Downloaded by [New York University] at 08:20 15 August 2016 Sharks
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Downloaded by [New York University] at 08:20 15 August 2016 Sharks This book explores the global conservation and management of sharks. There has been a rapid decline in populations of many shark species, while new science has emerged concerning the critical role they play in marine ecosystems. However, the authors show that conservation law and policy have been slow to develop, with only a small number of iconic species being protected worldwide. The increase in fishing impact – primarily through shark finning and by-catch – has led to shark conservation receiving greater international attention in recent years. Sharks: Conservation, governance and management surveys our current know- ledge and status of the law and science in relation to sharks, with a particular focus on improving frameworks for their conservation and management. Recent trends are analysed, including shark finning bans that have been put in place in several countries, the widening number of nations establishing shark sanctuaries and the growth of shark- based tourism. The efficacy of current listing processes for endangered species and fisheries regulations is also examined. Tourism is explored as an alternative to fishing and the risks and impacts associated with this industry are analysed. Contributors include leading authorities from universities and conservation organizations in North America, Europe and Australia. A common theme is to emphasize the importance of collaborative governance between various interest groups and the need for inter-disciplinary research and management approaches that are necessary to address the decline in sharks. Downloaded by [New York University] at 08:20 15 August 2016 Erika J. Techera is a Professor and Dean in the Faculty of Law at the University of Western Australia. Natalie Klein is a Professor and Dean at Macquarie Law School, Macquarie University, Australia. Thispageintentionallyleftblank Downloaded by [New York University] at 08:20 15 August 2016 Sharks Conservation, governance and management Edited by Erika J. Techera and Natalie Klein Downloaded by [New York University] at 08:20 15 August 2016 Routledge Taylor & Francis Group ear thscan LONDON AND NEW YORK From Routledge First published 2014 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2014 Erika J. Techera and Natalie Klein The right of the editors to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing- in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging- in-Publication Data Sharks : conservation, governance, and management / edited by Erika J. Techera and Natalie Klein. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Sharks–Conservation. 2. Sharks–Conservation–Government policy. 3. Sharks–Government policy. 4. Sharks–Ecology. I. Techera, Erika J. II. Klein, Natalie (Natalie S.). QL638.9.S4855 2014 338.3'7273–dc23 2013049689 ISBN: 978-0-415-84476-5 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-203-75029-2 (ebk) Typeset in Goudy by Wearset Ltd, Boldon, Tyne and Wear Downloaded by [New York University] at 08:20 15 August 2016 Contents List of figures viii List of tables x List of boxes xi Notes on contributors xii Acknowledgements xvii List of abbreviations xviii Introduction 1 ERIKA J. TECHERA AND NATALIE KLEIN PART I Governance challenges 7 1 Approaches to conservation and governance of marine species 9 ERIKA J. TECHERA 2 The existing global legal regimes 27 NATALIE KLEIN 3 Challenges for international governance 46 Downloaded by [New York University] at 08:20 15 August 2016 MARY LACK PART II Scientific perspectives 67 4 The state of knowledge on sharks for conservation and management 69 JEREMY J. KISZKA AND MICHAEL R. HEITHAUS vi Contents 5 Shark conservation, governance and management: the science–law disconnect 89 PAOLO MOMIGLIANO AND ROB HARCOURT 6 Human perceptions and attitudes towards sharks: examining the predator policy paradox 107 CHRISTOPHER NEFF PART III Actors and stakeholders 133 7 Collaborations for conservation 135 ANISSA LAWRENCE 8 The role of the tourism industry 157 CHRISTINE A. WARD- PAIGE 9 Shark conservation efforts: as diverse as sharks themselves 176 JILL HEPP AND ELIZABETH GRIFFIN WILSON PART IV Risks and rewards 195 10 Economic rationale for shark conservation 197 ANDRÉS M. CISNEROS- MONTEMAYOR AND U. RASHID SUMALIA 11 Iconic species: great white sharks, basking sharks and whale sharks 213 RYAN M. KEMPSTER AND SHAUN P. COLLIN Downloaded by [New York University] at 08:20 15 August 2016 12 Species at the intersection 236 CHARLIE HUVENEERS AND WILLIAM ROBBINS PART V Tools and techniques 261 13 The role of marine protected areas and sanctuaries 263 ERICH HOYT Contents vii 14 Fisheries management and regulations 286 BORIS WORM, AURELIE COSANDEY- GODIN AND BRENDAL DAVIS 15 Synergies, solutions and the way forward 309 NATALIE KLEIN AND ERIKA J. TECHERA Index 324 Downloaded by [New York University] at 08:20 15 August 2016 Figures 5.1 Global trend of scientific effort (number of publications) in the period 1992–2011 including in their title, abstract or keywords the words ‘shark’ and ‘conservation’ or ‘management’ 91 5.2 National contributions to shark landings and scientific output 92 5.3 Proportion of the scientific output and taxonomic diversity for each IUCN assessment class, and number of publications for the most well- studied 20 species of sharks grouped by IUCN assessment 95 6.1 Survey responses to pride in local white shark populations in Cape Town, South Africa before and after a shark bite incident 112 6.2 Australia: problem identification 117 6.3 Australia: solution identification 118 6.4 Australia: persons commenting 119 6.5 USA: problem identification 119 6.6 USA: solution identification 120 6.7 USA: persons commenting 121 6.8 South Africa: problem identification 122 6.9 South Africa: solution identification 123 6.10 South Africa: persons commenting 124 7.1 A cross- cutting and integrated approach is needed to drive Downloaded by [New York University] at 08:20 15 August 2016 responsible shark use 144 8.1 Flow chart depicting the role of the tourism industry 161 10.1 Shark watching sites included in this study 199 10.2 Global shark landings and landed value 202 10.3 Net imports of shark products in main Asian markets 203 10.4 Shark marine protection areas including sanctuaries and EEZ- wide finning bans 206 11.1 Photograph of a white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) 215 11.2 Photograph of two whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) 216 Figures ix 11.3 Photograph of a basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus) 217 13.1 Shark sanctuaries in EEZ waters 269 14.1 Global distribution of reported shark catches for the year 2011 287 14.2 Shark fishery case studies 295 Downloaded by [New York University] at 08:20 15 August 2016 Tables 3.1 Shark species listed on CITES and CMS 52 3.2 Top shark- catching countries, 2002–2011 58 6.1 Comparing white sharks killed in NSW shark nets (1990–2008) and shark bites and fatalities in NSW (1900–2009) 114 8.1 Examples of publications resulting from data generated by the members of the tourism industry 164–5 9.1 Countries that have created shark sanctuaries by prohibiting commercial fishing for sharks in their entire EEZ since the inception of Pew’s global shark conservation campaign 183 9.2 RFMO shark measures prohibiting retention 186 10.1 Locations (by country) with available data on yearly shark watching expenditure 200 10.2 Estimated yearly economic benefits of shark watching by world region 201 11.1 Summary of population trend data for the white shark (Carcharias carcharodon) 223 12.1 List of species or species group that are ‘always’ or ‘very likely’ to be sighted during shark- related tourism 242 12.2 List of countries offering shark- related tourism, along with the number of species ‘always’ or ‘very frequently’ sighted by operators 243 12.3 Summary of studies estimating the value of shark- related Downloaded by [New York University] at 08:20 15 August 2016 tourism 244–7 13.1 Notable shark sanctuaries around the world 270–3 14.1 Major management measures in the top- 20 shark- fishing nations 292 14.2 Consideration matrix for stock management and rebuilding 303 Boxes 3.1 IPOA- Sharks Guidance on Plans of Action 48 3.2 Shark finning controls 60 8.1 Great Fiji Shark Count: tourism industry generated data used for establishing contemporary baselines and monitoring 158 9.1 Organizations with significant shark- related awareness or policy advocacy programmes 178 13.1 Steps to effective MPA management 267 Downloaded by [New York University] at 08:20 15 August 2016 Contributors Andrés M. Cisneros-Montemayor is a researcher with the Fisheries Economics Research Unit, UBC Fisheries Centre. His background is in marine biology and the economics of marine eco- tourism, and he specializes in resource economics and ecosystem modelling. Andrés continually collaborates on theoretical, applied and field studies, and has worked at venues ranging from fishing villages in Central America and Africa to the UN Headquarters in New York. His current PhD work focuses on the economics of policy strat- egies to aid in sustainable resource use.