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Islamic Beliefs and Practices / Edited by Matt Stefon.—1St Ed Published in 2010 by Britannica Educational Publishing (a trademark of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.) in association with Rosen Educational Services, LLC 29 East 21st Street, New York, NY 10010. Copyright © 2010 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, and the Thistle logo are registered trademarks of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. All rights reserved. Rosen Educational Services materials copyright © 2010 Rosen Educational Services, LLC. All rights reserved. Distributed exclusively by Rosen Educational Services. For a listing of additional Britannica Educational Publishing titles, call toll free (800) 237-9932. First Edition Britannica Educational Publishing Michael I. Levy: Executive Editor Marilyn L. Barton: Senior Coordinator, Production Control Steven Bosco: Director, Editorial Technologies Lisa S. Braucher: Senior Producer and Data Editor Yvette Charboneau: Senior Copy Editor Kathy Nakamura: Manager, Media Acquisition Matt Stefon: Assistant Editor, Religion Rosen Educational Services Joanne Randolph: Editor Hope Lourie Killcoyne: Senior Editor and Project Manager Nelson Sá: Art Director Matthew Cauli: Designer Introduction by Janey Levy Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Islamic beliefs and practices / edited by Matt Stefon.—1st ed. p. cm.—(The Islamic world) “In association with Britannica Educational Publishing, Rosen Educational Services.” ISBN 978-1-61530-060-0 (eBook) 1. Islam—Customs and practices. 2. Islam—Doctrines. I. Stefon, Matt. BP174.I87 2010 297—dc22 2009038290 On the cover: The Qur’an, the sacred scripture of Islam, is for Muslims the word of Allah (God) as revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. The word Qur’an (also spelled Koran) is Arabic for “recitation.” Boryana Katsarova/AFP/Getty Images CONTENTS Introduction 8 Chapter One: Muhammad: The Seal of the Prophets 17 The Prophet’s Stature in the Muslim Community 18 The Prophet’s Life 20 Mi‘raj 28 Hijrah 31 39 Chapter Two: God’s Word to Humanity 38 The Qur’an 39 74 No God but God: Allah 46 Tawhid 48 God and Humanity 49 Mahdi 56 The Prophet’s Deeds and Words 58 Chapter Three: Piety and Ritual in Islamic Life 67 86 The Five Pillars of Islam 67 Holy Days 75 Sacred Space 79 Mecca 81 Life and Death 82 Chapter Four: Community and Society 88 Islam and Community 89 Community Figures 95 Caliph 96 Ottoman Empire 104 97 Islam and Society 105 Law 110 Bid‘ah 112 Usul al-Fiqh 114 Systemization and Administration 114 Hanafiyah 118 Modern Reforms of Shari‘ah 120 Chapter Five: Branches of Islam 128 Foundations of Sectarianism 129 Kalam 130 Sunni Islam 133 ‘A’ishah 137 Shi‘ite Islam 140 Al-Husayn ibn ‘Ali 142 Ruhollah Khomeini 149 102 Taqiyyah 152 Sufism 154 Al-Ghazali 158 Ibn al-‘Arabi 170 Wahhabism 173 Islamic Beliefs and Practices Today 178 Glossary 179 For Further Reading 181 Index 183 INTRODUCTION 7 Introduction 7 slam is and has for centuries been one of the world’s Imost important and influential religions. Today, it is the second largest religion on Earth, with more than one bil- lion followers around the globe. Yet most Westerners know and understand little about it. If the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on New York City and Washington, D.C., thrust Islam into Western consciousness, they cer- tainly did nothing to improve the Western world’s understanding of it. Listening to most news stories reported in the United States since the attacks, one could easily form the misperception that most Muslims are vio- lent extremists bent on destroying Western civilization and imposing strict Islamic fundamentalism on the world. Yet this is a distortion that paints a grossly inaccurate pic- ture of Islam and dishonors the vast majority of Muslims. So then what exactly is Islam? What is its history? What are its teachings? Islam—like Judaism and Christianity—revolves around belief in the one and only God, whom Muslims call Allah. At the heart of Islam is the notion of tawhid, or the oneness of God. The Qur’an, Islam’s holy book, constantly stresses Allah’s reality, unknowable mystery, and actions on behalf of his creation. Also stressed are Allah’s many names, including Lord of the Worlds, the Most High, the One and Only, the Living One, the Sublime, the Wise, the Omnipotent, the Merciful, and the Constant Forgiver. For Muslims, nothing happens in the world unless Allah wills it. Thus, one often hears the phrase insha’a Allah, which means “if Allah wills,” in Muslims’ daily conversations. The believer’s relation- ship to Allah is expressed in the very name of the religion. Islam is an Arabic word meaning “surrender.” Muhammad—known to Muslims as the Prophet Muhammad or simply the Prophet—founded Islam. He was born around 570 in the city of Mecca, in what is today Saudi Arabia. An important commercial center, Mecca 9 7 Islamic Beliefs and Practices 7 was also a preeminent pilgrimage site because of the Ka‘bah, a shrine central to the religious cults of various Arab tribes and decorated with cult idols. Muhammad’s parents belonged to the Quraysh, Mecca’s ruling tribe and guardians of the Ka‘bah. It would seem he was destined to have a secure position in Arab society. However, tragedy struck before he was even born. His father died, leaving his mother to raise him. Following established custom, she sent the infant to live with a des- ert family so that he might learn the purest Arabic, Arab traditions, self- discipline, nobility, and freedom. According to Muslim tradition, it was during this period that some- thing astonishing happened. Two angels appeared to the young Muhammad, purifying his heart with snow. Soon after, the boy returned to his home. Back in Mecca, tragedy struck again. Muhammad’s mother died when he was six years old. He then went to live with his grandfather, who died two years later. The young Muhammad moved once again, this time to live with his uncle Abu Talib, the father of ‘Ali. In spite of all the tragedy he had experienced, Muhammad grew to be a remarkable young man. By the time he was 24, he was run- ning his uncle’s business and was renowned for his honesty, fairness, and generosity. The people of Mecca called him al-Amin, “the Trusted One,” and often sought his help in settling disputes. He was a highly respected figure in Mecca by the time he was 35. Muhammad’s reputation owed much to his deep reli- gious devotion. He often went into the desert to pray and meditate. On one of these desert trips, around 610, Muhammad received a visit from the archangel Gabriel. This event marked the beginning of the revelation of the Qur’an, which Gabriel delivered to Muhammad from Allah. The revelations continued until shortly before Muhammad’s death in 632. 10 7 Introduction 7 Muhammad shared the revelations first with his fam- ily, then with a few friends. Three years after Gabriel’s first appearance to him, Muhammad started preaching pub- licly. He soon attracted followers, including some of Mecca’s most distinguished residents. However, most prominent Meccans, as well as some members of his fam- ily, rejected Muhammad’s teachings, partly for practical reasons. For the Prophet and his followers, Mecca’s great shrine, the Ka‘bah, had been built by Adam to honor the one God and rebuilt later by the Jewish prophet Abraham. People of Mecca feared that such teachings, combined with Islam’s renunciation of idolatry, would drive away the pilgrims who came to the Ka‘bah—and the influx of money they brought with them. As Muhammad’s influence grew, opposition to him increased. In 619, Muhammad experienced more tragedy as well as a profound spiritual event. The tragedy lay in the deaths of his first wife and his uncle Abu Talib. The spiritual experi- ence occurred when he fell asleep while visiting the Ka‘bah one night. The archangel Gabriel took Muhammad to Jerusalem on a winged horse. There, they ascended through the higher stages of being. Muhammad finally arrived before the throne of Allah, where he received the supreme treasury of knowledge and the final form and number of the Islamic daily prayers. This experience became known as the Mi‘raj. Persecution against the Prophet and his followers increased, making Mecca dangerous for them. Then, in 621, Muhammad was invited to move to Yathrib, become the city’s leader, and help solve the political and social dif- ficulties plaguing the city because of its diverse population. After some consideration, Muhammad agreed. He and his followers completed the Hijrah, or migration, in 622, and Yathrib became known as Madinat al-Nabi—City of the Prophet—or Medina. On the outskirts of the city, Muhammad ordered Islam’s first mosque to be built. He 11 7 Islamic Beliefs and Practices 7 also created a constitution for the troubled city. This con- stitution is of great importance to Muslims, who believe the Prophet created the ideal Islamic society, one based on social justice, in Medina. Islam continued to grow, and eventually all Medina’s Arabs became Muslims. Muhammad died in 632, after a final pilgrimage to Mecca to visit the Ka‘bah. The revelations Muhammad began receiving in 610 constitute the Qur’an. The holy text is written in Arabic, Islam’s sacred language. For Muslims, Arabic is essential for conveying Allah’s message since it was the language Allah chose. This means that, although the Qur’an has been translated into many languages, only through the original Arabic can one truly know Allah’s message. The Qur’an consists of 114 chapters called suras, each of which is divided into verses called ayahs. Each sura has a title, and Muslims believe Muhammad named the suras following instructions from Allah.
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