent: Sharq. &+2¶/321, 1923, «%X]LOJDQR¶ONDJD» [To the Ruined Land], %XORTODU [Fountains], Tashkent, p. 4. —, 1925, «Suhbat» [Conversation], 0DRULIYD2¶TLWJ¶XFKL 7-8, p. 81. —, 1927, «4D\WLVK1D]LUDODUJDQD]LUD» [Return. A 1D]LUD to the 1D]LUDs],

),75$7, 1924, «Qor»>6QRZ@in Elbek (ed.), *R¶]DO\R]J¶LFKODU [Beautiful Pens], Tashkent, pp. 45-46. +2-,08,1, 1937, ,MRGL\7DUMLPDL+ROLP>0\&UHDWLYH&9@XQSXEOLVKHGPDQX- script (private collection, Samarkand). IKROMOV Akmal, 1927, «0DWEXRWYDDGDEL\RWWR¶J¶ULVLGD» [About the Press and Literature], 4L]LO2¶]EHNLVWRQ, October 10. KARIMOV1DLPXXDVUDGDEL\RWLPDQ]DUDODUL%LULQFKLNLWRE [Aspects of WK&HQWXU\/LWHUDWXUH)LUVW9ROXPH@7DVKNHQW2¶]EHNLVWRQ —, 2012, $GDEL\RWYDWDUL[L\MDUD\RQ$GDEL\WDQTLGL\PDTRODODU [Literature and WKH+LVWRULFDO3URFHVV/LWHUDU\&ULWLFDO$UWLFOHV@7DVKNHQW0XPWR]VR¶] µ.,72%;21¶ [Reader], 1928, «7R¶QJ¶LFKDGDEL\WR¶JDUDNQLQJEX\LOJLWDMULEDVL» >7KLV6HOHFWLRQ3RHWULHVDQG3RHPV3RHP&\FOHVDQG5HÀH[LRQVRQ/LWHUDWXUH@ Tashkent: Gafur Gulâm. MUHITDINOV1«Milliy ittihodchilarning madaniy frontdagi ishlari» [The $FWLYLWLHVRIWKH)ROORZHUVRI0LOOL\,WWLKRG on the Cultural Front], $ODQJD 7-8, pp. 13-15. MURODOVA Mukarrama, 1990, «Men davrning kichik parchasi» [I Am a Little Particle of the Epoch], [http://n.ziyouz.com/matbuotuz/qayta-qurish-davri- matbuoti/mukarrama-murodova-men-davrning-kichik-parchasi-1990 accessed August 2014]. OLTOY, 1967, 2OWR\$UPXJ¶RQ6KH¶UODU>2OWR\*LIW3RHPV@7DVKNHQW*¶DIXU*¶XORP ORIPOV 4RELOMRQ  $ODQJDOL \LOODU DGDEL\RWL [The Literature of the Fiery Years], Tashkent. OTAJON (ed.), 1928, 4L]LO4DODP0DMPXDVLI [4L]LO4DODP&ROOHFWLYH9ROXPHI], Samarkand. —, 1929, 4L]LO4DODP0DMPXDVLII [4L]LO4DODP&ROOHFWLYH9ROXPHII], Samarkand. 27$-21+26+,0©2¶]EHNSUROHWDULDWDGDEL\RWLXFKXQNXUDVKPRTNHUDNª [(We) Must Fight for a Proletarian Uzbek Literature], $ODQJD 6-7, pp. 30-32. —©2¶]EHNLVWRQVKR¶URDGDEL\RWLQLQJELUQHFKDDVRVL\PDVDODODULª>6RPH %DVLF3UREOHPVRI8]EHNLVWDQ¶V6RYLHWOLWHUDWXUH@in $OPDQD[, 1932, pp. 30-40. OYBEK, 1927, «&KR¶OSRQ6KRLUQLTDQGD\WHNVKLULVKNHUDN»>&KR¶OSRQ+RZWR Criticise the Poet], 4L]LO2¶]EHNLVWRQ, May 17. 2¶=%(. <26+ 6+2,5/$5,, 1922, 2¶]EHN \RVK VKRLUODUL VKH¶UODU WR¶SODPL  3LWUDW&KR¶OSRQ%RWX(OEHN [Young Uzbek Poets (Collection of Poems). )LWUDW&KR¶OSRQ%RWX(OEHN@7DVKNHQW Educating the Poets and Fostering Uzbek Poetry of the 1910s to Early 1930s 209

36+, 1928a, «Madaniy inqilob va ziyolilar» [The Cultural Revolution and the =L\ROLODU], 4L]LO2¶]EHNLVWRQ 89, April 17. —, 1928b, «Madaniy inqilob va ziyolilar II: Ziyolilarni qanday qilib ishga solamiz» [The Cultural Revolution and the =L\ROLODU,,+RZ:H$UH*RLQJWR0DNH8VH of the =L\ROLODU], 4L]LO2¶]EHNLVWRQ, April 30, p. 2. QONUNLAR, 1930, 2¶]EHNLVWRQ,MWLPRL\6KR¶UD-XPKXUL\DWLQLQJDPDOGDJLTRQXQ- ODULQLQJ PXQWD]DP \LJ¶LQGLVL $OLIEHDVK\R NR¶UJD]JLFKL [Comprehensive &ROOHFWLRQRIWKH/DZVLQ)RUFHLQWKHUzSSR. Alphabetic Index], Tashkent. RAMZIY, 1928, «*R¶]DODGDEL\RWKDP\R]XYFKLODUQLQJUR¶OL» [Belles-Lettres and the Role of the Writers], $ODQJD1RYHPEHUSS 5-6. SAGDI Gabdraxman, 1924, (untitled article), 2¶]JDULVKFKL\RVKODU 7, pp. 49-55. 6$<'$+0$';2¶-$6,'',4,<, 1914, «Lola», 2\QD 39, p. 932. 6+2.,5 68/$<021  ©3DUJ¶RQD 6RFKPDQD]Pª >)HUJKDQD )UHH 9HUVH@ $UPXJ¶RQ, p. 13. —, 1927, (UN NX\ODUL 6KH¶UODU WR¶SODPL [Songs of Freedom (Collection of 3RHPV @6DPDUNDQG0RVFRZ —, 1929, ©%HVK\LOQLWR¶OGLUJDQGDª>1RZ7KDW)LYH

Abstract

:LWKLQWKUHHGHFDGHVIURPWKHWXUQRIWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\SRHWU\LQ&HQWUDO$VLD WXUQHGIURPDQLQWHOOHFWXDOKREE\DQGOLEHUDORFFXSDWLRQVKDUHGZLWKLQFLUFOHVRI HQWKXVLDVWVFRPSHWLQJIRUVW\OLVWLFSHUIHFWLRQZKLOHHQFRXUDJLQJWKHOLWHUDU\SXU- VXLWVRIMXQLRUVLQWRDZHDSRQDWWKHKDQGVRILGHRORJLFDOO\GHWHUPLQHGYHUVL¿HUV RIYDU\LQJSURZHVV7KHSDSHUWUDFHVWKHGHYHORSPHQWRI8]EHNSRHWU\LQLWLDOO\ JXLGHGLQWRPRGHUQLW\E\SURPRWHUVRIHQOLJKWHQPHQWWKHQGLYHUVL¿HGZLWKDXWR- QRPLVWDQGUHYROXWLRQDU\LPSHWXVDQGZKLFK¿QDOO\HQGHGXSDVDVWUHDPOLQHG VWDWHUXQSURIHVVLRQZLWKPDQ\SRHWVIDOOLQJYLFWLPWRRSSUHVVLRQDQGPDQ\ZRUNV falling into the oblivion of taboo. .H\ZRUGV: Uzbek poetry, Soviet literary politics, early 20th century, enlighten- ment, national culture, prosecuted poets.

Résumé

/¶pGXFDWLRQGHVSRqWHVHWODSURPRWLRQGHODSRpVLHRX]EqNHGHVDQQpHVDX début des années 1930

En trois décennies, à partir du tournant du XXe siècle, la poésie en Asie centrale, GH SDVVHWHPSV LQWHOOHFWXHO HW G¶RFFXSDWLRQ OLEpUDOH SDUWDJpH DX VHLQ GH FHUFOHV G¶DPDWHXUVULYDOLVDQWSRXUODSHUIHFWLRQVW\OLVWLTXHWRXWHQHQFRXUDJHDQWOHVaspi- rations OLWWpUDLUHVGHVMHXQHVV¶HVWPXpHHQXQHDUPHDX[PDLQVGHYHUVL¿FDWHXUV LGpRORJLTXHPHQW GpWHUPLQpV DX[ SURXHVVHV YDULDEOHV /¶DUWLFOH UHWUDFH OH GpYHO- oppement de la poésie ouzbèke, laquelle a été guidée en premier lieu dans la PRGHUQLWpSDUOHVSURPRWHXUVGHO¶LQVWUXFWLRQSXLVV¶HVWGLYHUVL¿pHGXIDLWGHO¶pODQ DXWRQRPLVWHHWUpYROXWLRQQDLUHSRXUDERXWLUHQ¿QGHFRPSWHjXQHSURIHVVLRQXQL- IRUPHHWJpUpHSDUO¶eWDWDYHFVRQORWGHSRqWHVGHYHQXVYLFWLPHVGHO¶RSSUHVVLRQ HWG¶°XYUHVWRPEpHVGDQVO¶RXEOLGXWDERX 0RWVFOpV: poésie ouzbèke, politique littéraire soviétique, début du XXe siècle, instruction, culture nationale, poètes persécutés.

Ⱥɧɧɨɬɚɰɢɹɤɫɬɚɬɶɟ Ɉɛɪɚɡɨɜɚɧɢɟ ɩɨɷɬɨɜ ɢ ɩɪɨɞɜɢɠɟɧɢɟ ɭɡɛɟɤɫɤɨɣ ɩɨɷɡɢɢ F ɯ ɝɨɞɨɜ ɞɨ ɧɚɱɚɥɚɯɝɨɞɨɜ ȼ ɬɟɱɟɧɢɟ ɬɪɺɯ ɞɟɫɹɬɢɥɟɬɢɣ ɫ ɧɚɱɚɥɚ ɝɨ ɜɟɤɚ ɩɨɷɡɢɹ ɜ ɋɪɟɞɧɟɣ Ⱥɡɢɢ ɩɪɟɜɪɚɬɢɥɚɫɶ ɢɡ ɢɧɬɟɥɥɟɤɬɭɚɥɶɧɨɝɨ ɯɨɛɛɢ ɢ ɥɢɛɟɪɚɥɶɧɨɝɨ ɡɚɧɹɬɢɹ ɩɪɚɤɬɢɤɭɟɦɨɝɨ ɫɪɟɞɢ ɷɧɬɭɡɢɚɫɬɨɜ ɤɨɧɤɭɪɢɪɭɸɳɢɯ ɡɚ ɫɬɢɥɢɫɬɢɱɟɫɤɨɟ ɫɨɜɟɪɲɟɧɫɬɜɨɱɟɪɟɡɩɨɨɳɪɟɧɢɟɥɢɬɟɪɚɬɭɪɧɵɯɭɫɬɪɟɦɥɟɧɢɣɦɨɥɨɞɵɯɥɸɞɟɣ ɜ ɨɪɭɠɢɟ ɢɫɩɨɥɶɡɭɟɦɨɟ ɢɞɟɨɥɨɝɢɱɟɫɤɢ ɧɚɫɬɪɨɟɧɧɵɦɢ ɩɨɷɬɚɦɢ ɪɚɡɧɵɯ ɫɩɨɫɨɛɧɨɫɬɟɣ Ⱦɚɧɧɚɹ ɫɬɚɬɶɹ ɩɪɨɫɥɟɠɢɜɚɟɬ ɪɚɡɜɢɬɢɟ ɭɡɛɟɤɫɤɨɣ ɩɨɷɡɢɢ Educating the Poets and Fostering Uzbek Poetry of the 1910s to Early 1930s 211

ɤɨɬɨɪɚɹ ɢɡɧɚɱɚɥɶɧɨ ɛɵɥɚ ɩɪɢɜɧɟɫɟɧɚ ɜ ɫɨɜɪɟɦɟɧɧɨɫɬɶ ɫɬɨɪɨɧɧɢɤɚɦɢ ɩɪɨɫɜɟɳɟɧɢɹɡɚɬɟɦɢɡɦɟɧɟɧɚɚɜɬɨɧɨɦɧɵɦɢɢɪɟɜɨɥɸɰɢɨɧɧɵɦɢɢɦɩɭɥɶɫɚɦɢ ɢɤɨɬɨɪɚɹɜɤɨɧɰɟɤɨɧɰɨɜɩɪɟɜɪɚɬɢɥɚɫɶɜɟɞɢɧɨɨɛɪɚɡɧɭɸɝɨɫɭɞɚɪɫɬɜɟɧɧɭɸ ɩɪɨɮɟɫɫɢɸ ɤɨɝɞɚ ɦɧɨɝɢɟ ɩɨɷɬɵ ɫɬɚɥɢ ɠɟɪɬɜɚɦɢ ɪɟɩɪɟɫɫɢɣ ɢ ɦɧɨɝɢɟ ɡɚɩɪɟɳɟɧɧɵɟɪɚɛɨɬɵɛɵɥɢɩɨɡɚɛɵɬɵ Ʉɥɸɱɟɜɵɟɫɥɨɜɚɭɡɛɟɤɫɤɚɹɩɨɷɡɢɹɫɨɜɟɬɫɤɚɹɥɢɬɟɪɚɬɭɪɧɚɹɩɨɥɢɬɢɤɚɧɚɱɚɥɨ ɝɨɜɟɤɚɩɪɨɫɜɟɳɟɧɢɟɧɚɰɢɨɧɚɥɶɧɚɹɤɭɥɶɬɭɪɚɪɟɩɪɟɫɫɢɪɨɜɚɧɧɵɟɩɨɷɬɵ