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Hussain Ali Tahtooh 3=;;5?3819 ?591A8=<@ 25AC55< A75 1?12 C=?94 1<4 8<481 !)?4 1<4 *A7%.A7 1<4 '&A7 35<AB?85@" 7VTTDLP 1NL ADKUQQK 1 AKHTLT @VEOLUUHG IQS UKH 4HJSHH QI >K4 DU UKH BPLWHSTLUZ QI @U$ 1PGSHXT '.-, 6VNN OHUDGDUD IQS UKLT LUHO LT DWDLNDENH LP ?HTHDSFK0@U1PGSHXT/6VNNAHYU DU/ KUUR/%%SHTHDSFK#SHRQTLUQSZ$TU#DPGSHXT$DF$VM% >NHDTH VTH UKLT LGHPULILHS UQ FLUH QS NLPM UQ UKLT LUHO/ KUUR/%%KGN$KDPGNH$PHU%'&&()%(.++ AKLT LUHO LT RSQUHFUHG EZ QSLJLPDN FQRZSLJKU COMMII' hAl1 J1:IATroNH 1IITWEJN THE ARAB WORLD AND INDIA (.IRI) AN]) 4Th / 9111 AND 10TH CENTURIES) By ' Hussahi All. Tahtooh fl.I., Baghdad M.A., Mosul A llIofll!3 nulitnitted fo! the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy In the lJiilveislty of St. Andrews. • AiiIro'n December 1986. AI3STRACT 1:1,13 t)IeIlent woik Is mainly concerned with the commercial relations I)etweon the Arab world and India In the 3rd and 4th / 9th and 10th centurIes. The thesis consists of an Introduction and five chapters. The lntwdiictloit contains a brief survey of the historical background to the A,iih-Iiidkin trade links In the period prior to the period of the research. lt also Includes the reasons for choosing the subject, and the t1I[ficiiltles with which the research was faced. The intro(1(I(II Iin niso conta his the methods of the research and a study of the ma lit S ( 3LIt (iCS (1iipter One deals with the Arab provinces, the main kingdoms of India, Iho political situation in the Arab world and India, and its effecis iiii the Enhliject. It also deals with the main economic products in the c3uIiiitt [Cs colicerno(l. Moreover, the chapter focuses on the factors which eiicotiragod the Arab-Indian trade. Chapter Two deals with the trade routes (Land and Sea routes), the caravans, ships, the sea ports and the commercial cities in the Arab WOt ki aiid India. (1iapLnr Three deals with the trade procedures between the Arab world and India. It also deals with the taxes levied in ports and sonic laud posts. The chapter ends by giving some details of the prices (31 iiouc l s iii 1)0th cotuitrles (ha1ez l'otir gives a detailed account of goods exported and tmiui led by both sides, and the real causes behind the export p and lrnpnl of those goods. The chapter also gives an account of how sometimes goods are imported by one side from the other in order to meet the local demands or to be exported in a process of trading nn a world wide scale. Chapter lIve deals with a conclusion of what has been discussed earlier, in addition to some cultural aspects which have not boon noah wIth in the chapters above. (I) DEDICATION To my wife Ghaniyya, Fyi y cliii it ('It i\tnniar , Bashshar iiid S1iiyrn'. (iv) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I nm vwy (JiateiLmi lo Mr. ll.I\. Kimber for supervising this thesis, wII.hout whose gimLlaiice, and very important suggestions It would have been impossible for me to complete this work. I have hc'nmi lmmdend fortunate to have him as a supervisor. I would like to expreSS my deepest gratitude to Dr. D.E.P. Jackson ol time ])opartmcnt of Arabic Studies, for supervising two chapters of this work. I inn also qratefmil to Dr. J. Burton, Chairman of the DepmLiiii'iml. uI Aiim hic Studios, for his valuable help and encouragement throughout. the fIrst year of my study. My thimkn are also clue to the librarians of the university library I ii l.ImnR t" sisteimi ollont iir finding some of the sources for the work, or, 'noIn1ly Mr. 1'. Hnry iincl WEiss S. Rowe. My Ihiiks also qo to the Mosul University (Iraq) for giving me time °PPor ton I ty to coiml. I one my higher study. I I on IEy, I would like to thank Mrs. E. Kerr for typing this thesis. (v) COPY1UGI1T_DECLPATION p In siihnill:tIng tht thesis to the University of St. Andrews I undoir%tnnd that I am giVing permission for It to be made avallablo br public use In accordance with the regulations of the Un[vmsIiY Libiary for 11)0 tIme being in force, subject to any copyright vested In the wonk not being affected thereby. I also undorntniiil Fh ' tt the title uid abstract will be published, and that a copy or Lhc work may 1)0 made and supplied to any bona fide library or research worker. (ia) LIST OF TRANSLITERATION System ot It iinn I [mm lion 01 Aribic characters: Consonrits: (wccopl when : . [ii[I.Lni) Li = t jl1i C .: kit k (I LJ 1m n (j..4J S 'z( h I.)': sh w j:2!9_vownln: Short vowels: Diphthongs: / / = - aw _9 , - i.i -- U ay / Double vow1s: cj.—. : Iyy (final fortH F a; at (construct state) I uww (final form ii ) (article), al- and I1- (even before th antero- pa1alals) (vii) ABBREVIATIONS P b. lbn d. (lEod ed. d lied CJRG r; Tim Geo(Jrmj)1,1cn1 Journal. The Royal Geographical floclety. IC Islamic Ctili.tire JA S Jotunal of tho Asiatic Society JESII() J)u)nal of limo 1coiomIc and Social History of the Orient JMRM Journal 01 Ilia Malay branch of the Royal Asiatic Society JEA S Journal of time Royal Asiatic Society MEJ Middle East Journal a No. Number PHS Tue Paklnta ii Ills tory Society RCIJ Regional Cullural Institute Journal RFSEUI Revue do In Faculte des Sciences Economiques de I'Uriiverslte d.'lstanbul Tr. Ti Ut ItS Ia ted Vol. Volt ime a (viii) C ONTENTS p Pages Dedication (I) 1Jechitl hnis (it) Certlflcri Lion (Iii) Acknowlndqotnents (lv) Copyriti hi 1ciarn lion (v) List of liii iIfl lilet n liOn (vi) List of iii t ov In II oils (vii) Conte nut (viit)-(xj) INTRODIJ CTIUNI: 1-50 1 • liii, i!iiciIoit 2 2. TI 10 I Cbi flOflfl 1CM choon Ii ig the subject and its importance. 11 3. The ,i' it lku1nr d 1ff Icu tiles Involved. 17 4. Mel lu t j n of research. 21 5. Soiuos. 25 Footnotes to Introduction. 39 CHAPTI OJ'J1: AdescrIjonof the Arab World and India. 5 1-86 First. i'Iio Arib World. 52 1. rrovtnces and boundaries. 52 2. The pollticn 1 SItuation. 53 :3. ]:C000fl1IC )I OduCts. (Manufactured goods. 56 Minerals. J)oniestic animals. Foodstuffs. )lher (t:)It1Il10d Itles Secowl. India: C>tternnl. borders. 60 1. KIngs and Kingdoms. 64 2. The political situation. 68 (lx) Pages :; • Economic odiicts . (Slaves. Animals. 70 Birds. Perfumes and spices. Wood. Vegetable Products. Minerals. Manufactured Products). Third. Factors which encouraged Arab-Indian trade. 71 Iooinoios to Clia pier One. 74 CHAPTEI(TWO: Trade routes, ports and commercial cities. 87 -13 6 First. Trade routes. 88 I • Land routes. 88 'I.'! ade can a v i is 92 - The i\hhns1ds and the caravan routes. 93 2 - The liulliiin Kings and the caravan routes. 94 2. :;o routes. 97 Siil pS 102 I - )\rah FihJ1). 102 2 - Indian ships. 104 Time of voyages. 106 Second. len pot In and coitinitercin! cities. 107 I • Arab ports. 108 2. Arab commercial cities. 111 3. IndIan ports. 114 '1. lnd1 u commercial cities. 116 I' )OLItOLOR to C1i1) 1)t.Or Two. 118 CHAPTER THREE: Commercial exchange, taxation and prices. 13 7-170 1 . MnI;Iiods of commercial exchange. 138 A. Unrter. 138 a. U. The moiiiud of double trading. 138 C. I )ealltng w liii money. 139 1 - The currency of India. 139 2 - The currency of the Arab Worlds 142 1). Other methods of exchange. 143 (x) Pges 2. Tnxniion. 145 a A. Taxation in the Arab World. 145 B. Taxation In India. 149 3. Prices. 154 A. Prices in the Arab World. 155 B. Prices In India. 158 I'Ofl notes to (1in ptcr Three. 161 CHAPTER FOUR: Exports and Imports. 171-253 I. Ecports frotu the Arab World to India. 172 - JEorses. 172 2 - Wino. 174 3 - Imernl(In. 175 'I - Ivory. 176 S - Iron. 177 6 - Clotliltig. 177 7 - Coral 178 - J)aten. 178 9 - Coinage. 179 l() flose water. 182 11 - henna. 182 12 Other commodities. 182 2. Imports from India to the Arab World. 183 I Slaves. 183 2 - Weapons. (Swords. Arrows and shields. 186 Knives). 3 - Shoes. 190 4 - Clothing. 192 5 - Tlmbos. (Teak. Coconut wood. Bamboo). 193 Ui - Mlnowln. (Corundum. Agate. Crystal. 197 Din moiids. Lead ). (>c I) Pages 7 - Perfumes and spices. (Musk. Camphor. 199 J\inbetgt Is. Indian aloes-wood. Pepper. Sandal wood. Cloves. Indian spikenard. Dragon's blood). 8 - 1'mnEdh. 213 9 - Myrobalan. 214 10 - Indigo. 215 11 - Trees and fruits. 216 12 - Animals. (Ilephants. Buffaloes. Camels. 217 Rhinoceroses. Other animals). 13 - flair. 224 14 - Rhds. (Chickens. Peafowls. Talking 224 Parrots. hawks). looltiolos to Cha pier Four. 228 CHAPT1R I1V1: ilin findings of the research and mutual 254-281 1n[1iience (I) The findings of the research. 255 1 - J\iab-IndEiii commercial relations prior to the 255 period of the research and during it. 2 - Thin political situation. 258 3 'Ihie geoqrailiy of the Arab world and India. 260 4 - Trade rattles, caravans, and ships. 261 5 - J:XpOl-ts 11Ri imports 263 6 - Ports, commercial cities, and taxation. 264 7 - Methods of selling and buying, and prices. 266 (ii) Mutual Influences. 268 I - Religious and linguistic influences. 269 2 - cientLf1c Influences. 270 3 - Literary Influences. 272 4 - Social influences. 272 l'cuinoie to Chapter Five. 275 RlII Iociia pity. 282-2 94 Iiiir IIIitJ)fl INTRODUCTION 2. In ordor to point out the main aspects of the subject "Commercial relations between the Arab world and India in the 3rd and 41I/9Lh and 10th centuries", to define its historical background and to support the arguments we have put forward when dealing with the main aspects of It, the following will be referred to: 1 • Introduction.
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