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America’s Blame Culture centner 00 fmt 8/14/08 7:10 AM Page ii centner 00 fmt 8/14/08 7:10 AM Page iii

America’s Blame Culture

Pointing Fingers and Shunning Restitution

Terence J. Centner

Carolina Academic Press Durham, North Carolina centner 00 fmt 8/14/08 7:10 AM Page iv

Copyright © 2008 Terence J. Centner All Rights Reserved

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Centner, Terence J. America’s blame culture : pointing fingers and shunning restitution / by Terence J. Centner. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-59460-483-6 (alk. paper) 1. Liability (Law)—United States. 2. Torts—United States. 3. Government liability—United States. I. Title.

KF1250.C43 2008 346.7303—dc22 2008011656

Carolina Academic Press 700 Kent Street Durham, North Carolina 27701 Telephone (919) 489-7486 Fax (919) 493-5668 www.cap-press.com

Printed in the United States of America centner 00 fmt 8/14/08 7:10 AM Page v

To my wonderful family: Mary Ann, Ann Marie, and John Harry E. and Mary Ellen, Harry A., and Jean centner 00 fmt 8/14/08 7:10 AM Page vi centner 00 fmt 8/14/08 7:10 AM Page vii

Contents

Table of Cases xiii Table of Statutes xxi Table of Acts and Bills xxv Table of Text and Periodical Citations xxvii Acknowledgments xxxix

Chapter 1 · A Culture of Blame 3 Other Views on Responsibility 6 Legal Systems and Communities 8 Liability Rules for Accidents 11 Shortcomings of Our Tort System 12 Notes 15

Chapter 2 · An Overview of American Tort Law 17 Observations from Europe and America 18 Are There Too Many Lawsuits? 20 A Lack of Objectivity 21 Needy Victims 22 Tort Liability in Negligence 23 Categories of Entrants 24 Legislative Expansion of Exceptions to Liability 26 Notes 27

Chapter 3 · Some Views of Tort Litigation 29 Safety 30 Litigation Costs 33 Contingency Fees 33 Shifting Litigation Costs to Losing Parties 34 Excessive Damage Awards 35 Capping Compensatory Damages for Pain and Suffering 36

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viii CONTENTS

Capping Punitive Damage Awards 38 Deterring Future Negligence 40 Notes 41

Chapter 4 · Medical Malpractice Claims 45 Medical Malpractice Crises and the Issues 46 My European Experiences 47 Medical Malpractice and What It Means 48 Legislative Responses 49 The Collateral Source Rule 50 Joint and Several Liability 51 Frivolous Lawsuit Legislation 52 Results of Legislative Reforms 54 Alternatives to Litigation 55 Notes 56

Chapter 5 · Care and Releases 61 Requiring Care 63 Releases Waiving Claims 65 Not Enforcing Releases 67 Contrary to Public Policy 67 Unfair Bargaining Power 68 Contrary to a Statutory Duty 69 Altering Public Policies Regarding Releases 70 Notes 72

Chapter 6 · Attitudes and Social Responses 75 Personal Responsibility 76 Assumption of Risk 79 Primary Assumption of Risk 79 Secondary Assumption of Risk 81 Expectation That Injured Persons Should Sue 82 Fear of Being Sued 84 Notes 85

Chapter 7 · Governmental Immunity 87 Historic Underpinnings of Immunity Protection 89 The Federal Tort Claims Act 91 State Tort Claims Acts 93 centner 00 fmt 8/20/08 12:02 PM Page ix

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Other Governmental Units, Functions, and Acts 95 Notes 98

Chapter 8 · Historical Liability Exceptions 101 Good Samaritans 102 The Good Samaritan Paradigm 103 Protected Classes and Zone of Protection 104 Gratuitous Act, Good Faith, and a Standard of Conduct 105 Duty to Assist or Rescue 106 Veterinary Good Samaritan Statutes 109 Gleaning Statutes 110 Notes 112

Chapter 9 · Recreational Use Statutes 115 Justifying Dispensation for Recreational Activities 117 Providers and Their Premises 119 Activities Covered 120 Liability Despite the Statutes 122 Disqualification Due to Compensation 123 Notes 125

Chapter 10 · Exceptions for Horses 129 A Defense for Providers of Equestrian Activities 131 The General Standard of Conduct 133 Court Interpretations 133 A Suitability Exception 134 Provisions that Maintain Negligence Liability 136 Dangerous Hidden Conditions 136 Warning Signs and Contractual Admonitions 138 Notes 139

Chapter 11 · Exceptions for Sport Activities 141 Special Dispensation for Some Sports 143 Directive on Inherent Risks 144 Duties for Providers and Participants 146 Immunity for Sport Providers 147 A Limitation on Effectiveness 149 Policy Issues 150 Notes 152 centner 00 fmt 8/20/08 12:02 PM Page x

x CONTENTS

Chapter 12 · Protecting Our Children 155 Assigning Liability 157 Parental Obligations 159 Supervisory Decisions 159 Participation Decisions 161 Parental Liability Provisions 162 Attractive Nuisances 163 Interjecting Greater Safety 164 Notes 165

Chapter 13 · Realigning Duties 169 Duty of Care for Obvious Dangers 171 Uneven and Slippery Pavements 172 Variable Steps 173 Failure to Warn Others 174 Negligence Due to No Warning 175 Requirement Established by a Statute or Regulation 176 Duty to Supervise 177 Imposing Duties on Participants 179 Notes 180

Chapter 14 · Effecting Changes in Our Tort System 183 Accepting Responsibility and Ending Blame 185 Special Interest Legislation and Business Trends 187 Favoritism for Big Business 187 Excessive Executive Compensation 188 Legislative Pork 189 Environmental Degradation and Injury Damages 190 Enforcing Existing Laws 191 Endorsing Science and Expert Opinions 192 Private Benevolence 193 Notes 195

Chapter 15 · Developing a Community 199 Tackling Two Major Problems 201 Alternative Dispute Resolution Options 202 Encourage Recoveries to Deter Accidents 205 Seven Strategies 207 (1) Adopt Alternative Dispute Options 207 (2) Add Error Prevention Strategies in Medical Services 208 centner 00 fmt 8/20/08 12:02 PM Page xi

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(3) Add Safety Requirements 208 (4) Impose Obligations on Participants 208 (5) Curb Environmental Damages 208 (6) Enforce Our Laws 209 (7) End Governmental Perks 209 Concluding Comments 209 Notes 210

Appendix 1 · State Recreational Use Statutes 213

Appendix 2 · Equestrian and Animal Immunity Statutes 215

Appendix 3 · Sport Responsibility Statutes 217

Index 221 centner 00 fmt 8/14/08 7:10 AM Page xii centner 00 fmt 8/14/08 7:10 AM Page xiii

Table of Cases

145 Route 303 Corporation v. State of (N.J. Super. Ct. App. Div. 2003), New York, 7 Misc. 3d 1026A (N.Y. 100 Ct. Claims 2005), 125 Avila v. Citrus Community College Albright v. Metz, 672 N.E.2d 584 District, 131 P.3d 383 (Cal. 2006), (N.Y. 1996), 125, 165 195 Alden v. Maine, 527 U.S. 706 (1999), B & B Livery v. Riehl, 960 P.2d 134 98 (Colo. 1998), 72 Allen v. Snow Summit, Inc., 59 Cal. Babcock v. County of Oswego, 644 Rptr. 2d 813 (Cal. Ct. App. 1996), N.Y.S.2d 958 (N.Y. Sup. Ct. 1996), 153 16 Alpha Zeta Chapter of Pi Kappa Baltierra v. Corona-Norco Unified Alpha Fraternity v. Sullivan, 740 School District, 2006 Cal. App. S.W.2d 127 (Ark. 1987), 139 Unpub. LEXIS 4007 (Cal. Ct. App. Anderson v. Atlanta Committee for May 9, 2006), 85 the Olympic Games, Inc., 537 Basso v. Miller, 386 N.Y.S.2d 564 S.E.2d 345 (Ga. 2000), 127 (N.Y. 1976), 28 Anderson v. Atlanta Committee for Berlangieri v. Running Elk Corpora- the Olympic Games, Inc., 584 tion, 76 P.3d 1098 (N.M. 2003), S.E.2d 16 (Ga. Ct. App. 2003), 73, 140 127 Bernier v. Burris, 497 N.E.2d 763 (Ill. Anderson v. Little & Davenport Fu- 1986), 58 neral Home, 242 Ga. 751 (Ga. Blanchard v. Murray, 772 N.E.2d 1978), 112 1122 (Ill. App. Ct. 2002), 112 Andrews v. Department of Natural Bledsoe v. Goodfarb, 823 P.2d 1264 Resources, 557 So.2d 85 (Fla. Ct. (Ariz. 1991), 126 App. 1990), 181 Bonewell v. City of Derby, 693 P.2d Arlington v. State Farm Lloyds, 145 1179 (Kan. 1984), 126 S.W.3d 165 (Tex. 2004), 100 Bragg v. Genessee County Agricul- Atalese v. Long Beach Township, 837 tural Society, 644 N.E.2d 1013 A.2d 1115 (N.J. Super. Ct. 2003), (N.Y. 1994), 126 72 Breazeal v. Henry Mayo Newhall Aversano v. Palisades Interstate Park- Memorial Hospital, 234 Cal. App. way Commission, 832 A.2d 914 3d 1329 (Cal. Ct. App. 1991), 112

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Brough v. Hidden Valley, Inc., 711 City of Indianapolis v. Johnson, 736 A.2d 382 (N.J. Super. Ct. App. N.E.2d 295 (Ind. Ct. App. 2000), Div. 1998), 152 127 Bucheleres v. The Chicago Park Dis- Clark v. Fair Oaks Recreation and trict, 665 N.E.2d 826 (Ill. 1996), Park District, 130 Cal. Rptr. 2d 180 633 (Cal. Ct. App. 2003), 180 Buck v. Greyhound Lines, Inc., 783 Clark v. Interlaken Owners, Inc., 770 P.2d 437 (Nev. 1989), 112 N.Y.S.2d 58 (N.Y. App. Div. 2003), Burns v. Addison Golf Club, 514 166 N.E.2d 68 (Ill. App. Ct. 1987), 140 Cody v. Falletti, 112 Cal. Rptr. 2d Busnell v. Japanese-American Reli- 593 (Cal. Ct. App. 2001), 16 gious & Cultural Center, 50 Cal. Comte v. Girard Orthopaedic Sur- Rptr. 2d 671 (Cal. Ct. App. 1996), geons Medical Group, Inc., 132 85 Cal. Rptr. 2d 855 (Cal. Ct. App. C.R.S. v. United States, 11 F.3d 791 2003), 56 (8th Cir. 1993), 99 Contursi v. Sullivan Transfer Com- Calhoun v. The Belt Railway Com- pany, 2003 Cal. App. Unpub. pany of Chicago, 731 N.E.2d 332 LEXIS 5700 (Cal. Ct. App. June (Ill. Ct. App. 2000), 28, 180 13, 2003), 195 Capri v. L.A. Fitness International, Cook v. Komorowski, 752 N.Y.S.2d LLC, 39 Cal. Rptr. 3d 425 (Cal. 475 (N.Y. App. Div. 2002), 85 Ct. App. 2006), 73 Cooley v. City of Carrollton, 547 Carr v. Korkow Rodeos, 788 F.2d 485 S.E.2d 689 (Ga. Ct. App. 2001), (8th Cir. 1986), 139 126 Charpentier v. Von Geldern, 236 Cal. Cooper v. Meyer, 365 N.E.2d 201 (Ill. Rptr. 233 (Cal. Ct. App. 1987), App. Ct. 1977), 166 126 Corey v. Davenport College of Busi- Childress v. Madison County, 777 ness, 649 N.W.2d 392 (Mich. Ct. S.W.2d 1 (Tenn. Ct. App. 1989), App. 1999), 28, 180 72, 165 Corning v. East Oakland Township, Chisholm v. Georgia, 2 Dall. 419 670 N.E.2d 350 (Ill. App. Ct. (1793), 98 1996), 100 City of Paris v. Floyd, 150 S.W.3d 224 Croaker v. Mackenhausen, 592 (Tex. Ct. App. 2004), 100 N.W.2d 857 (Minn. 1999), 166 City of Dallas v. Jennings, 142 S.W.3d Cunningham v. Bakker Produce, Inc., 310 (Tex. 2004), 100 712 N.E.2d 1002 (Ind. Ct. App. City of Santa Barbara v. Superior 1999), 125, 127 Court of Santa Barbara, 2006 Cal. Davis v. Sun Valley Ski Educ. Found., App. LEXIS 84 Jan. 26, 2006), 73 Inc., 941 P.2d 1301 (Idaho 1997), City of Seguin v. Sewell, 2002 Tex. 153 App. LEXIS 7192 (Tex. Ct. App. Dale v. Beta-C, Inc., 574 N.W.2d 697 Oct. 9, 2002), 181 (Mich. Ct. App. 1997), 73 centner 00 fmt 8/14/08 7:10 AM Page xv

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De Lacy v. Catamount Development Frykman v. University of Minnesota- Corporation, 755 N.Y.S.2d 484 Duluth, 611 N.W.2d 379 (Minn. (N.Y. App. Div. 2003), 85, 166 Ct. App. 2000), 180 DeBartolo v. City of San Diego, 2003 Garrison v. Township of Middletown, Cal. App. Unpub. LEXIS 5813 712 A.2d 1101 (N.J. 1998), 72 (Cal. Ct. App. June 17, 2003), 180 Gaskill v. Active Environmental Tech- Del Santo v. Bristol County Stadium, nologies, 823 A.2d 878 (N.J. Inc., 273 F.2d 605 (1st Cir. 1960), Super. Ct. App. Div. 2003), 180 72, 165 Gautreau v. Washington, 672 So.2d Dickinson v. Clark, 767 A.2d 303 262 (La. Ct. App. 1996), 139 (Me. 2001), 127 Muller v. English, 472 S.E.2d 448 Distinctive Printing and Packaging (Ga. Ct. App. 1996), 139 Co.v.Cox, 443 N.W.2d 566 (Neb. Gavin W., a Minor v. YMCA of Metro- 1989), 43 politan Los Angeles, 131 Cal. Rptr. Donaldson v. Cenac, 675 So.2d 228 2d 168 (Cal. Ct. App. 2003), 72 (Fla. Dist. Ct. 1996), 85 Gentry v. Craycraft, 802 N.E.2d 1116 Duncan v. Kelly, 671 N.Y.S.2d 841 (Ohio 2004), 86 (N.Y. App. Div. 1998), 153, 181 Gilbertson v. Leininger, 1998 Minn. Ex parte Young, 209 U.S. 123 (1908), App. LEXIS 1212 (Minn. Ct. App. 98 Nov. 3, 1998), 113 Faas v. Heymann, 814 N.Y.S.2d 561 Giordano v. Shanty Hollow Corpora- (N.Y. Sup. Ct. 2005), 56 tion, 617 N.Y.S.2d 984 (N.Y. App. Farnham v. Kittinger, 634 N.E.2d 162 Div. 1994), 153 (N.Y. 1994), 125-126 Gray v. City of Galveston, 2003 Tex. Farwell v. Keaton, 240 N.W.2d 217 App. LEXIS 10340 (Tex. Ct. App. (Mich. 1976), 112 Dec. 11, 2003), 99 Fedor v. Mauwehu Council, Boy Guerrero v. South Bay Union School Scouts of America, Inc., 143 A.2d District, 7 Cal. Rptr. 3d 509 (Cal. 466 (Conn. Super. Ct. 1958), 72, Ct. App. 2003), 85 165 Gustin v. Association of Camps Far- Feres v. United States, 340 U.S. 135 thest Out, 700 N.Y.S.2d 327 (N.Y. (1950), 99 App. Div. 1999), 166 Fielding v. Music Center Operating Haliw v. City of Sterling Heights, 627 Company, 2002 Cal. App. Unpub. N.W.2d 581 (Mich. 2001), 180 LEXIS 1290 (Cal. Ct. App. May Hardingham v. United Counseling 21, 2002), 180 Service of Bennington County, Flye v. City of Waco, 50 S.W.3d 645 672 A.2d 480 (Vt. 1995), 113 (Tex. App. Ct. 2001), 126 Harper v. Herman, 499 N.W.2d 472 Fritts v. Clover Park School District (Minn. 1993), 112 No. 400, 2003 Wash. App. LEXIS Harrison v. Middlesex Water Com- 2895 (Wash Ct. App. Dec. 9, pany, 386 A.2d 405 (N.J. Super. 2003), 166 Ct. 1978), 180 centner 00 fmt 8/14/08 7:10 AM Page xvi

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Harrold v. Polling J Ranch, 23 Cal. Jones v. Walker, 433 S.E.2d 726 (Ga. Rptr. 2d 671 (Cal. Ct. App. 1993), Ct. App. 1993), 139 139 Jordan v. Maple Ski Ridge, 645 Hawkins v. Peart, 37 P.2d 1062 (Utah N.Y.S.2d 598 (N.Y. App. Div. 2001), 72 1996), 153 Herman v. City of Tucson, 4 P.3d 973 Kayser v. Village of Warren, 707 (Ariz. Ct. App. 1999), 126 N.E.2d 285 (Ill. App. Ct. 1999), Herman v. State of New York, 472 100 N.E.2d 24 (N.Y. 1984), 140 Kellermann v. Car City Chevrolet- Hewitt v. Conway Stores, 699 N.Y.S.2d Nissan, Inc., 713 N.E.2d 1285 (Ill. 25 (N.Y. App. Div. 1999), 180 Ct. App. 1999), 180 Holland v. City of Renville, 2003 Kim v. Mirisis, 730 N.Y.S.2d 353 Minn. App. LEXIS 991 (Minn. Ct. (N.Y. App. Div. 2001), 41 App. Aug. 19, 2003), 180 Knight v. Jewett, 834 P.2d 696 (Cal. Hoye v. Illinois Power Company, 464 1992), 85-86 N.E.2d 651 (Ill. App. Ct. 1995), Kotary v. Spencer Speedway, Inc., 365 126-127 N.Y.S.2d 87 (N.Y. App. Div. 1975), Hubbard v. Brown, 785 P.2d 1183 72, 165 (Cal. 1990), 126 Kozak v. Broadway Joe’s, 745 In re Agent Orange Product Liability N.Y.S.2d 139 (N.Y. App. Div. Litigation, 818 F.2d 194 (2d Cir. 2002), 180 1987), 99 Lapinski v. Hunter Mountain Ski In re Consolidated United States At- Bowl, Inc., 760 N.Y.S.2d 549 (N.Y. mospheric Testing Litigation, 820 App. Div. 2003), 181 F.2d 982 (9th Cir. 1987), 99 Lincoln County v. Luning, 133 U.S. In re Joint Eastern and Southern Dis- 529 (1890), 98 tricts Asbestos Litigation, 891 F.2d Lindsay v. Cave Creek Outfitters, 31 (2d Cir. 1989), 99 L.L.C., 88 P.3d 557 (Ariz. 2003), 73 Jackson v. Mercy Health Center, Inc., Livshitz v. United States Tennis Asso- 864 P.2d 839 (Okla. 1993), 112 ciation, 761 N.Y.S.2d 825 (N.Y. Jackson v. Unified School District No. App. Div. 1999), 86 259, 995 P.2d 844 (Kan. 2000), 99 Loney v. Adirondack River Outfitters, Jackson v. Unified School District No. 762 N.Y.S.2d 555 (N.Y. App. Div. 259, 31 P.3d 989 (Kan. Ct. App. 2003), 85 2001), 99 Long v. Bogus Basin Recreational As- Jacobsen v. Rathdrum, 766 P.2d 736 sociation, 869 P.2d 230 (Idaho (Idaho 1988), 127 1994), 153 Jakubowski v. Alden-Bennett Con- Lowry v. Henry Mayo Newhall struction Company, 763 N.E.2d Memorial Hospital, 185 Cal. App. 790 (Ill. Ct. App. 2002), 28 3d 185 (Cal. App. 1986), 112 Johnson v. Lloyd’s of London, 653 Lugo v. Ameritech Corporation, 629 So.2d 226 (La. Ct. App. 1995), 126 N.W.2d 384 (Mich. 2001), 180 centner 00 fmt 8/14/08 7:10 AM Page xvii

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Lundman v. McKown, 530 N.W.2d Murphy v. North American River 807 (Minn. Ct. App. 1995), 112 Runners, Inc., 412 S.E.2d 504 (W. MacDonald v. City of Schenectady, Va. 1991), 152 761 N.Y.S.2d 752 (N.Y. App. Div. National By-Products, Inc. v. Searcy 2003), 180 House Moving Company, 731 Martinez v. Chippewa Enterprises, S.W.2d 194 (Ark. 1987), 139 Inc., 18 Cal. Rptr. 3d 152 (Cal. Ct. Nelson v. Freeland, 507 S.E.2d 882 App. 2004), 180 (N.C. 1998), 28 Maurer v. Oakland County Parks and Northcutt v. Sun Valley Co., 787 P.2d Recreation Department, 506 1159 (Idaho 1990), 153 N.W.2d 261 (Mich. Ct. App. O’Neal v. United States, 814 F.2d 1993), 180 1285 (9th Cir. 1987), 98 Maurin v. Hall, 682 N.W.2d 866 Olsen v. Robinson, 496 S.W.2d 462 (Wis. 2004), 42 (Tenn. 1973), 140 McHerron v. Jiminy Peak, Inc., 665 Otis v. Anoke-Hennepin School Dis- N.E.2d 26 (Mass. 1996), 153 trict, 611 N.W.2d 390 (Minn. Ct. McMillan v. Parker, 910 S.W.2d 616 App. 2000), 180 (Tex. App. 1995), 126 Overton v. City of New York, 675 Mead v. M.S.B., Inc., 872 P.2d 782 N.E.2d 1225 (N.Y. 1996), 181 (Mont. 1994), 153 Pelman v. McDonald’s Corporation, Mercer v. Fritts, 676 P.2d 150 (Kan. 237 F. Supp. 2d 512 (S.D. N.Y. Ct. App. 1984), 139 2003), 15 Merrill v. Sugarloaf Mountain Corp., Pelman v. McDonald’s Corporation, 698 A.2d 1042 (Me. 1997), 153 215 F.R.D. 96 (S.D. N.Y. 2003), 15 Michalovic v. Genessee-Monroe Rac- Pelman v. McDonald’s Corporation, ing Association, 436 N.Y.S. 468 2003 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 15202 (S.D. (N.Y. App. Div. 1981), 126 N.Y. Sept. 4, 2003)., 15 Mills v. Commonwealth of Pennsylva- Pelman v. McDonald’s Corporation, nia, 633 A.2d 1115 (Pa. 1993), 126 396 F.3d 508 (2d Cir. 2005), 15 Minnesota Fire & Casualty Insurance Pelman v. McDonald’s Corporation, Co.v.Paper Recycling Co., 627 396 F. Supp. 2d 439 (S.D. N.Y. N.W.2d 527 (Wis. 2001), 127 2005), 15 Mohney v. USA Hockey, Inc., 77 F. Pelman v. McDonald’s Corporation, Supp. 2d 859 (N.D. Ohio 1999), 452 F. Supp. 2d 320 (S.D. N.Y. 73 2006), 15 Morell v. Peekskill Ranch, Inc., 476 Platzer v. Mammoth Mountain Ski N.E.2d 645 (N.Y. 1985), 140 Area, 128 Cal. Rptr. 2d 885 (Cal. Morgan v. State of New York, 685 Ct. App. 2002), 72 N.E.2d 421 (N.Y. 1997), 85-86 Poulos v. Alpine Meadows Ski Corpo- Mosley v. San Bernardino City Uni- ration, 2002 Cal. App. Unpub. fied School District, 134 Cal. App. LEXIS 602 (Cal. Ct. App. May 1, 4th 1260 (Cal. Ct. App. 2005), 41 2002), 86 centner 00 fmt 8/14/08 7:10 AM Page xviii

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Proud v. United States, 723 F.2d 705 Schaefer v. Mt. Southington Ski Area, (9th Cir. 1984), 98 Inc., 1997 Conn. Super. LEXIS Quick v. Stone Mountain Memorial 2864 (Conn. App. Ct. Oct. 22, Association, 420 S.E.2d 36 (Ga. 1997), 152-153 Ct. App. 1992), 127 Schmitz v. Cannonsburg Skiing Ramundo v. Great American Recre- Corp., 428 N.W.2d 742 (Mich. Ct. ation, Inc., 677 A.2d 705 (N.J. App. 1988), 152 1996), 152 Schwartz v. Armand Erpf Estate, 688 Relyea v. United States, 220 F. Supp. N.Y.S.2d 55 (N.Y. App. Div. 1999), 2d 1048 (D. Ariz. 2002), 98 166 Rexroad v. City of Springfield, 796 Scott v. City of Los Angeles, 2005 N.E.2d 1040 (Ill. 2003), 100 Cal. App. Unpub. LEXIS 3677 Richardson v. City of Bakersfield, (Cal. Ct. App. Apr. 26, 2005), 27 2002 Cal. App. Unpub. LEXIS Scott v. Pacific West Mountain Re- 7774 (Cal. Ct. App. Aug. 19, sort, 834 P.2d 6 (Wash. 1992), 72, 2002), 180 165 Rivera v. Arana, 749 N.E.2d 434 (Ill Scrapchansky v. Town of Plainfield, App. Ct. 2001), 112 627 A.2d 1329 (Conn. 1993), 126 Robbins v. Great Northern Paper Co., Seich v. Town of Canton, 686 N.E.2d 557 A.2d 614 (Me. 1989), 126 981 (Mass. 1997), 127 Roberson v. J.C. Penney Co., 623 Sena v. Town of Greenfield, 696 N.E.2d 364 (Ill. App. Ct. 1993), 140 N.E.2d 996 (N.Y. 1998), 126 Robinson v. Pediatric Affiliates Med- Shandy v. Sombrero Ranches, 525 P.2d ical Group, Inc., 159 Cal. Rptr. 487 (Colo. Ct. App. 1974), 139 791 (Cal. Ct. App. 1979), 58 Shoemaker v. Whitney Point Central Rodriguez v. New York Public High School District, 750 N.Y.S.2d 355 School Athletic Association, 2005 (N.Y. App. Div. 2002), 166 N.Y. Misc. LEXIS 2722 (Supreme Skene v. Fileccia, 539 N.W.2d 531 Court of Albany County, Dec. 6, (Mich. Ct. App. 1995), 152 2005), 16 Smith v. Arizona Board of Regents, Rousseau v. Beckley, 1996 Conn. 986 P.2d 247 (Ariz. Ct. App. Super. LEXIS 3509 (Conn. App. 1999), 126 Ct. Nov. 27, 1996), 153 Snyder v. North Allegheny School Ruppa v. American States Insurance District, 722 A.2d 239 (Pa. Company, 284 N.W.2d 318 (Wis. Commw. Ct. 1998), 180 1979), 139 Stanley v. Creighton Company, 911 Sajkowski v. Young Men’s Christian P.2d 705 (Colo. App. 1996), 73 Association, 702 N.Y.S.2d 66 (N.Y. Steel v. Houghton, 126 Eng. Rep. 32 App. Div. 2000), 27 (1788), 113 Saldarini v. Wachusett Mountain Ski Stein v. The Chicago Park District, Area, Inc., 665 N.E.2d 79 (Mass. 752 N.E.2d 631 (Ill. App. Ct. 1996), 153 2001), 98 centner 00 fmt 8/14/08 7:10 AM Page xix

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Stramka v. Salt River Recreation, Inc., Turgeon v. Commonwealth Edison 877 P.2d 1339 (Ariz. Ct. App. Co., 630 N.E.2d 1318 (Ill. App. Ct. 1994), 126 1994), 126 Street v. Chang, 224 Cal. App. 3d United States v. Georgia, 126 S. Ct. 1397 (Cal. Ct. App. 1990), 112 877 (2006), 98 Sytner v. State, 645 N.Y.S.2d 654 University Preparatory School v. (N.Y. App. Div. 1996), 152 Huitt, 941 S.W.2d 177 (Tex. Ct. Tan v. Goddard, 17 Cal. Rptr. 2d 89 App. 1996), 28, 181 (Cal. Ct. App. 1993), 139 USM Corporation v. Marson Fastener Tatum v. Gigliotti, 583 A.2d 1062 Corporation, 467 N.E.2d 1271 (Md. 1991), 112 (Mass. 1984), 43 Teters v. Scottsbluff Public Schools, Vacala v. Village of Lagrange Park, 592 N.W.2d 155 (Neb. 1999), 636 N.E.2d 812 (Ill. App. Ct. 127 1994), 100 Texas v. Shumake, 131 S.W.3d 66 Van Dinter v. City of Kennewick, 827 (Tex. Ct. App. 2003), 99 P.2d 329 (Wash. Ct. App. 1992), Texas v. Shumake, 199 S.W.3d 279 126 (Tex. 2006), 100 Vine v. Bear Valley Ski Company, 13 Tiedeman v. Morgan, 435 N.W.2d 86 Cal. Rptr. 3d 370 (Cal. Ct. App. (Minn. Ct. App. 1989), 113 2004), 86 Tijerina v. Cornelius Christian Volcanic Gardens Management Co. v. Church, 539 P.2d 634 (Ore. 1975), Beck, 863 S.W.2d 780 (Tex. Ct. 126 App. 1993), 181 Toogood v. St. Andrews at Valley Wagenblast v. Odessa School District, Brook Condominium Association, 758 P.2d 968 (Wash. 1998), 72 712 A.2d 1262 (N.J. Super. Ct. Weisenburg v. Townsend, 2000 Wash. 1998), 126 App. LEXIS 1619 (Wash Ct. App. Torres v. City of Waco, 51 S.W.3d 814 Aug. 28, 2000), 166 (Tex. App. Ct. 2001), 126 Weisman v. U.S. Blades, 552 N.W.2d Tow ns v. Davidson, 147 Cal. App. 484 (Mich. Ct. App. 1996), 152 4th 461 (Cal. Ct. App. 2007), 195 Westlye v. Look Sports, Inc., 22 Cal Trainer v. Camp Hadar Hatorah, 748 Rptr. 2d 781 (Cal. Ct. App. 1993), N.Y.S.2d 386 (N.Y. App. Div. 72 2002), 27 Wiener v. Southcoast Childcare Cen- Transportation Insurance Company v. ters, Inc., 132 Cal. Rptr. 2d 883 Moriel, 879 S.W.2d 10 (Tex. 1994), (Cal. Ct. App. 2003), 166 100 Wiener v. Southcoast Childcare Cen- Tullis v. Pittsburg State University, 16 ters, Inc., 88 P.2d 517 (Cal. 2004), P.3d 971 (Kan. Ct. App. 2000), 99 166 Tunkl v. Regents of the University of Williams v. Neutercorp, 1995 Tex. California, 383 P.2d 441 (Cal. App. LEXIS 833 (Tex. Civ. App. 1963), 72 Apr. 20, 1995), 113 centner 00 fmt 8/14/08 7:10 AM Page xx

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Wilson v. Kansas State University, 44 Wright v. Unified School District No. P.3d 454 (Kan. 2002), 99 379, 28 Kan. App. 2d 177 (Kan. Wolfson v. Glass, 754 N.Y.S.2d 82 Ct. App. 2000), 99 (N.Y. App. Div. 2003), 152-153 Yauger v. Skiing Enterprises, Inc., 557 Wolter v. Chicago Melrose Park Asso- N.W.2d 60 (Wis. 1996), 72, 152 ciates, 386 N.E.2d 495 (Ill. App. Young v. Commonwealth, 744 A.2d Ct. 1979), 140 1276 (Pa. 2000), 28 Wood v. County of San Joaquin, 4 Zivich v. Mentor Soccer Club, 696 Cal. Rptr. 3d 340 (Cal. Ct. App. N.E.2d 201 (Ohio 1998), 73 2003), 180 centner 00 fmt 8/14/08 7:10 AM Page xxi

Table of Statutes

28 U.S.C. §2671, 98 California Education Code §44808, 28 U.S.C. §2672, 98 41 42 U.S.C. §1983, 98 California Vehicle Code §21212, 140 Alabama Code §6-5-337, 139 Colorado Revised Statutes Annotated Alabama Code §§32-5a-280 to 32-5a- §12-64-118, 113 286, 140, 167 Colorado Revised Statutes Annotated Alabama Code §34-29-90, 113 §13-21-119, 139 Alaska Statutes §09.65.097(a), 113 Colorado Revised Statutes Annotated Arizona Revised Statutes Annotated §13-21-120, 152 §12-553(A)(2), 73 Colorado Revised Statutes Annotated Arkansas Code Annotated §16-120- §33-44-109, 152 202, 139 Connecticut General Statutes Anno- Arkansas Code Annotated §18-11- tated §14-286d, 140 302, 127 Connecticut General Statutes Anno- Arkansas Code Annotated §18-60- tated §29-214, 153 107, 113 Connecticut General Statutes Anno- California Business and Professions tated §52-557p, 139 Code §2395, 112 Delaware Code Annotated, tit. 21, California Business and Professions §4198L, 140 Code §2395.5, 112 Florida Statutes Annotated California Business and Professions §316.2065, 140 Code §2398, 112 Florida Statutes Annotated California Civil Code §846, 113, 125- §768.13(3), 113 126 Florida Statutes Annotated §768.137, California Civil Code §846.2, 113 113 California Civil Code §1431.2(a), 58 Florida Statutes Annotated §§773.01 California Civil Code §1668, 72 to 773.05, 139 California Civil Code §3333, 50, 58, Georgia Code Annotated §§4-12-1 to 211 4-12-4, 139 California Civil Code §3333.1, 50, 58 Georgia Code Annotated §4-12-4(b), California Civil Code §3333.2, 211 140

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Georgia Code Annotated §40-6- Maine Revised Statutes Annotated, 296(e), 140 tit. 32, §15217, 153 Georgia Code Annotated §§50-21-20 Maryland Code Annotated, Courts & to 50-21-37, 99 Judicial Proceedings §5-404, 113 Hawaii Revised Statutes Annotated Maryland Code Annotated, Natural §663-1.54, 152 Resources §5-1105, 127 Hawaii Revised Statutes Annotated Maryland Code Annotated, Trans- §663B-2, 139 portation §21-1207.1, 140 Idaho Code §6-1102(6), 153 Massachusetts General Laws Anno- Idaho Code §6-1103, 153 tated, ch. 85, §§11B to 11D, 140 Idaho Code §§6-1201, 1205, 1206, 153 Massachusetts General Laws Anno- Illinois Compiled Statutes Annotated, tated, ch. 128, §2D, 139 ch. 225, §115/18, 113 Massachusetts General Laws Anno- Illinois Compiled Statutes Annotated, tated, ch. 143, §71O, 152 ch. 745, §§10/3-101 to 10/3-110, Michigan Compiled Laws Annotated 99 §324.73301, 113, 153 Illinois Compiled Statutes Annotated, Michigan Compiled Laws Annotated ch. 745, §10/3-106, 98, 100 §445.1723, 73 Illinois Compiled Statutes Annotated, Michigan Compiled Laws Annotated ch. 745, §47/20, 140 §691.1662(f), 139 Illinois Compiled Statutes Annotated, Minnesota Statutes Annotated ch. 745, §47/25, 140 §604.02, 58 Illinois Compiled Statutes Annotated, Minnesota Statutes Annotated ch. 745, §65/2, 126-127 §604A.12, 139 Illinois Compiled Statutes Annotated, Mississippi Code Annotated §§95-11- ch. 745, §72/25, 152 1 to 95-11-7, 139 Indiana Code Annotated §14-22-10- Missouri Annotated Statutes 2.5(2)(B), 127 §340.328, 113 Indiana Code Annotated §34-31-6-3, Missouri Annotated Statutes 152 §537.325, 139 Internal Revenue Code §170(c), 197 Montana Code Annotated §23-2-731, Iowa Code §135.24, 112 153 Kansas Statutes Annotated §§60-4001 Montana Code Annotated §23-2- to 60-4004, 139 736(4), 153 Kansas Statutes Annotated §75- Nebraska Revised Statutes §§37-729, 6104(o), 99 37-733, 37-734, 127 Louisiana Revised Statutes Annotated Nebraska Revised Statutes §37-729(2), §9:2795.1, 139 126 Louisiana Revised Statutes Annotated Nebraska Revised Statutes §43-801, §§9:2799, 9:2800.4, 113 166 Maine Revised Statutes Annotated, Nevada Revised Statutes §§41.491, tit. 14, §159-A(1)(B), 127 41.510, 41.510(4), 113 centner 00 fmt 8/14/08 7:10 AM Page xxiii

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New Jersey Statutes Annotated Rhode Island General Laws §§4-21-1 §2A:42A-4, 127 to 4-21-2, 139 New Jersey Statutes Annotated Rhode Island General Laws §11-56-1, §§39:4-10.1 to 39:4-10.4, 140 113 New Jersey Statutes Annotated Rhode Island General Laws §31-19- §45:16-9.11, 113 2.1, 140 New Jersey Statutes Annotated South Dakota Codified Laws Anno- §§59:4-1, 59:4-2, 72, 181 tated §§42-11-1 to 42-11-5, 139 New Jersey Statutes Annotated §59:4- Tennessee Code Annotated §§44-20- 2, 72, 180-181 101 to 44-20-105, 139 New Jersey Annotated Statutes Tennessee Code Annotated §44-20- §§59:4-2, 59:4-3, 180 102(4), 139 New Mexico Statutes Annotated §42- Tennessee Code Annotated §44-20- 13-4, 73, 139 103, 139 New York General Business Law Tennessee Code Annotated §§55-52- §§349 & 350, 15 101 to 55-52-106, 140 New York Civil Practice Law and Tennessee Code Annotated §70-7- Rules §4545, 58 104, 126 New York Court of Claims Act §8, 99 Tennessee Code Annotated §§70-7- New York General Obligations Law 102, 70-7-103, 113 §9-103, 165 Tennessee Constitution, article I, New York General Obligations Law §17, 98 §18-101, 152 Texas Civil Practice & Remedies Code New York General Obligations Law Annotated §§75.001 to 75.004, 100 §18-103, 152 Texas Civil Practice & Remedies Code New York General Obligations Law Annotated §75.001(3), 126 §18-105, 181 Texas Civil Practice & Remedies Code New York Vehicle and Traffic Law Annotated §75.002, 99, 125–126 §1238, 140 Texas Civil Practice & Remedies Code New York Vehicle and Traffic Law Annotated §75.003, 127 §1265, 167 Texas Civil Practice & Remedies Code North Carolina General Statutes Annotated §101.021, 100 §§1D15, 1D-25, 43 Texas Civil Practice & Remedies Code North Carolina General Statutes Annotated §§101.021, 101.022, §106-706, 113 100 Ohio Revised Code Annotated Texas Civil Practice & Remedies Code §§2305.35 to 2305.38, 113 Annotated §101.0215, 100 Ohio Revised Code Annotated Texas Family Code Annotated §4171.10, 152 §41.001, 166 Pennsylvania Statutes Annotated, tit. Texas Occupations Code Annotated 68, §477-6(2), 127 §801.358, 113 Rhode Island General Laws §4-15-5, Utah Code Annotated §§4-34-1 to 4- 113 34-6, 113 centner 00 fmt 8/14/08 7:10 AM Page xxiv

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Utah Code Annotated §58-13-3, 72 West Virginia Code §20-3B-5, Vermont Statutes, tit. 12, §519, 113 152–153 Washington Revised Code Annotated West Virginia Code §§17C-11A-1 to §69.80.031(2)(c), 113 17C-11A-9, 140 Washington Revised Code Annotated Wyoming Statutes §§1-1-121 to 1-1- §§69.80.031 to 69.80.900, 113 123, 139, 153 West Virginia Code §§20-3B-1 to 20- Wyoming Statutes §1-1-122, 152 3B-5, 152 centner 00 fmt 8/14/08 7:10 AM Page xxv

Table of Acts and Bills

Act of April 20, 1871, 17 Statutes 13 of 2007, H.R. Bill No. 2580 (1871), 98 (2007), 41 Aviation Medical Assistance Act of Medical Care Access Protection Act of 1998, Public Law No. 105-170, 2007, S. Bill No. 243 (2007), 41 112 Statutes 47 (1998), 92, 98 Private Securities Litigation Reform Bill Emerson Good Samaritan Food Act of 1995, Public Law No. 104- Donation Act, Public Law No. 104- 67, 109 Statutes 737 (1995), 92, 98 210, 110 Statutes 3012 (1996), 99 Public Law No. 79-601, 60 Statutes California Statutes, ch. 1507 (1959), 842 (1946), 98 112 Public Law No. 89-506, § 1(a), 80 Commonsense Consumption Act of Statutes 306 (1966), 98 2007, H.R. Bill No. 2183 (2007), 41 Public Law 109-92 (2005), 195 Commonsense Consumption Act of Securities Litigation Uniform Stan- 2007, S. Bill No. 1323 (2007), 41 dards Act of 1998, Public Law No. Comprehensive HealthCARE Act of 105-353, 112 Statutes 3227 (1998), 2007, H.R. Bill No. 2626 (2007), 41 92, 98 Georgia Laws, p. 1883, § 1 (1992), 99 Small Business Liability Reform Act Healthy Mothers and Healthy Babies of 2007, H.R. Bill No. 2995 Access to Care Act, S. Bill No. 244 (2007), 41 (2007), 41 Volunteer Protection Act of 1997, Help Efficient, Accessible, Low-cost, Public Law No. 105-19, 111 Timely Healthcare (HEALTH) Act Statutes 218 (1997), 99

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Table of Text and Periodical Citations

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Acknowledgments

I would acknowledge my gratitude to the Alexander von Humboldt Foun- dation (Bonn, Germany), the J. William Fulbright Foreign Scholarship Board (U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C.), Cornell University’s William Fred- erick Dreer Scholarship Fund (Ithaca, New York), and The University of Geor- gia’s College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences (Athens, Georgia) for helping fund various international research and teaching programs that contributed to this book. Their programs enabled me to live and travel in Eu- rope and observe distinctions in liability law. I would also express my appreciation to the many friends in foreign coun- tries who opened their hearts and homes to me during my travels. I am truly honored to have been able to partake of their generosity and assistance during my sojourns around the world. My heartfelt thanks to Torgeir and Liv Auste- naa, Miguel Angel Acosta, Miguel Boffino, Cristina Calegario, Claudio d’Aloya, Alberto Ricardo Dalla Via, Jose and Irma Ferrero, Kristian Fischer, Clemens Fuchs, Brian Hackett, Maria Held, Martha Held, Haluk Kabaalioglu, Karl Kreuzer, Bruno Lanfranco, Louis Lorvellec, Lorna McRobie, Gillian Philipson, Eibe Riedel, Andreas and Melanie Siebert, Wolfgang and Gerda Sturm, Alister Tay- lor, and Wolfgang and Edda Winkler. I would also thank all my friends and colleagues at The University of Geor- gia for their support and encouragement of my endeavors. Above all, special thanks to my family who altered and rearranged their schedules to allow me to travel and continue my academic pursuits.

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