CONCORDIA THEOLOGICAL MONTHLY

Ediwrial

Old I csramem Theology as Heilsgl'Jrbirbll' ARLIS JOHN EHLEN

Currcnr Roman Carholic Thoughr on Prophetic Interpretation WALTER E. RAST

An Approach w the Exegcsis of John 10:34-36 RICHARD JUNGKUNTZ

Problems of Mcssianic Imcrpretarion ALFRED VON ROHR SAUER

Deuteronomy 18 - God's Choscn People NORMAN C. HABEL

Co\'cnanr and Justification in the Old Testalll.cm WALTER R. ROEHRS

The Old Tes[;unenr in the Pulpir HERBERT T. MAYER

VOL. XXXV October 1964 No.9 Old Testament Theology as Hetlsgeschichte By ARUS JOHN EHLEN n important group of Old Testament 1877), but the conception itself begins A scholars in Germany and America with the Bible's own understanding of is currently making copious use of the history. Basic to the witness of both the term Heilsgeschichte and the ideas associ­ Old and the New Testament is the convic­ ated with it. Avoided until recently by tion that God has taken a direct hand in scientific theologians as suggestive of Bib­ earthly, human affairs, particularly in a spe­ licism and obscurantism, it has staged cific chain of events by which the total a comeback as a key word in some of the welfare of mankind, its salvation (German: most respected scholarly circles. The Heils­ Hei!), is being prepared for and revealed geschichte concept is newly recognized as to the world. The history of this step-by­ basic to the understanding of all Biblical step process is now seen to constitute the theology. It lie . _____ ~ __ ~ ______~ _~_e cur- very core of the Scriptures. It illay L..! called rent enthusiastic revival of Old Testament the histaria sac;'a or, referring to its actual studies, and it promises to rehabilitate the subject matter, the Hei!sgeschichte: the relevance of the Old Testament for Chris­ story of the many successive words and tian theology and piety to a level not at­ works of God toward restoration of total tained since the apostolic age. well-being 1 to His people. The aim of this article is to survey the The same term, or its adjective, hei!sge­ historical course of the Heilsgeschichte idea schicht!ich, may also be extended to denote and to depict its contributions down to the any theological system which gives an im­ present. There will be opportunity to con­ portant place to this Biblical understand­ trast its tenets with those of other concep­ ing of history. Specifically, however, it tions regarding the meaning of history, designates a 19th-century school of theol­ and particular attention will be devoted to ogy centering around Johann Tobias Beck its relationship with Lutheran orthodoxy. (1804-1878) and Von Hofmann. This The scope of this paper does not allow any circle stood in conscious opposition not extended discussion of the earlier periods, 1 Attention must be called to the breadth of but at least a brief sketch will be attempted meaning in the word Heil, which has to do for the sake of orientation. basically with being "whole" or "hale," i. e., in good condition, not broken, diseased, or First, however, a preliminary definition otherwise impaired. Thus the word can include of the expression will be in place, to be any gift of God's blessing, whether "salvation" given further content and form as the in a theological sense, personal health, or na­ tional victory. This very breadth of meaning story of its unfolding is set forth. has made the term Heilsgeschichte difficult to The term Heilsgeschichte was intro­ translate into English. Attempts such as "salva­ tion history," "redemptive history," or simply duced about a century ago by Johann Chris­ "sacred history" lack some of the fullness of tian Konrad von Hofmann ( 1816 to connotation that H eilsgeschichte has acquired. S17 518 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE

only to historical criticism as then prac­ is clear that a certain limited number of ticed but also to a felt lack of proper em­ specific events are held to furnish the key phasis on sacred history in classic ortho­ to the meaning of the rest. In these par­ doxy. ticular events, and in the accompanying Finally, the concept of Heilsgeschichte words mediated by His chosen spokesmen, has since the close of W arid War II been God revealed His nature and His will for restored to currency by a number of Bibli­ mankind. His concern for the Heil of all cal (particularly Old Testament) scholars humanity is expressed not so much in gen­ who themselves stand within the tradition eral pronouncements (even these are ex­ of a moderate historical criticism. Their pressed within specific historical situations appreciation of the role which history must which color their meaning) as in particular play in any discussion of Biblical theology words and acts directed toward particular is to be the final topic treated in this essay. people. Thus we are given to know something 1. THE BIBLICAL VIEW OF HISTORY of God's will for all men through His spe­ AND ITS ANCIENT RIVALS cific words and acts as He calls the indi­ The current debate on the subject of vidual man Abraham, guides him, and Heilsgeschichte is motivated, in part at makes promises to him. vXJhen Abraham's least, by the desire to uncover and state descendants find themselves bowed under more adequau::1Y llU: 3Lriptures' own under­ Egyptian slavery, God speaks and acts in standing of history. While some interpre­ such a way as to deliver them, give them tations and conclusions are still being de­ a new land, and place them under a cove­ bated, general agreement on most of the nant obligation to Himself as their Savior. essentials has been reached by now. Tne When they have broken the covenant and following may therefore be accepted as the are defeated by their enemies, God places exegetical position held by the majority David and his descendants over them as of Bible scholars. His viceroy. Even before this kingdom's The Biblical authors only show limited complete collapse and the exile of the interest in a static description of God in people, God is holding out to His people His heavenly dwelling. On the contrary, the hope of a new beginning under a new the Bible generally portrays God as He covenant. After several promising but in­ comes into contact with mankind, rather effective starts all attention comes to be than as He exists in solitary, eternal splen­ focused on a particular descendant of David dor. The God of both the Old and the who is proclaimed as the representative New Testament is directly concerned with Son of man. In His death, burial, and sub­ the world of His creation and particularly sequent resurrection God reveals His ulti­ with man, and conversely the world of man mate intention for all mankind. The for­ is directly affected by God's will and words mation of a new people of God is begun, and actions. God's hand is constantly in witnesses are sent out, and the fuller reve­ the thick of human affairs. lation of God in Jesus Christ is universally Now, while it is true that several of the proclaimed as its universal applicability Biblical writers depict the scope of God's becomes clear. The promise is made of concern in universal and general terms, it a final great act of world history when all OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE 519 the elect will be gathered in, evil will be students of comparative religions, denotes destroyed, and the entire creation will be stories about the world of the gods and restored to its pristine wholeness. their involvement with men. Such stories There is no difficulty in agreeing that are told and retold not so much for their these are the chief points in the history intrinsic interest as for the reason that of God's relations with man as attested their ritual rehearsal helped to restore the in the Scriptures. The additional details order of things in man's own world. The are also well known, and they likewise myths about Baal (known to us from have their significance in the complete Ugaritic and other sources) had to do with story. The point to be made here, however, well-being and fertility in nature - plants, is that it is from this story that we know animals, and man himself. These myths the God of the Bible. This particular his­ were not simply retold but dramatized, tory selected out of the totality of world actually reenacted, in dance and song at history is what gives us the picture of God the Canaanite religious festivals. In this upon which our faith rests. All revelation way the people did their part to keep (i. e., all knowledge of God apart from nature operative. The actions of the human natural religion) has come as a part of community were thus kept in harmony this specii~c chain of events within history, wlrh those of the gods as reported i. and each item of revelation gained its myths, and this in turn would ensure that original meaning in the context of a spe­ the powers of the gods would be operative cific moment in that history. among them, so that the crops would not It must be emphasized that, elementary fail, the animals would bear plenteous as this may seem to us who are heirs of young, and general well-being would be the Scriptural understanding of history, maintained. We need not wonder that this view of divine revelation as an actual when the Israelites entered the land of part of real human history is unique in milk and honey and when the fertility of the world of religious thought. While this nature became all-important for their eco­ could be demonstrated also with reference nomic life, they were sorely tempted to to other world religions, it will be most imitate their Canaanite neighbors in the illuminating to compare the Biblical wit­ worship of Baal. ness on this point with its own contem­ But the contrast between this nature poraries. religion and the history-centered faith of A good deal has become known about the people of Yahweh is obvious. Yahweh the religious beliefs and practices of the had made Himself known to Israel by ancient Near Eastern world in the time specific promises and dramatic deeds of before and during the writing of the Old deliverance in their national life, not Testament. Canaanite religion - which through myths connected with the ever­ was always a threat and a temptation to reoccuring cycles of nature. To be sure, the Israelites, and over against which the this God is at the same time the Lord of uniqueness of the Old Testament can best nature, the Creator and Provider of all, be seen - was a religion of myth and but He has made Himself known first and nature. The figure of Baal exemplifies both foremost as the Deliverer of His people these aspects. Myth, as defined by most and Lord over the coutse of their history 520 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE

among the nations. In contrast to the reli­ II. THE ECLIPSE OF THE BIBLICAL VIEW gion of Baal the importance of the Old The Old Testament view that human Testament's emphasis on historical revela­ history is the arena in which God reveals tion and historical salvation becomes clear. Himself was preserved and further devel­ Another more distant contemporary of oped both in intertestamental Judaism ancient Israel may be mentioned briefly (especially in apocalyptic thought) and because of its decisive influence on the in the New Testament. It is the latter, thought of our Western civilization. The in fact, which places the crown on the most ancient Greek religion did not differ whole history of God's dealings with man­ greatly from that of Canaan in the aspects kind, showing Christ Jesus to be the hub with which we are here concerned. But of this history and pointing toward its the classical period of Greek culture ultimate culmination on the Last Day. brought a new departure, the effects of Thus Christianity is solidly grounded in which will be seen in our study at a later history and is set on its way as a history­ point. The Greeks, according to prevalent centered faith. scholarly opinion today, were the only But other tides were already moving other ancient people, besides the Hebrews, in the Hellenistic world, and the historical 71ho developed a fee1~<-

tory, as in the system of the 12th-century means that the Scriptutes alone are the monk, Joachim of Floris. In such a view source and norm of all religious authority. of history human initiative was entirely Hence the reformers were deeply con­ subordinated to the divine will and plan. cerned to determine precisely what the The greatest theological interest and labor, Scriptutes meant to say. With this new however, tended to be directed toward the urgency it quickly became clear that the elaboration of a system of thought rather "spiritual meaning" favored by medieval than toward history. God was now treated interpreters of the Scriptures could have as an object to be discussed and described no authoritative standing. These multiple in elaborate scholastic detail rather than senses (allegorical, tropological, anagogi­ as a personal subject who is known by cal) were only a ruse to allow taking out what He has said and done and who elicits of the text whatever confidential "divine" loyalty and trust on this account. All this informatioD the interpreter might wish to was the unconscious heritage of a subtle find there. This was "enthusiasm," not but far-reaching Hellenization of the Bibli­ obedience to the Word of God. Certainty cal faith. regarding the meaning originally intended

III. SLOW R -~~-~~-- ~- A -----1ATION by God could be found only in the sensus FOR THE BIBLICAL VIEW literalis sive historicus. God speaks to us In the case of the reformers, to the ex­ via the literal meaning or Hebrew and tent that historical processes came to their Greek words and within the context of attention at all, these continued to be the original historical situation. viewed in Biblical terms as completely This hermeneutical rule, corresponding dominated by God's sovereignty. Human te the sola of the Reformation's Scriptutal impulse and action had little scope - an principle, gave decisive importance in outlook totally unlike the classical Greek Reformation exegesis to the grammatical conception of history. But the Biblical investigation of the languages and the his­ view of a history guided by God remained torical study of the times. Among the rather peripheral in their theology. In this reformers, it was particularly Melanchthon respect the reformers continued to be and Calvin who stressed the thorough in­ strongly influenced by their medieval back­ vestigation of the circumstances of time ground.3 and place in relation to the sensus his­ Nevertheless, one of the fundamental toricus of a text. It is significant that these Reformation principles proved to be ger­ are two men who were most open to the minal to the development of a historical impulse of humanistic thought in its appli­ approach to the Bible. Sola Scriptura cation to Biblical studies. While they, toO, did not see the decisive role which history 11 Hans-Joachim Kraus, Geschichte dBr his­ plays in Biblical theology itself, it was due lorisch-kritischen Erforschung des Alten Testa­ to the influence of humanism and the re­ ments von der Reformation bis zur Gegenwart (Neukirchen: Verlag des Erziehungsvereins, action against it that this viewpoint was 1956), p. 22. But see John M. Headley, Luther's finally recognized.4 View of Church History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1963), pp. 139£. 4 Kraus, pp. 7-10. 522 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE

The rise of humanism was more or less Biblical theology. Instead of moving in contemporary with the Reformation, and the direction of the historical mode of the paths of the two movements crossed thinking, Orthodoxy marked the strong at various points, especially in a man like resurgence of an almost purely systematic, Melanchthon. But the reformers could doctrinal approach. This is, of course, quite have little sympathy with the new concep­ understandable when it is remembered that tion of history which was making its ap­ medieval scholasticism had also been highly pearance in secular humanism. Its source systematic and quite nonhistorical. Luther was the renascence of classical Greek learn­ had battled the medieval system on its own ing, and like the latter it viewed history grounds, restoring the Scriptures alone as as pivoting around man. Man is no the doctrinal authority but not yet fully longer subordinate to God's grand design, recognizing the basic historical and non­ as the Biblical and Christian tradition in­ systematic character of those same Scrip­ sists. The interplay of forces in history tures. Thus strictures which one finds di­ is observed and presented without consid­ rected against leaders of classic orthodoxy eration for a personally active God. apply also to its predecessors; 5 this is As its techniques for historical research not an area in which Lutheranism marked were gradually refined, this humanistic view a radical departure from the soil out of eventually matured into modern secular which it grew. historiography. Its offshoot in the area of At any rate, individual words of God Biblical studies has been the critical ap­ continued to be understood by Orthodoxy proach to the Bible in its whole wide as sources of timeless doctrine rather than array: historical and literary criticism, Re­ as specific instances of God's "~1 pow­ ligionsgeschichte, form criticism, tradition erfully entering and changing history. The history, etc. While the secular historical Bible was regarded as a rich vein from method was not widely applied to the which doctrinal prooftexts were to be Bible on a large scale until several cen­ turies after the Reformation, its seeds were mined, with each word having the same already planted in the Renaissance and revelatory value independent of its his­ humanism, while at the same time the torical setting. The study of theology way was being cleared for a new recogni­ was for most a matter of systematically tion of the Bible's own view of history. treating a series of doctrinal loci rather than of tracing the historical process of But this rediscovery, prepared for in revelation and redemption. We are at­ their own way by both the Reformation tempting here not to caricature but to and Renaissance, was to be postponed while describe as accurately as possible one char­ scholars of classic orthodoxy developed acteristic aspect of the classic Orthodox other tendencies of the Reformation. In position, in the hope that its one-sidedness the light of our present understanding it must be admitted that Orthodoxy's ap­ in this respect will cause the essentials of proach to the Scriptures failed in this one 5 Ibid., pp.33, 66--69; Gustav Weth, Die important respect: it was unable to grasp Heilsgeschichte (Munich: Chr. Kaiser, 1931), the absolutely necessary role of history in pp.14-16. OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE 523

the Heilsgeschichte approach - which is fact, they felt it to be the only sure struc­ the subject of this essay - to stand out all ture on which to hang all that they knew the more clearly by contrast. of world history too. But the true signifi­ The other area in which a full appre­ cance of history as a theological factor had ciation of the aspect of history could have not yet dawned. It was not recognized that rendered a greater service to Orthodoxy the historical outlook of the Bible was was in the elaboration of the Reformation basic to its whole message. A new appre­ principle of justification through faith. We ciation of history, and of the particular must be eternally grateful for this essen­ view of history which permeates the Old tial and invaluable insight of the Refor­ and New Testaments, was doubtless stimu­ mation. The danger in any attempt to lated by the catalyst provided by the supplement and carry further the achieve­ renascence of the classical Greek view ments of the Reformation is that the depth of history and the new advances in secular of this personal aspect may be lost. Never­ historiography which this instigated. In the theless, the fact that particularly the later meantime Lutheran Orthodoxy, like all theologians were interested almost exclu­ other theological systems of the day, was sively in the individual ordo salutis led by denied this possibility of enriching its default to the impoverishment of the Bibli­ theology and grasping the Scriptural full­ cal witness in another direction. The Chris­ ness more completely. tian hope was narrowed into the hope of a At the same time, however, certain cir­ blessed death and resurrection for the indi­ cles, particularly in the Reformed camp, vidual believer. The reality of God's pres­ developed an interest in one Biblical con­ ence among men was depicted almost ex­ cept which proved to be a pointer toward clusively in its reference to the individual. the rediscovery of the Biblical view of The coming of God's kingdom was some­ history. Reformed theologians from the times reduced to an insignificant appendix very beginning had been conscious of the at the end of dogmatics, where it lent covenant idea and had recognized the fact a formal completeness to the system but that the Old Testament speaks of a suc­ had little to do with the essence of faith. cession of covenants which God made with Personal Heilsgeschichte, the working out men, culminating in the new covenant in of Law and Gospel in the individual's own Jesus Christ.7 This recognition helped life history, took precedence over the his­ make possible the discovery of the histori­ tory of God's dealings with all of mankind. cal process of revelation, by which God The Biblical view of history is needed to pulls back His hiddenness and discloses His balance this exaggerated individualism by nature and will to man step by step. The lifting the individual above himself and possibilities latent in this insight were first showing him his place in the church and expanded into a theology of history by society and history.6 7 Cf. Heinrich Heppe, Reformed Dogmatics, Of course, the Reformation and Ortho­ Set Out and IllttJtrated from the Sources, rev. doxy were aware of Biblical history. In and ed. Ernst Bizer, trans. G. T. Thomson (Lon­ don: George Allen & Unwin, 1950), pp.393 6 Weth, pp. 15£. to 409. 524 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE two men in the middle of the 17th cen­ human document, to be explained in terms tury, the one Reformed, and the other of secular history. God does not speak Lutheran. The former, Johannes Cocceius here, he argued, and only the New Testa­ (Koch) (1603-69) of Leyden, succeeded ment has any theological authority. in putting together the grander system, Cocceius shared with Grotius his interest known as the federal theology,8 which had in history but refused to try to get behind greater influence than that of the latter, and beyond the Bible's own record of Georg Calixt (1586-1656) of Helm­ events, as the latter irreverently did. In stedt.9 place of a humanistic, rationalistic recon­ Both these men had imbibed the concern struction of history, Cocceius only wished for history which was becoming more and to emphasize the historical structure at­ more dominant in the 17th-century thought tested by the Bible itself, i. e., the covenant world, and both saw, too, that the Bible history. He did, of course, make a clear in its own way speaks of a long historical distinction between the Old Testament and process. Apparently independently, since the new covenant in Christ, even to the neither of them mentions the other's work, point of admitting a certain defectus in they came to the conclusion that Ortho­ the former, since the New Testament ful­ doxy's fiat, nonhistorical approach to the :fillmenrwas not yet: fully knowable from Bible as a source of doctrine was not en­ the previous covenantso But instead of tirely appropriate to the Bible's own na­ denying all theological validity to the ture. Both maintained that God's prepara­ Scriptures of the old covenant, as Grotius tion of man's salvation and its disclosure had done, he holds that the predictions to man ought to be depicted as a suc­ of the Old Testament prophets served to cession of historical acts and not merely compensate for the defectus in these ear­ as a series of doctrinal loci. Both Cocceius lier covenants. For the Christian inter­ and Calixt connected this with the suc­ pretation of these prophecies, however, cessive covenants between God and man he finds it necessary to give typology an recorded in the Bible and declared this extensive role.lO Heilsgeschichte to be the overall theme The important contributions of Calixt of the Bible. and Cocceius may thus be summarized: But it is clear that, for Cocceius at least, Prompted by the rise of interest in the the chief opponent over against which the dimension of history among the humanistic new Heilsgeschichte approach stood was thinkers of their day, and cognizant of not a strong emphasis on static doctrina the difficulties and dangers in the non­ but rather the treatment which the Bible historical approach dominated by the idea had recently been receiving at the hands of doctrinal loci, they were the first to of Hugo Grotius. This Dutch scholar introduce a historical mode of theological treated the Old Testament as a purely thinking. At the same time they harked back to the Reformation's insistence on 8 Set out in his Summa doctrinae de joedere the sale authority of the literal, historical et testamento Dei (1648 and later editions) . 9 His book on the subject was De pactis 10 Based on the treatment of Cocceius in quae Deus cum hominibus iniit (1654). Kraus, pp. 49-51. OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE 525 sense of Scripture, allowing this to correct man Enlightenment. This movement com­ the almost completely doctrinal approach pletely engulfed all but the most con­ of Orthodox dogmatics as well as the servative Biblical interpreters, but by the overly rationalistic and humanistic ap­ same token it was preparing the way for proach of secular historical thought. In another great confrontation between spec­ the idea of covenant history they found ulative historical thought and the theology the threads of the theological history at­ of Heilsgeschichte. This confrontation tested in the Scriptures, the Heilsgeschichte reached its high point in the middle of running its course in the midst of and the 19th century with Von Hofmann. But above world history. first we must attempt to review the new It must, however, also be clearly seen scientific and philosophical thinking about that the historical structure which Calixt history which had by then come to the and Cocceius based on God's series of fore. covenants with man was not yet the under­ The great discovery made by the men standing of Heilsgeschichte developed in of the Enlightenment was the nature of the 19th and 20th centuries. The modern history. They learned to look at history understanding of organic development was as lying in the past and viewed from a still lacking in any real sense, as was also distance, so that it could be judged crit­ the a;vareness that history itself may can .. ically from t!.:;:; ;;~,;!;:.:.:.:.: :.: :::.::. present. stitute revelation. Their system, which was History is a detached object susceptible still fighting the battle with scholasticism, of scientific study. did not yet relate the faith of the indi­ But history so understood includes a vast vidual Christian in a conscious and vital number of separate happenings, utterly way to the sacred history. Their interest meaningless if seen only in isolation from in tracing God's activity through the course one another. Hence it was also a goal of of time has no inner connection with their this intellectual movement to discover the interest in the faith of the individual inner structure of history, the theme under Christian.l1 which the individual events of the past and present are united. Hegel's idealist IV. HEILSGESCHICHTE IN NINETEENTH­ philosophy of history was the answer ulti­ CENTURY BIBLICISM mately found for this problem in the early The federal theology of Cocceius re­ 19th century, and idealism also had its mained influential for several centuries in fateful consequences in the :field of Old certain circles, especially within the Re­ Testament studies. But it will be useful formed confession. But a great wave of to look first at a forerunner of Hegel's interest in history from a critical and great system for the understanding of scientific as well as from a speculative and history. philosophical point of view was sweeping over European thought in the era of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-81) Rationalism, and specifically in the Ger- was convinced, as was fashionable in his enlightened day, that the eternal truth of 11 Weth, pp. 17£. religion had only become clear to man in 526 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE

his own advanced generation. Rationalistic the originally theological idea of a "divine criticism had shown the historical relativ­ economy," but he turns it to humanistic ity of the Bible, against the delusions of ends. In place of the Biblical, Orthodox Protestant Orthodoxy. It was impossible pattern of a history of salvation we are that the Biblical witnesses, bound as they offered a rationalistic, speculative system were to their historical time and therefore based on the historical understanding of completely untrustworthy, could carry eter­ the era of EnlightenmentP nal truth in its purity. True religion of Lessing's portrayal of human progress as course had been in existence from the following a divine plan of education toward beginning; but that only demonstrates how greater knowledge of eternal truth becomes little it is bound to the words of the Bible. the starting point for the Hegelian system But is there no positive relationship at of history known as Idealism. Georg Wil­ all between eternal truth and the religious helm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) documents of the past? Lessing answers bridged the chasm which Lessing had that there is indeed, and he constructs seen between the eternal truth of reason a speculative system to explain that rela­ and that lower form of truth which is tionship. This all-embracing system com­ historically conditioned and limited. He­ pares the whole of human history to the gel's massive system has at its very apex ~lPbringing of an individual. The title of the "Absolute Spirit." But unlike Lessing's his book expresses the basic metaphor: "eternal truth," which had no very close "The education of the human race." 12 connection with the actual course of his­ Mankind's gradual education is brought tory, the Absolute Spirit is continually about by revelation, whereby God leads the unfolding itself within history. All of human race through all the stages of past history is a living process of becoming; and present toward ever more perfect it is a growing organism, developing toward knowledge of the eternal truth. The en­ the goal of complete maturity. Even con­ tire process is carried out according to tradiction and conflict are seen as neces­ God's wise plan, the "divine economy." sary parts of the whole process, for it is The Bible has its special place in this only through this "dialectic" that the Spirit divine program of education, for it was the is able to reach a higher level of unity as chosen people of God that enjoyed His it moves toward the attainment of absolute special attention in their upbringing. But knowledge. The possibilities open to the at the same time the other nations were individual within history are strictly lim­ going their own way by the light of reason. ited by the stage of development in which A few of these achieved a high degree of his particular time and community finds self-education, while most remained rough itself. and unpolished. In this way Lessing is able to retain a position for the Bible Hegel's philosophy of history was intro­ while at the same time casting the net duced into Old Testament studies by his of his system much wider. He works with pupil, Wilhelm Vatke (1806-82) . In his major work on the Old Testament 12 Die Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts (1780). 13 Kraus, pp. 111-114. OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE 527

religion 14 he attempted to show the course Julius Wellhausen (1844-1918), whose taken by the Absolute Spirit through the speculative reconstruction of Israelite his­ living processes of history. The innum­ tory along evolutionary lines has held a erable chance truths of history are to be commanding influence over the general connected with the eternal truth of reason; understanding of the Old Testament until the one involves the minutiae of historical quite recently. criticism, the other the "total view." Vatke's Contemporary with the line of philo­ goal is a connected "history of religion" sophical development just depicted, there which can be presented as a continuum of was also a succession of Christian thinkers development without gaps. The task of who can be seen as the direct predecessors Biblical theology, as he understands it, is of the 19th-century Heilsgeschichte theo­ to analyze and record the way in which logians. These men and their characteristic the "idea of religion" has manifested itself ideas regarding the history of God's reve­ in the religious phenomena of history. lation can be treated only very briefly in The manner in which the true religion is this study, despite their importance for the grasped and conceptualized depends in development of the idea which we are each instance on the level of development tracing.16 then attained. Religious myth plays a large Founder of th1s rather closely knit school part here as one of the most widespread of thought is the Swab ian pietist Johann and important conceptual forms which the Albrecht Bengel (1687-1752), famous as idea of religion takes. Vatke attempts to an exegete for his Gnomon Novi Testa­ write a history of these many individual menti.n He directs the Christian to see conceptual forms and the religious aware­ not only his individual situation as re­ ness which each reflects. But at the same deemed by Christ but also the whole, uni­ time, in true Idealist fashion, he considers versal administration of history by God, these to be only the bearers or repre­ the "divine economy" by which He is sentatives of the real, universal idea of bringing the kingdom of God into being. religion. Thus the history which Vatke Bengel is strongly interested in eschatology, writes is actually "no real history." His is including chiliasm, as the goal of God's an outspokenly docetic, nonreal under­ direction of history. But it must be said standing of history, since it has to do that his interest lies chiefly in the formal throughout with only the symbols of the structure of history and that this has little true spiritual reality.15 direct relationship to the Christian's per­ sonal assurance of salvation. The fateful importance of Vatke's intro­ Closely connected with Bengel was Frie­ duction of the Hegelian system of history drich Christoph Oetinger ( 1702-82) , into Old Testament studies is seen in the fascination which this system held for 16 The contributions and mutual connections of the men about to be mentioned are succinctly 14 Die biblische T heologie, tl!issenschaftlich overviewed in Weth, pp. 17-43, on which the dargestellt: Die Religion des Alten Testaments following account is based. nach den kanonischen Buchern emwickelt 17 First published in 1742. His study of the (1835) . theology of history is presented in Ordo tem­ 15 Kraus, pp. 179-182. porum (1741). 528 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE who provided the theology of history with an academic professorship, Christian Au­ a philosophical foundation, although his gust Crusius (1715-75) . He believed system 18 was concerned more with the that there is a history of heaven and hell, Bible's concepts than with its history. both understood in a real, spatial sense, paralleling the Heilsj;eschichte on earth.21 Philipp Matthaeus Hahn (1739-90) sets - - forth a kenotic Christology, taken up again The most original and advanced thinkers by some of the later Heilsgeschichte theo­ among those who may be classed as early logians, and a "theology of heaven" as the representatives of the theology of history real source and goal of the sacred history. are Hamann and Wizenmann. Johann A complete presentation of the Biblical Georg Hamann (1733-88) held 22 that history, after the manner of Bengel, was Christianity has to do with God's gracious laid out again by Magnus Friedrich Roos activity rather than with moralism, and (1727-1803) .19 He found the unity of with historical truths of the living God creation and redemption to lie in Christ, valid for a particular time rather than and his theology was more Biblical and with the eternal truths of human rational­ less speculative than that of Oetinger and ism. God's condescension to man in the Hahn. Scriptures and in historical events is com­ The theologians already mentioned all pared with the Incarnation. TIle man from this group who repre­ belon5"-~ ,"v ,,:...'" ",;~:, ~u.:," group of SVla­ bians around Bengel. Their influence, sented the most thoroughgoing theology of however, extended also to other German­ history and who most fully anticipated the speaking areas. One such circle centered 19th-century developments in Heilsge­ in Duisburg in the Rhineland, under the schichte was Thomas Wizenmann (1759 leadership of a physician and lay theolo­ to 87), also a Swabian.23 He believed in gian, Samuel Collenbusch (1724-1803). the unity of true philosophy and genuine His most important follower and inter­ theology; but this is possible only when preter was Gottfried Menken ( 1768 to knowledge other than that which is veri­ 1831) of Bremen, who succeeded in basing fiable through the senses is excluded. Thus personal faith on the events and goals of Wizenmann was against all rationalistic, sacred history.20 In the midst of this vale speculative, and moralistic systems. God is of tears a Christian whose faith is grounded not an idea, the result of thought, but a in Scripture detects God's hidden ruling 21 His ideas were presented in the Hypomne­ and longs for the eschatological establish­ mata ad theologiam propheticam (1764-78). ment of the heavenly kingdom. Further 22 Especially in his polemical pamphlet Got­ to the east, in Leipzig, lived the only man gatha und Scheblimini (1784). On Hamann in this early Heilsgeschichte group to hold see, besides Weth, pp.32-35, also Kraus, pp. 103-105.

18 Designated as a "Philosophie der bib­ 23 Wizenmann's ideas on the subject were lischen GrundbegrifJe." expressed in his GOttliche Entwicklung des Satans durch das Menschengeschlecht (1782), 19 In his Einleitung in die biblischen Ge­ against Lessing; Die Resultate der Jakobischen schichten (177 4) . und der Mendelssohnschen Philosophie (1786); 20 In Versuch einer Anleitung zum eigenen and especially the uncompleted Die Geschichte Unterricht in der Heiligen Schri/t (1805). Jesu nach dem Matthdus (1789). OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE 529 living Being who brings about a real re­ proach to history championed by philos­ lationship to Himself by a process of ophers such as Lessing and Hegel and the history. This history is the primary thing, beginnings of a theological history of reve­ and the testimony to it given by the lation, we are now prepared to discuss the Scriptures is ~Jready one step removed; high point of HeiLrgeschichte theology at­ theology must be interested primarily in tained in the middle third of the 19th the former rather than in the lattet.24 century. With Johann Tobias Beck and It is worth noting once more that the Johann Christian Konrad von Hofmann succession of men just portrayed as the we are faced with a truly new era in the 18th-century forerunners of Heilsgeschichte development of a theology of history, one theology were almost all at home in the which cannot be understood without some Pietistic movement, although they form knowledge of both the streams of thought a special direction within that trend. This which we have described. While Beck means that they shared much common and Von Hofmann were of course very ground with Orthodoxy and confessional directly indebted to the school of thought theology; yet they opposed the nonhistor­ beginning with Bengel, their system of ical, doctrine-centered thinking of Ortho­ Heilsgeschichte also owes a great deal, dox dogmatics and also its a pnori inspi­ even if largely negatively, to the idealist ration theory and its one-sided emphasis philosophies of history set forth by Hegel on the individual. and his contemporary Friedrich Wilhelm On the other hand, this group certainly Joseph von Schelling (1775-1854) in the felt itself more basically and bitterly op­ first third of that century. Other influences posed to the thinking of the Enlighten­ which make themselves felt in the theol­ ment, with its enthronement of human ogy of Beck and Von Hofmann, such as reason above all else, its moralism detached the emphasis on personal experience and from the revelation of God's grace, its religious self-consciousness promoted by criticism of Biblical history, and especially Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834) its claim to possess a natural religion of or the renewal of interest in Reformation "eternal truth." It would, of course, have and confessional theology following the been impossible for these men to have tercentenary of the Reformation in 1817, totally escaped the influences of the era need only be mentioned in passing for our of Rationalism, and some of their attitudes purposes, since we are here interested toward history were recognizably molded primarily in the understanding of history by the spirit of the age. Nevertheless, they in their thought. consciously felt a gulf of separation be­ Beck and Von Hofmann are certainly tween rationalistic thought and their own. the chief representatives of the theology After tracing both the speculative ap- of Heilsgeschichte in the 19th century, and we shall look at their systems in consider­ 24 This tendency to relegate the Scriptures themselves to a lesser importance than that en­ able detail. But in no way did they stand joyed by history is also met with later. The alone among their contemporaries. Par­ problem seems to be solved, however, by the way in which some of the modern proponents ticularly Carl August Auberlen (1824 to of Heilsgeschichte speak of the Word. 64), professor at Basel, deserves mention 530 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE

on the same level, for he, too, developed Righteous One. This heavenly realm pene­ a full system based on the Heilsgeschichte. trates into the history of lost, sinful man­ But the 19th century was in general the kind in the form of a special sacred his­ "great century for history," and of those tory, the purpose of which is to guide who still believed in divine revelation at mankind over the centuries into the eter­ all many accepted the Heilsgeschichte ap­ nal kingdom. God Himself does not actu­ proach to the Scriptures in whole or in ally enter human history in order to effect part. Nevertheless, it was Beck and Von this, but He works rather through a "world­ Hofmann, along with Auberlen, who gave immanence" centering in Christ, who is their theological systems the specific char­ the Son and the Logos, active both in acter of a history of revelation and who creation and in redemption. wove the many individual thoughts con­ The salvation wrought through Christ is cerning the theology of history into a described in terms of the righteousness of system which was able to combine dog­ God. On earth it takes the form of an matic, exegetical, and historical studies incipient new creation affecting both body into a higher unity.25 and soul and bringing about an ethical Beck, professor at Tiibingen, was on the transformation. The ultimate goal is one hand a mediating theologian, not ba­ reached only in eternity, but already within sically interested in dogmatic and confes­ history it begins to take form in a gradual sional distinctions, and on the Other hand process of development brought about by a Biblicist, convinced that the Bible itself an unfolding of revelation. The eternal is sufficient as an objective norm for theol­ religion of truth makes its effective way ogy, over against confessionalism as well among the false religions in "systematic as Schleiermacher's subjectivism.26 As far progress" toward the goal of complete as his theology of history is concerned, Beck righteousness. Beck likes to describe this was a true successor of the earlier Swabian development by analogy with the processes line begun with Bengel. Beck himself also of growth in nature. recognized certain influences from Hegel, By the coming of Jesus the previous though he became increasingly critical of revelations of both grace and wrath were the Hegelian philosophy. united into a "higher principle of right­ The starting point for Beck's theology eousness." Jesus is the Righteous One, is the kingdom of God, which he under­ who makes the world righteous. The goal stands not as an earthly entity but as both of mankind as a whole and of the heavenly, existing from all eternity as the individual Christian is the attainment of one true reality. The most important char­ righteousness. It must be made clear that acteristic of the kingdom of God is right­ for Beck this is attained not so much by eousness, for God Himself is the essentially God's declaring the sinner righteous for the sake of Jesus Christ (the Christus 20 So Weth, p. 55. pro nobis of confessional Lutheranism) as 26 O. W. Heick, History 0/ Protestant The­ by God's rendering him more and more ology, Vol. II, in ]. 1. Neve, A History 0/ Chris­ tian Thought (Philadelphia: Muhlenberg, righteous, in a process not to be com­ 1946), p. 146. pleted until the heavenly kingdom is OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE 531 reached. Thus Beck lays much stress on school itself. His original conversion in­ ethics, although he agrees that perfection troduced him to a nonconfessional and is not possible in this world. very personal type of Christianity, although Parallel with the processes of history with strong Biblical and historical interests. stands the Dible, not simply as a document Only later did he consciously turn to testifying to the history of revelation, but Lutheranism. As a student, the influence itself constituting revelation. The Bible of the great historian Leopold von Ranke too is a living, organic whole, a complete (1795-1886) drew him into the study system. Biblical concepts therefore are to of history. be studied not only in connection with All this makes Von Hofmann an espe­ selected individual passages, but by syn­ cially many-sided and independent repre­ thesizing all Biblical statements about the sentative of the theology of history. He subject into a "total concept." differs from those already treated in that In summary, Beck's system postulates he adds to their concerns the factors of a real, transcendental kingdom of God as personal religious experience as a source both the effective power and the goal from which to unfold one's theology (d. behind a planned, organically developing Schleiermacher) and a stronger Lutheran history of revelation and an individual consciousness. Partly because of these fac­ Chris,iuH :::e with an ethical emphasis.27 tors his was the one true HEILSgeschichte theology, because he was more interested Von Hofmann was the foremost expo­ than they in salvation as the content of nent of the famous Erlangen school of the history of revelation. In fact, it is theology. This means that he was con­ sciously concerned with the Lutheran con­ only with Von Hofmann that we find an fessional heritage. The Erlangen theolo­ extensive use of the term Heilsgeschichte. gians, among whom were also Harless, For Von Hofmann 29 Heilsgeschichte be­ Thomasius, Franz Delitzsch, and others, gins in the eternal will of God, which were out to achieve "a new way to present desires to bring man into communion with the old truth," i. e., a creative synthesis of Himself. It is this which brings God to the Lutheran heritage with the new learn­ act in human history. We cannot know ing.28 Von Hofmann himself was a product or describe God independently from his­ of the reaction of religious thinkers against tory, but only as the One who is actively the dominant rationalism in the first half working in history. Like Beck, Von Hof­ of the 19th cenrury, as was the Erlangen mann understands the course of history as

27 This summary is paraphrased from Weth, 29 His system is presented primarily in these p.72. Cf. ibid., pp.72-81, for Beck's entire three works: Weissagung und Er/ullung (1841 system; also Kraus, pp. 191-196. Beck himself to 1844); Der Schri/tbeweis (1852-56); and presented his theology of history in Einleitung Biblische Hermeneutik, ed. posthumously by in das System del' christlichen Lehre (2d ed., W. Volek (1880), trans. as Interpreting the 1870) and in many other works. Bible (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1959). George 28 Heick, p. 131. The quotation alludes to Stoeckhardt, a prominent exegete of The Lu­ the title of Von Hofmann's work, Schutzschriften theran Church - Missouri Synod, reflected the fur eine neue Weise, alte Wahrheit zu lehren influence of his teacher, Von Hoffmann, through­ (1856 and following). out his life. 532 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE

an organic process of growth and develop­ reality. In His own person He depicts the ment. It has a strongly teleological and new attitude of man toward God (He eschatological character, since it is moving humbled Himself even unto death) and of toward an eternal consummation. Hence God toward man (He was raised and Von Hofmann devotes much attention to exalted to perfect communion with God the problem of prophecy and fulfillment. the Father). Salvation comes through this All of history is a prophecy, and all of humiliated and exalted Chtist by His me­ history is at the same time a fuHillment. diation of personal communion with God As history unfolds, its meaning becomes to the congregation of those who believe more and more clear in both these respects. in Him. He is the pledge to them that Everything in history is in itself an activity this communion will become a perfect one of God, but it also looks toward God's in eternity, toward which the final history ultimate activity; and everything in his­ of the world is moving by stages. tory is fulfillment, but only partially so, This divine system of history is to be for it still longs for the ultimate fulfillment. derived out of the Scriprures, which con­ Each individual phenomenon in history stitute the "literary monument" of the stands at a particular stage in the de­ sacred history. It is the Heilsgeschichte velopment of the Heilsgeschichte, and rhus itself that is primary. The Scriptures are its meaning is relative to that stage. Man's seconda_l' _: __ ~_:thful depc:_ ~: .:"" his­ capacity for understanding God's words torical development of revelation. The or deeds at a specific point in time is proof of their inspiration lies in the fact conditioned by the education and develop­ that every utterance they record and every ment thtough which he has previously deed they report is seen to have its neces­ been led by God. This applies to prophecy sary place in the development of the through historical event, but equally also Heilsgeschichte and thus is proved to be to prophecy by word, which never goes beyond the prophetic content of the his­ of God. In his treatment of the Bible torical events with which it is associated. as a thoroughly and specifically historical book, Von Hofmann is the most consistent The coming of Jesus Chtist marks the and logical of all the theologians of reve­ "beginning of the consummation." All lation-history so far considered. earlier history in event and word is aimed at this target, and all further history goes The Heilsgeschichte is, according to Von out from it. Christ Himself, as eternal God Hofmann, closely related to the faith of and the power effective in history, was the individual Christian, for as a member the center of history already before His of mankind he is drawn into the history incarnation, so that the advance informa­ of the developing communion between tion about Him in the Old Testament may God and mankind. He is made a member be described as information which He of the church, within which this history Himself supplied. As the prototype of the takes place. Thus the individual Christian goal toward which the world is moving, feels himself completely surrounded by Chtist is the means by which communion this history and by the promised future, between God and man becomes historical so that he sees his own experience of OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE 533

regeneration as an integral part of it. In pathetic to the Erlangen school and con­ fact, it is also possible, as Von Hofmann tinued to plead for a "supranaturalism" demonstrates, to proceed in the opposite in Biblical history.51 direction when setting up the theological Otherwise the latter half of the 19th system. Beginning with his own experi­ century must be characterized as the era ence of the reality of God's communion of Religionsgeschichte and of the problem with him in Christ, the theologian can of "religion" in general. The fast-growing unfold the entire history of revelation in body of knowledge about other religions its essential features. Although this prin­ and the recognition that these can be ciple reflects the influence of Schleier­ properly studied as purely historical and macher, Von Hofmann does not have in cultural phenomena led scholars to ap­ mind the theologian's subjective feelings proach the Old Testament records on the but the factual evidences of God's working same level. The thought of divine reve­ in the individual through Christ, which lation falls out of the picture, and the are seen to point to the same history of developmental theory is applied every­ God's activity as that known from the where in such a way as to make all re­ Bible or from the church's theological ligions the product of human evolution. conSCiOusness. Scholarly diligence is expended on the The essential content of Von Hofmann's psychology, sociology, and history of re­ theology of history may thus be SlLll1- ligions, with little thought left for the marized: It has to do with the Heils­ divine element in which a theology of the geschichte of a communion between God Bible is interested. Studies in "Israelite and man, mediated through Christ and religion" consciously eliminate the theme realized in progressive historical stages; of Heilsgeschichte. On such a basis it was this Heilsgeschichte is experienced as a no longer possible to trace a real unity certainty and a unity in the individual's in the Old Testament, but only successive own regeneration, documented in the Scrip­ periods, each with its own level of re­ tures, and made a reality in the historical church.sO ligion separated from the others. But as the 19th century drew to a close, V. THE TwENTIETH-CENTIJRY a few scholars began to search tentatively RENASCENCE OF HEILSGESCHICHTE for a new theological, heilsgeschichtlich THOUGHT orientation toward Old Testament studies. Soon after the time of Beck and Von This was done with much reservation be­ Hofmann, thinking in terms of a Biblical cause the results of the study of religion Heilsgeschichte went into almost complete as a many-sided human phenomenon had eclipse among scholarly theologians. Only to be taken into account even when its the great Old Testament professor at Leip­ humanistic bias was renounced. Hence it zig, Franz Delitzsch (1813-90), was sym- was now impossible simply to reinstate

30 Based on Weth, pp.81, 92. Von Hof­ 31 Especially in his "last testament," Mes­ mann's entire system is presented in Weth, pp. sianische Weissagungen in geschichtliche1' Polge 81-94; also in Kraus, pp.207-210. (1890). See Kraus, pp.210-221. 534 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE

the grand, unified system of 19th-century a number of scholars had become inter­ Heilsgeschichte as a straight-line advance ested in the new search for theological toward God's goal for history. orientation in Old Testament studies. Justus Koberle (1871-1908) was one A group of them began the Kommentar of the first voices of this post-Religiom­ zum Alten T estameJZt, under the editorship geschichte interest in the theological aspect of Ernst Sellin. It was to combine a good of the Old Testament.32 He proposed that foundation in historical criticism and the belief in an actual revelation by God does methods of Religiomgeschichte with a not exclude recognition of a human history "theological direction of sight." Some of of Israel's religion. In fact, the reality of the men associated with this work were revelation can be demonstrated, though Paul Volz, Otto Procksch, Rudolf Kittel, only to faith, by careful study of the Albrecht Alt, and Friedrich Baumgartel. connected workings in all aspects of Israel's Outside the field of Old Testament schol­ history. Comparison with data concerning arship itself there was further discussion the religions of the nations surrounding taking place on the question raised by Israel will only make the fact of revelation Adolf von Harnack (1851-1930) when all the more clear. God's revelatory work he asked whether the Old Testament with shows itself in Israel's life by that nation's all irs very human history and embarrassing peculi;u historil:_~ . --Ices, by the pe­ stories shodd any longer be retained by culiar prophetic interpretation given to the church as part of its Holy Scriptures. these, and by the peculiar way in which The question seemed to pass by the Old this interpretation affected the life and Testament scholars quite unheeded, but religion of the whole nation. In contrast a circle of New Testament theologians, to the 19th-century Heilsgeschichtler, Ko­ gathering around Martin Kahler (1835 berle does not feel compelled to emphasize to 1912)34 and his pupil Hans Emil Weber the unity of God's revelatory process or (1882-1950) ,35 took up the cudgels. In­ to exaggerate the material connections fluenced by the 19th-century Heilsge­ within Israel's history. An impression of schichtler, they went farther yet in empha­ the uni[y arises by itself, he holds, as the sizing the close relationship between God's endless variety of the different persons and revelation and all the events of human periods of the Old Testament is studied. history. The stress is no longer on the Thus the study of human Religionsge­ Heilsgeschichte as an unbroken continuum schichte and theological Heilsgeschichte of suprahistory imposed from above on are to be combined.33 man's daily struggles. Instead, Kahler likes to point to the analogy between the in­ By the beginning of World War I carnation of Christ and the "inhistoriation"

32 Cf. his "Heilsgeschichdiche und religions­ (Geschichtswerdung) of God's salvation geschichtliche Betrachtungsweise des Alten Testa­ (Heil). Jesus is not a supernatural being ments," Neue Kirchliche Zeitschrift, (1906), pp.200ft.; and Sunde und Gnade im religiosen 34 Cf. his essays "Zur Bibelfrage" in Vol. I Leben des Volkes Israel bis auf Christum of Dogmatische Zeitfragen (2d ed., 1907). (1905) . 35 In his Bibelglaube und historisch-kritische 33 Kraus, pp.345-347. Schriftforschung (1913). OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE 535 who merely appears to be a man (docet­ theology of the Word via a conservative, ism), but He is God joined with human confessional background. His trammg flesh in one divine-human person. Just thoroughly acquainted him with the meth­ so, God's perpetual incarnation includes ods and results of historical criticism, and His condescension in bringing His salvific he continues to recognize their validity in acts right down into the thick of man's his system. But from this position, directly own world and in revealing His salvation in the midst of the scholarly theological plans in the processes of man's own his­ world, he stood up and pointed to a single tOry. At the same time Kahler upholds the factor which could bring fresh understand­ continuity of this developing revelation ing to all areas of contemporary theology: from God's point of view; thus Jesus can the Word of God. The Bible, so long refer to the Old Testament as testifying understood as a musty document of re­ to Himself, regardless of the historically ligion and piety, was now seen to have conditioned situation of its witnesses.36 a power within itself. Sooner or later it A Biblical and theological position related brings the reader face to face with the to Kahler's was that of Adolf Schlatter Word to him from God - from God who (1852-1938) . is the Wholly Other, not a mere product Incomparably more influential than Kah­ of the human mind. This Word steps Out ler's school was the fiC. .:leological in~ of a history long past and creates a new terest in the Scriptures stirred up in the history in which the reader or hearer him­ years between the two world wars by self is directly involved. To be sure, the Karl Barth (b. 1886).37 Barth is no Bible is a very human document, a product Heilsgeschichtler; at times, in fact, he of its own time in history, and this is speaks against the Heilsgeschichte approach what makes historical criticism of it both when he wants to emphasize the fact that possible and necessary. But it has a very the Bible confronts us with the living special content, and this is what its authors God in our own present existence, here were interested in and what still grips us and now. Yet his influence has been today. Exegesis must work in the recog­ largely responsible for an upsurge of con­ nition that this material was a testimony cern in recent times for the Bible's theo­ to God' s Word in the past and can again logical content, and this in turn has pro­ now become such a testimony. Hence vided the climate in which many scholars proper exegesis can take place only within can again speak of Heilsgeschichte. Fur­ the church.3s Barth's theology of the Word thermore, some areas of Barth's interest are brought to Old Testament circles a much close to those with which the Heilsge­ stronger emphasis on the genuinely "theo­ schichte approach is directly involved. logical" aspect of the Scriptures. What Significantly, Barth did not come to his God has done and still does came more into focus again after many years of one­ 36 Kraus, pp.353-355. sided attention to the purely human ele­ 37 Works specifically on the Bible as God's Word include Das Wort Gottes und die T he­ ments in history and religion. ologie (1925), and his Kirchliche Dogmatik, Vol. I, Part 2 (3d ed., 1945). 38 Kraus, pp. 378-382. 536 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE

Parallel to Barth's new theological em­ to a high point in the appreciation of the phasis, and partly stimulated by it, there Old Testament's divine message. The Old was between the two world wars a gen­ Testament was discovered anew by many eral revival of interest in the theology of as the book of God's pilgrim people, on the Reformation. One voice among many the march in the midst of idolatry and was that of Wilhelm Vischer (b. 1895) ,39 judgment but continually being granted who carried Barth's insights regarding the the privilege of hearing the voice of the Word of God in the church even farther living God. This experience, too, helped and demanded a return to the Reforma­ bring German scholarship to the point tion's understanding of the Old Testament where a theology of ReiZsgeschichte could as a witness to Christ. The Christian make a new appearance after World War church, he said, stands or falls by its II, on a broader base than ever before.41 recognition of the unity between the two The extent of the change that has oc­ Testaments, for the decisive element in the curred can be measured by the frequency apostolic proclamation was that Jesus is with which the word ReiZsgeschichte itself the Messiah of the Old Testament. An is now used in a completely positive sense honest philological and historical exegesis by respectable theologians writing in Ger­ of the Old Testament should show that man (and recently even in English!). It Jesus is actually the hidden import of must be !lCmemblCred that from. the time those writings. Like Barth, Vischer called the term was introduced by Von Hofmann for a strictly scientific, historical study of until at least the thirties of this century, the texts, even though such studies them­ ReiZsgeschichte denoted for all but a small selves are relative and absolute validity group of scholars a thoroughly outmoded, can never be ascribed to them. And he unscientific, and uncritical methodology. recognized that modern research has helped It is true that the emphasis on ReiZs­ us read the Old Testament writings with geschichte still is rejected by an important a better understanding of their history and group of theologians, but now it is done of their own special character. Such studies from the point of view of the existentialist are necessary if we are to do justice to theology championed by Rudolf Bulttnann. the fact that God spoke His Word in This rejection of the term reflects a new particular historical circumstances.4o and basic cleavage on the modern scene, Prepared in advance by Barth, Vischer, and learned exponents of both sides have and the revival of Reformation insights, wide followings. the German Evangelical Church then ex­ Within the limits of this article, we perienced the Kirchenkampf, the persecu­ can refer only to some of the most im­ tion and temptation to apostasy under portant of our German contemporaries who National Socialism (1933-45). The ex­ operate with a theology of ReiZsgeschichte, perience of the church under the cross led as well as to several of the voices now being heard on our side of the Atlantic. 39 Vas Christuszeugnis des Alten Testaments, We shall first introduce the men and then Vol. I (3d ed., 1936).

40 Kraus, pp. 387-389. 41 Ibid., pp. 389, 392-394. OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE 537 sketch in rather broad terms the modern the preparation of a major new commen­ understanding of Heilsgeschichte. tary series, the Biblischer Kommentar~ As author of one of the first and most Altes Testament,47 the ultimate goal of influential of the newer theologies of the which is to contribute to the church's­ Old Testament which reflect an interest in understanding and proclamation of its the history of revelation we must mention message. Walther Eichrodt of Basel.42 The only The first American scholar to make him­ other modern Old Testament theology self heard internationally on the theolog­ which rivals his in scope is that of Gerhard ical meaning of history in the Old Testa­ von Rad of Heidelberg.43 Several non­ ment is G. Ernest Wright of Harvard. German works along similar lines are those More recent contributions by James M. by the Dutch Old Testament scholar Theo­ Robinson and many others could be men­ dorus Christiaan Vriezen 44 and the French tioned.48 Protestant Edmond Jacob045 A basic facet of common agreement We must also refer to a debate on Old among all those who work positively with Testament hermeneutics carried on since the concept of Heilsgeschichte is their 1952 in the pagpc rot c<,,,pr~ 1 ;r",;o,,~ 15, not- interest in sel n of the ably Evangelische Theologie. While many church today, This is an interest which important contributions to the question of they share with the Heilsgeschichte theo­ Heilsgeschichte have been made in this logians of a century ago, but it was not series, we shall mention only Von Rad, a strong motive among most of the "sci­ Martin Noth, Walther Zimmerli, Claus entific" Old Testament scholars from the Westermann, and Friedrich Baumgarte1.46 19th century up to World War II. No Some of these men are also involved in present-day scholar of the Heilsgeschichte orientation would, of course, be willing to 42 Theologie des Alten Testaments, 5th edo violate his scientific conscience as he serves (Stuttgart: Ehrenfried Klotz, 1957-1961). Available in English under the title, Theology his church, but it is significant nevertheless of the Old Testament, trans. J. A Baker (Lon­ that the Heilsgeschichte viewpoint has don: SCM Press, 1961-). come to have complete academic respect­ 43 Theologie des Alten Testaments (Munich: ability. The factors mentioned earlier, and Chr. Kaiser, 1958-60). Available in English undoubtedly others as well, have opened under the title, Old Testament Theology,. trans. D. M. G. Stalker (New York: Harper, 1962 the minds of scholars to the possibility to? ). of a belief in divine revelation and specifi­ 44 An Outline of Old Testament Theology, cally to the Old Testament's revelatory transo S. Neuijen (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, content. And since the Old Testament has 1958) . a divine message, the Biblical scholar has 45 Theology of the Old Testament, trans. Arthur W. Heathcote and Philip J. Allcock the obligation to aid the church in uncover­ (New York: Harper, 1958)0 ing and interpreting ito 46 Articles by these and others have now been brought together in Essays on Old Testa­ 47 Neukirchen: Verlag des Erziehungsvereins, ment Hermeneutics, edo Claus Westermann, 1956 and followingo translation ed. James Luther Mays (Richmond: 48 Titles by these men will be mentioned i~ John Knox Press, 1963). later footnotes. 538 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE

A further result of the same trend of divine reality becoming manifest 1fi his­ thought is the rise of interest in throwing tory." 52 Von Rad holds that off presuppositions and getting at the Old The faith of Israel is on principle founded Testament's own message as far as this is upon a theology of history. It understands possible. The decades of research in com­ itself to be based on historical events, and paring the Old Testament with other an­ to have been formed and reformed by cient records have also been leading in this facts in which it saw Yahweh's hand at work. Even the predictions of the proph­ direction. Scholars now wish to point up ets speak of events, the only difference not only the common ground uniting the being that they lie in the time ahead of Old Testament with the phenomena of the witness instead of behind him.53 other ancient religions but also the pecu­ It ought to be clear, however, that his­ liarities of the former which set it apart torical events have no theological signifi­ from all other religious literature.49 Any cance by themselves; they need to be inter­ reconstruction, it is now agreed, must work preted. The hand of God in human affairs out from what the materials themselves say is not literally visible or tangible to the and must be wholly appropriate to them.50 objective observer. But when a word from This requires a radical ~'illingness to listen God is heard before, during, or after the to the text before making conclusions. event, then the revelatory meaning of the One conclusion which is now almost event becomes clear and can be either be­ universally accepted on the basis of careful lieved or rejected. Thus even Wright, who attention to the text's own message is that otherwise stresses event over word, can say history is an absolutely fundamental in­ In the Bible every historical event is al­ terest of the Old Testament itself. This ways interpreted by the historian and the conviction could be documented almost at prophet, by those who were present at the random from the writings of the men time and by the successive generations of under discussion. Thus Jacob writes, "The religious worshipers in the community of 54 special characteristic of Biblical revelation faith. is that God binds Himself to historical Eichrodt cautions against isolating God's events to make them the vehicle of the activity in history from the witness of manifestation of His purpose." 51 Eichrodt faith which interpreted it and responded similarly declares that the Biblical revela­ to it in spoken and written words. At the tion is of such a nature that it "proclaims same time he insists that the primary im­ not a closed totality of doctrine but a portance of historical facts must be stressed as a corrective against the misuse of the 49 Cf. the significant title as well as the con­ tent of G. Ernest Wright's srndy, The Old Testa­ 52 Theologie (see fn. 42), I, 343. Transla­ ment Against Its Environment (see above, tion by present writer. fn. 2). 53 Theologie (see fn. 43), I, 112. Transla­ 50 Sachgemass is a favorite adjective express­ tion by present writer. ing this concern for an approach that is ap­ 54 G. Ernest Wright and Reginald H. Fuller, propriate to the narnre of the materials. The Book of the Acts of God (Garden City, 51 Theology (see fn. 45), p. 188. N. Y.: Doubleday, 1960), p. 11. OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE 539

Old Testament as a source book for a criticism in his day. But today's historical propositional system of doctrine.55 criticism is no longer so exclusively "nega­ Martin Noth goes to extreme lengths in tive," and its vastly improved and expanded making a clear division between the his­ techniques are capable of being used by torical event and the interpretive Word. those who in no way share the philosoph­ His very important work on Israel's history ical bias of its earlier exponents. Present­ is told in completely human terms, with no day Heilsgeschichte theologians all under­ theological or suprahistorical components stand themselves as modern heirs of his­ whatsoever. At the same time, he explicitly torical criticism, and such men as Gerhard recognizes that in Israel's history (as in von Rad and Martin Noth had already any other) there is much that simply can­ gained worldwide fame as critical scholars not be explained scientifically, for lack of before their views on Heilsgeschichte were evidence. 56 But in another study, which clarified. The principles of historical crit­ goes into the theological implications of icism are part of the scholarly conscience the fact that Israel was totally immersed of these men, and they find themselves in and conditioned by the history of its unable to deny their applicability to such times, Noth makes it clear that he sees a totally historical book as the Old Testa­ the actual revelation of God imparted ment. by the word that accompanies the event This openness toward both historical rather than by the event itself. The inter­ criticism and the Old Testament message pretation of a piece of history is not that God has revealed Himself in history immediately obvious; it must be given by would seem to raise a difficult problem. God. Here Noth very appropriately quotes What about the obvious discrepancies be­ Luke 8:10.57 tween the two pictures of Israel's history? Since the events reported in the Old Von Rad states the problem very acutely,58 Testament as well as the very words them­ but sidesteps it by deciding that as theo­ selves are part of real history, it is agreed logians we are interested only in the Old on all sides that both are fully subject to Testament's kerygma about God's activity modern critical-historical scholarship. This in history, that is, the theological inter­ is an area in which the modern Heils­ pretation of its meaning and not in the geschichtler deviates from his 19th-century way history actually happened according namesake, who stood in conscious oppo­ to the modern view. Nevertheless he is sition to the practitioners of historical able to say, 55 Theologie, I, vii. Also the "kerygmatic" picture - and that 56 Martin Noth, Geschichte Israels, 2d ed. even where it departs greatly from our (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1954, historical-critical picture - is founded in trans. as The History 0/ Israel, Stanley Good­ man (London: A. and C. Black, 1958), pp. actual history .... In fact, it is rooted in 9,10. a level of historical experience so deep 57 Martin Noth, "Geschichte und Gotteswort that it is totally out of the reach of the im Alten Testament," in Gesammelte Studien historical-critical approach .... In a cer- zum Alten Testament (Munich: Chr. Kaiser, 1957), pp.242-247. 58 Theologie (see fn. 43), I, 113f. ,40 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE

tain sense, its foundation [in "acmal" his­ off by the New Testament revelation in tory] goes even deeper [than that of Christ. Only after the Old Testament's historical criticism}, only that in these own content and structure have been fully traditional materials the facmal historical worked out on the basis of its own witness data can no longer be separated from the is the connection with the New Testament spiritualizing InteL r'fetation, which pene­ trates everything. 59 to be drawn. The nature of this connec­ tion is a point of much debate, as will Thus the two views of history do not appear below, but most would feel that the ultimately exclude each other but serve discussion of Old Testament theology itself differing interests while nevertheless being should not be disproportionately burdened based on the same historical events. with this debate. The new exponents of Reilsgeschichte It is, however, more widely recognized are one with most modern interpreters in than ever before that no study of an an­ rejecting the 19th-century urge to construct cient document can be carried on com­ a grand, organically related, total system pletely without presuppositions, whether of history. This implies a renunciation of these are theological or philosophical in both the historical critic and the Reils­ origiilo While some 19th-century presup­ geschichtZer of the past century, for the positions have now been consciously elim­ one adopted the Hegelian dialectic and the inated, their place is taken today by others developmental theory as his pattern, while derived from the New Testament, from the other similarly erected a continuous Reformation theology, from existentialist structure of history without gaps and with­ philosophy, or from other sources. out allowance for contrary evidence in the materials. System building in the 20th In this modern age when the existential century confines itself to much more modest question 'What does it mean for me?" is goals. It must have a closer empathy for continually being asked, it might be ex­ its Old Testament raw materials, allowing pected that the men under discussion would for discontinuities as well as continuity seek to show how the individual believer where the evidence dictates. For this rea­ is affected by a faith which sees God as son there is no grand system of Reils­ having acted in past history. It must be geschichte being propounded today in the remembered that Rudolf Bultmann and sense of Beck's or Von Hofmann's. many other disciples of existentialism would see here the decisive objection to For the same reason most present-day a theology of Reilsgeschichte, and would Old Testament scholars prefer on principle insist that past historical fact (wie es ei­ to begin with the Old Testament materials gentlich gewesen) is irrelevant for the by themselves and to emphasize their open­ faith of modern man. endedness rather than to start from the p~esupposition of a closed system rounded Apart from the general agreement among scholars oriented toward Reus­ 59 Von Rad, I, 473£. Eichrodt states an al­ geschichte that a purely existential theol­ most identical view in Theologie, II, x-xi, but seems to think that Von Rad does not really ogy constitutes an unbearable narrowing agree. of the much more comprehensive view of OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE 541 the Biblical proclamation,60 several of them through historical experiences in the Old have offered new Biblical insights which Testament provides a basic thought struc­ aid in understanding the individual's ture for both the community and the in­ participation in a history-centered faith. dividual. Since Yahweh has demonstrated Martin Noth introduces the concept of His sovereignty over the world and His Vefgegenwartigung (reactualization or re­ grace by saving Israel and making her His presentation), by which he means to de­ own people under a covenant, the faithful scribe the intended effect of a device used individual within Israel will perceive all in ancient Israelite worship.61 It is a way of life as being dominated and structured of making the saving presence of God by these same basic metaphors. God will real to the people just as it must have not appear to him as the sacred snake or been when the great redemptive acts of cow, or as the unseen force behind phe­ God originally took place. To this end, nomena in nature, but rather as the per­ Hebrew worship included at times the wnal Lord who stands in the relationship actual dramatization of parts of the orig­ of a suzerain to his vassals. Thus the very inal event. For example, at Passover each structure of the Old Testament faith, with Israelite family was to kill a lamb and eat its emphasis on human history and human the meal as it was done ar the time of the relationships, will make its impact on the to exodus. Then in answer the inevitable :~.l:··:--lual's attitr·L - ~~~"-':d God and his question "What does all this mean?" (Ex. neighbor.62 In a fundamentally similar 12:26), the entire story of God's activity thought, though carried out in quite a for His people in the exodus was to be different way, Robinson points to a par­ recited, with the inclusion of the threat­ ticular irem in the framework of Israelite ening and promising words of God that and Christian life. He studies the rather had accompanied it. In this way the his­ constant formulae for blessing or thanking torical event and its meaning were brought God after a happy occurrence and concludes vividly into the present (i. e., were ver­ that these reflect the same basic outlook on gegenwartigt) for the participants and life as do the theological statements about made as meaningful for them as though God's activity in the Heilsgeschichte. Here, they had originally experienced it them­ too, then, the individual's attitude is inti­ selves. mately connected with the Biblical theol­ Wright and Robinson have contributed ogy of history.63 to an understanding of how a history­ Finally, the attitude toward the New centered faith actually changes the atti­ Testament on the part of the scholars tudes of those who share it. Wright shows that the manner of apprehending God 62 See G. Ernest Wright, "History and Real­ ity: The Importance of Israel's 'Historical' Sym­ 60 So in the words of Eichrodt, Theologie bols for the Christian Faith," in Bernhard W. (see fn. 42), II, X. Anderson, ed., The Old Testament and Chris­ 61 See the translation of his article, "The tian Faith: A Theological Discussion (New 'Re-presentation' of the Old Testament in Proc­ York: Harper, 1963), pp.176-199. lamation," in Claus Westermann, ed., Essays 63 See James M. Robinson, "The Historical­ (see fn. 46), pp. 76-88. ity of Biblical Language," ibid., pp. 124-158. 542 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE who are interested in Old Testament Heils­ Bultmann himself has attempted to show geschichte must be noted. We have al­ that the connection between the Testa­ ready observed the fact that the modern ments is only a negative one. Various scholars no longer begin their entire sys­ Old Testament ideas and hopes ended in tems with the explicit presupposition of self-contradiction and complete failure, and the climactic historical activity of God in this made it possible for God to come on Christ Jesus, as did those of the 19th the scene with an eschatmt, an entirely century. Several reasons for this may be new creation, in Christ Jesus.65 But no suggested. In the first place, one seldom true Heilsgeschichtler can view the relation meets a man in the modern academic between the Testaments in so one-sided world, particularly in Germany, who pro­ and negative a fashion. Friedrich Baum­ fesses competency in both the Old and gartel, to be sure, does see a great deal the New Testament. To this may be added of discontinuity amid the admitted con­ tinuity. He sees the continuity as resting the fact that it has been particularly the not in the historical processes themselves Old Testament scholars who have found but in the fulfillment in Christ of the themselves forced by the materials which "basic promise" in which all Old Testament they study to recognize the eminently his­ faith had been giOllilUed. TIlis·;vas God's torical character of the Biblical faith. The covenant promise, "I am Yahweh, your New Testament, of course, is equally his­ God (and you shall be My people) ," tory-centered, though here the focus of with all its implications. Though this attention is concentrated on the Christ basic promise, according to Baumgartel, event, but New Testament studies in Ger­ received characteristically Old Testament many have been dominated by the antihis­ (and hence un-Christian) elaborations, its torical, existential approach of Bultmann.64 real import is nevertheless proclaimed by Above all, perhaps, is the consideration that the New Testament to have been fulfilled a modern critical Old Testament scholar in Christ.G6 will want first to exhaust the possibilities of the Old Testament evidence, following Walther Zimmerli, Claus Westermann, and Gerhard von Rad all prefer to make conscientiously wherever it leads, before the connection between the Testaments making the leap across into the New Tes­ on the basis of the onward-surging move­ tament. Whatever the reasons, the current ment of Old Testament history, which concentration on the study of that portion bears within itself the signs of leading of the Heilsgeschichte which lies within ultimately into the New Testament. This the Old Testament has brought out all the more clearly and convincingly the basic movement consists in the constant inter- unity between the two Testaments. The 65 Bultmann, "The Significance of the Old exact nature of this unity, however, is still Testament for the Christian Faith," in Anderson, a much discussed question. pp.8-35; and "Prophecy and Fulfillment," in Westermann, Essays, pp.50-75.

64 But note such eminent New Testament 66 Baumgartel, Verheissung: Zur Frage des Heilsgeschichtle1' as Oscar Cullmann and Ethel­ evangelischen Verstandnisses des Alten Testa­ bert Stauffer. ments (Giitersloh: C. Bertelsmann, 1952). OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE 543 play of divine promise and divine action. cific, historical sense of that word.69 Von God's promises were often fulfilled in the Rad's cautious reintroduction of typology, course of Israel's history - and yet not a method much loved by earlier Heils­ completely fulfilled. Every time the people geschichte theologians, has launched a fur­ were satisfied that they had already re­ ther debate as to its appropriateness.70 ceived what had been promised, another word from God would make clear that CONCLUDING REMARKS His promise actually has a further, deeper The remarkable rise of interest in Bib­ meaning. Zimmerli observes that the con­ lical Heilsgeschichte, it seems to the pres­ tent of God's promises is so varied that ent writer, is a great stride forward toward one cannot ascertain from the Old Testa­ a more perfect understanding of God's ment what God's basic, ultimate will may self-revelation to His people Israel and be; in the New Testament, however, it to us. Many issues are still to be clarified becomes clear that the promise is finally and many problems remain to be solved and definitively ful.filled in Christ.67 Wes­ but it seems possible already to make ~ termann contributes a provocative analysis few suggestions regarding the theology of of the history of the Old Testament prom­ history as it should affect practical parish life in the church of today. ises, pointing out how they changed in content with (he chailgiilg spiritual con­ The instructio!! 'He gi'lC tc confirmands dition of Israe1.68 Von Rad carries the and to new members of the church will continual renewing of promise and ful­ reflect what we consider to be the most fillment a step farther. Each divine action, important elements of the Christian faith. each fulfillment, leads to the expectation Does it coincide with what the Scriptures of a new and even greater act of grace in attest to be most important? Does it high­ light the dynamic, history-based faith of the future. The old act corresponds to the Bible, which knows and glories in the this new one as prototype to anti type. This process continues within the Old Tes­ things that God has done in the past and tament until the ultimate saving act of sees in them the assurance of His acting God comes to be pictured in a radical, for us now and in the promised future? eschatological character. Then comes the Should not a connected survey of Bible history be included in the course? The New Testament, which sees in the coming of Christ that final, radical fulfillment of most significant elements of that history which all previous fulfill.ments were mere are already alluded to or prefigured in the types. Thus the relationship between the highly important verse which introduces two Testaments is "typological," in a spc- the Ten Commandments (Ex.20:2; Deut. 5:6) and which our newly regained ap- 67 Walther Zi=erli, "Promise and Fulfill­ ment," in Westermann, Essays, pp.89-122. 69 Gerhard von Rad, "Typological Interpre­ tation of the Old Testament," in Westermann, 68 Claus Westermann, "Zm Auslegung des Alten Testaments," in Vergegenwartigung: Auf­ Essays, pp. 17-39. satze zur Auslegung des Alten Testaments (Ber­ 70 For example, Walther Eichrodt, "Is Typo­ lin: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 1955), pp. 88 logical Exegesis an Appropriate Method," ibid., to 120. pp.224f. 544 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY AS HEILSGESCHICHTE

preciation for the ancient covenant form to be recommended. Preaching should aim can no longer permit us to omit.71 to make the hearers conscious of the In the area of worship, the Christian place in history and the reference to his­ church has a rich source of blessing in tory of the particular word of God on the annual cycle of lessons commemorating which it is based. What place does the the New Testament redemptive events. understanding of God's Old Testament Provision of an equally history-conscious Heil occupy in our preaching? Many other cycle of Old Testament lessons is strongly areas could yet be mentioned. In all our life and thought the Christian perception 71 On the covenant formulas in the Old of reality is determined by the knowledge Testament as reflecting ancient Near Eastern that there is a God who directly touches prototypes, see George E. Mendenhall, Law and Covenant in Israel and the Ancient Near East human affairs and whose Son entered our (Pittsburgh: The Biblical Colloquium, 1955); human history and transformed it. and Klaus Baltzer, Das Bundes/ormular (Neu­ kirchen: Verlag des Erziehungsvereins, 1960). Rochester, N. Y.