The History of Loan Words in English and Its Impact on the English Lexicon

Journal of Critical Reviews ISSN- 2394-5125 Vol 6, Issue 6, 2019

The history of loan words in English and its impact on the English Lexicon

Dr Jumah Yousif Qreshat

PYP, NORTHERN BORDADER UNIVERSITY, SAUDIA ARIBIA, ARAR EMAIL:[email protected]

Received: 25.08.2019 Revised: 24.09.2019 Accepted: 26.09.2019

Abstract English is now a global language with an estimate of approximately 1.5 billion people across the world. The English Language has loan words from languages across the world. This paper aims at discussing the evolution of English Vocabulary due to borrowing. The paper mainly looks at the evolution of English vocabulary due to loan words. This change will be looked in terms of both the meaning and form of the words. The study will be conducted under the linguistic concept of borrowing and change, studying the words in context of sound change, morphological change and stylistic developments in written English. We will also study the concept of loan words against the concept of semantic borrowing. The category of loanwords will also be extended to loan translations and its overall impact on the vocabulary. The study is conducted chronologically starting from early contact in continental Europe and Britain, Proto English in contact with Latin towards Old English, Borrowings from French and Latin towards middle English, loan words from other languages like Hebrew, Italian, Dutch, Portuguese, High German and Yiddish, Russian, French, Arabic, Malay, languages of South Asia towards early modern English. The paper concludes with the long-term effects of loanwords on the form of English lexicon.

Keywords: Borrowing, Change, Loan Words, Historical linguistics, Form, Meaning, Modern English, Old English, Middle English, Donor Language, Receiver Language, Diachronic Study

Introduction Borrowing is a Linguistic process in which one word of language that the loanword belongs to in English. For instance, in old is borrowed from one language to another. The words borrowed English borrowed verbs need to be accommodated are called loan words. morphologically to one of the old English verb classes, hence Lexical borrowing occurs when the lexis of donor language Latin Plantre > Old English plantian ‘to plant’, showing the influences the lexis of receiving language with the effect on infinitive ending –ian of verbs of the second weak class. vocabulary by acquiring a new word form or word meaning or Code switching is another term used in this domain. Most scholars both. consider that code switching occurs when bilingual or This paper mainly deals with loanwords. Philip Durkin defines multilingual speakers mix elements from more than one language loanwords in English as a result from borrowing of a word form within a single act of communication, whether within a sentence with its meaning or a component of meaning from one language or in successive sentences. to another. Thus, English image ‘artificial imitation or More controversial point I whether we should call code switches representation of something’ reflects a Middle English borrowing at the level of a single word code switches, or whether threes of French image in the same meaning. should be regarded as borrowings, simply occurring in the The other types of lexical borrowing that we observe in English language of bilingual or multilingual speakers; when single-word Language involve borrowing of meaning but not of the word form code switches and nonce borrowing are distinguished. and can conveniently be referred to under the cover term Another theoretical distinction is that of borrowing and semantic borrowing. In some cases, the structure of the word in imposition, Imposition is used for the process by which speakers the donor language is replicated by a new word in the borrowing introduce new material into a language in the process of a shift language. E.g. English Almighty was probably formed on the from primary use of one language into the primary use of model of Latin omnipotence; the components ‘all’ and ‘mighty’ of another. This is typically in a situation of language death, where a the English word match closely with components of Omni- ‘all’ community ceases to use one language in favour of another. and potens ‘might, powerful’ of the Latin word. This is typically called loan translation Literature Review Semantic borrowing is mostly found in Old English. The Works of Einar Haugen(1950) and Uriel Weiner are regarded as terminology differs considerably in this area. It is also an area the classical theoretical works on loan influence. The basic where it is difficult to be certain that borrowing has occurred. This theoretical nomenclature take Betz as its starting point. paper doesn’t focus on semantic borrowing except for On the basis of importation-substitution distinction, comparisons with the borrowing of loanwords and for case of Haugen(1950:214f.) distinguishes three basic groups of loanwords that show continuing borrowing of new meanings borrowings: “(1) Loanwords show morphemic importation from the original donor. E.g. To present acquires some further without substitution. (2) Loan blends show morphemic meanings from French much later, e.g. ‘to stage or put on’ in the substitution as well as importation. (3) Laonshifts show sixteenth century. morphemic substitution without importation” Haugen refined Another category of loan blends where a borrowed word is (1956) his model in a review of Gneuss’s (1955) book on Old remodelled using material from the borrowed language. For English loans, whose classification, in turn is the one by example, old English feferfuge ‘feverfew’ (the name of a plant Betz.(1949) again. traditionally used for medicinal purposes shows a borrowing of Weinreich (1953): 47ff) differentiated between two mechanisms Latin febris in the same meaning.) of lexical interference, those initiated by simple words and those Loanwords in English sometimes show suffixation of the initiated by compound words and phrases. borrowed word stems with a suffix that signals the word class Weinreich (1953:47) defines simple words “from the point of view

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of the bilinguals who perform the transfer, rather than that of the French) words into English occurred after the Norman Conquest descriptive linguist. Accordingly, the category ‘simple’ words also of 1066, and thus in the Middle English rather than the Old include compounds that are transferred in unanalysed form”. English period. After this general classification, Weinrich then resorts to Betz’s Another source of loanwords was Old Norse, which met Old (1949) terminology. English via the Scandinavian rulers and settlers in the Danelaw The most seminal work on history of loan words in English is still from the late 9th century and during the rule of Cnut and other of Philip Durkin (2015) who has exhaustively explored the Danish kings in the early 11th century. Many place-names in history of loanwords in English and how English has evolved all eastern and northern England are of Scandinavian origin. Norse through these stages in History. borrowings are relatively rare in Old English literature, being mostly terms relating to government and administration. The English literary standard, however, was based on the West Saxon dialect, English is a West Germanic language believed to be first spoken away from the main area of Scandinavian influence; the impact of by people living in early medieval England. The history of English Norse may have been greater in the eastern and northern dialects. Language is divided into four main periods namely Old English, Certainly, in Middle English texts, Middle English, Early modern English and Later modern English. which are more often based on eastern dialects, a strong Norse This classification is based on some major changes in grammar, influence becomes apparent. Modern English contains a great pronunciation, and vocabulary of English. This paper majorly many, often every day, words that were borrowed from Old concerns with the periods mentioned in Oxford English Norse, and the grammatical simplification that occurred after the Dictionary.Old English is traced to the period up to 1150( just after Old English period is also often attributed to Norse influence. the Norman conquest); middle English from c. 1150 to c. The influence of Old Norse certainly helped move English from a 1500(when printing press came to Britain) and modern English synthetic language along the continuum to a more analytic word after c. 1500 onwards which further is subdivided into early order, and Old Norse most likely made a greater impact on the modern English till 1700s and Later modern English from 1700 English language than any other language. The eagerness of onwards. Vikings in the Danelaw to communicate with their southern The transition from Old English Vocabulary to Middle English is Anglo-Saxon neighbors produced a friction that led to the erosion characterised largely by a very gradual loss of grammatical of the complicated inflectional word-endings. Simeon Potter gender which is also the period of borrowing from notes: "No less far-reaching was the influence of Scandinavian French and Latin with major consequences for the vocabulary of upon the in flexional endings of English in hastening that wearing English and from Scandinavian languages. away and leveling of grammatical forms which gradually spread Early modern English is majorly characterised by a series of far- from north to south. It was, after all, a salutary influence. The gain reaching changes in the pronunciation of vowels known as Great was greater than the loss. There was a gain in directness, in Vowel Shift. The early stages are marked by greater codification clarity, and in strength." of the standard variety of territories around the world. The strength of the Viking influence on Old English appears from the fact that the indispensable elements of the language – Old English pronouns, modals, comparatives, pronominal adverbs (like Old English also known as Anglo-Saxon is the earliest historical "hence" and "together"), conjunctions and prepositions – show form of the English language, spoken in England and southern the most marked Danish influence; the best evidence of and eastern Scotland in early Middle Ages. It was brought to Great Scandinavian influence appears in the extensive word borrowings th for, as Jespersen indicates, no texts exist in either Scandinavia or Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers probably in the mid-5 century, in Northern England from this time to give certain evidence of an th and the first Old English literary works date from mid-7 influence on syntax. The change to Old English from Old Norse century. After the Norman conquest of 1066, English was was substantive, pervasive, and of a democratic character. Old replaced as the language of upper classes by Anglo-Norman. This Norse and Old English resembled each other closely like cousins is considered as marking the end of the Old English era, as in this and with some words in common, they roughly understood each period the English language was heavily influenced by Anglo- other; in time the inflections melted away and the analytic pattern Norman, developing into Middle English. The closest relatives of emerged. It is most "important to recognize that in many words old English are Old Frisian and Old Saxon. the English and Scandinavian language differed chiefly in their The grammar of Old English is like that of modern German as inflectional elements. The body of the word was so nearly the nouns, adjectives, pronouns and verbs have inflectional endings same in the two languages that only the endings would put and forms and word order is much freer. The oldest English obstacles in the way of mutual understanding. In the mixed th population which existed in the Danelaw these endings must have inscriptions were written using runic system, but from about 9 led to much confusion, century this was replaced by version of Latin alphabet. tending gradually to become obscured and finally lost." This Old English doesn’t appear to have been significantly affected by blending of peoples and languages resulted in "simplifying the native British Celtic languages which were largely displaced English grammar". by Old English. However old English contained a certain number of loanwords from Latin, which was the lingua franca of Western Middle English Europe. The transition from Late Old English to Early Middle English Old English contained a certain number of loanwords from Latin, th which was the scholarly and diplomatic lingua franca of Western occurred in the latter part of the 11 century. Most loanwords Europe. It is sometimes possible to give approximate dates for the were taken from Latin, usually through French transmission. This borrowing of individual Latin words based on which patterns of gave rise to various synonyms including kingly (inherited from sound change they have undergone. Some Latin words had Old English), royal (from French, which inherited it from Vulgar already been borrowed into the Germanic languages before the Latin), and regal (from French, which borrowed it from classical ancestral Angles and Saxons left continental Europe for Britain. Latin). Later French appropriations were derived from standard, More entered the language when the Anglo-Saxons were rather than Norman French. converted to Christianity and Latin-speaking priests became Examples of resultant cognate pairs include the words warden influential. It was also through Irish Christian missionaries that (from Norman), and guardian the Latin alphabet was introduced and adapted for the writing of (from later French; both share a common Germanic ancestor). Old English, replacing the earlier runic system. Nonetheless, the largest transfer of Latin-based (mainly Old

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Modern English languages taken for reference for this study must be approached Modern English also knows as New English spoken since the with caution. It is to be remarked that such figures can only refer th to a period in the history of English language and to the variety or Great Vowel Shift in England, Which Began in the late 14 register these belong to. The data selected for this study is taken century till approximately 1550. English was adopted in regions from Philip Durkin’s study of borrowed words who has prepared around the world, such as North America, the Indian the word list exhaustively assessing and classifying etymologies. subcontinent, Africa, Australia and New The usual starting point of the word list is the OED, comprising a Zealand through colonization by the British Empire. With rapid wordlist of 600,000 lexemes arranged under 275,000 headword process of globalization, interconnections among countries in entries. Durkin suggests that OED should not be taken as a areas of economics, politics, culture, science, and technology get catalogue of every word 0or expression that ever is or has been strengthened. As a result of this, English, as the world language, used in English. It investigates how loanwords are one area has borrowed a large number of words from foreign languages among many in which the vocabulary of English can be hugely like French, German, Italian, Russian, Chinese Japanese, Greek, variable from one individual to another, and how a common core Spanish, Arabian, etc. According to surveys, the percentage of of shared vocabulary shades off into hugely varied individual modern English words derived from each language is 29% from repertoires of lexical items depending on location, profession, French, 29% from Latin, 26% from German, and 6% from Greek, interests and individual experience. The selection criteria of OED the rest accounting for 6%. for including lexemes pay careful attention to questions of Chinese Origin Words with Chinese origin have entered the frequency of use, and its wordlist can be taken as a good English language, most of which were loan words from Chinese reflection of those words that have had most impact on the itself. However, Chinese words have also entered indirectly via lexicon of English since the twelfth century. It is a well-known fact other languages, especially Korean and Japanese. The latter part that no dictionary could ever enlist all English words, since the of 20th century witnessed greater influx of loan words with vocabulary is almost infinitely extendible by regular processes of Chinese origin into English via modern international word formation as well as by borrowing from other languages. communication, especially after the 1970s when the People’s Fig.1. Presents the total of loanwords from the most prolific donor Republic of China opened its door to the outside world. They languages as reflected by the two large contiguous alphabetical include Fengshui, wirefu, Sifu, lose face, one country two systems, ranges of OED3 that have so far been published, as of November tuhao, dama, buzheteng, no zuo no die, Lao-tzu, Tai-chi, Tao, 2012 comprising all the letters M, N, O, P, Q, R and A from A to taikonaut, Cultural Revolution, planned commodity economy, ALZ. Approximately 92, 500 dictionary entries fall into these iron rice bowl, township enterprises, little emperor, one child alphabetical ranges, constituting the bulk of OED3 material so far policy, vegetable basket project, Lianghui, etc. published. Among the 92,500 main entries that make up the Since China has profound and rich food culture, Chinese dishes alphabetical ranges M, N, O, P, Q, R, and A to ALZ in OED3, entered the West. Quite a few English loan words from Chinese approximately 30% are identified as loanwords from other appeared on the menu of the western restaurants: Mushu Pork, languages. Fig.1. shows how dramatically the totals of loanwords Dim Sum, Ramen, Wonton, ginkgo, ginseng, lychee, Chaomein, etc. from different languages differ. Fig.2. Henceforth consists of a Internet loan words of Chinese appear in numbers, too: human series of charts, each to different scale, enabling the totals to be flesh search, play hide and seek, to get soy sauce, wechat, weibo, seen more clearly. In each successive chart, the language that was knock off, alibaba, etc. on the right-hand edge of the preceding chart appears first at the

left-hand edge. These charts take the totals beyond the top Introduction to data - Examining loanwords in the high- twenty-five donors, to include Welsh and Cornish, as long- frequency vocabulary of modern English standing Celtic neighbors of English in the British Isles. The proportions of English vocabulary borrowed from various

Fig:1

Totals of loanwords from 25 most prolific inputs in OED 3

14,000

12,000

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

Irish

Only

only

Urdu Urdu 1875

Latin

Hindi

Maori Maori

Dutch Malay

Greek Greek

Italian Italian Arabic

Yiddish

Russian Russian Persian

Spanish Spanish

German German Hebrew

Sanskrit Sanskrit Chinese Chinese

german

Japanese

post

Latin

Portuguese

French French

and/or

scandinavian

Low

Early

French

Afrikaans Afrikaans Middle

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14,000

12,000

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

0 Latin Only French Only Greek French and/or Latin German

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0 German Italian Spanish Dutch Early Scandinavian

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300

250

200

150

100

120

100

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Fig 2. Durkin’s distinction of Languages seems quite feasible in terms of Fig.3 is based on the data provided by Philip Durkin in is diachronic study of languages. Low German, High German, Early exhaustive study of loanwords in English. He looked at 1,000 Scandinavian etc. are very distinctly defined by Durkin in his most frequent words in the British National Corpus (BNC). His book Borrowed Words: A history of Loanwords in English. selection of this corpus frequency list distinguishes ‘words’ In fact, the ultimate contribution of loanwords to the vocabulary syntactically. He found that 529(53%) of these words are either of English is much higher than even these numerical totals loanwords, or (in about 58 cases in total) are formed from suggest, if we also take into consideration all the words formed loanwords, either by conversion or derivation, or (in very few within English from borrowed words. The inherited portion of cases) showing compounds or lexicalised phrases with a the vocabulary of English that goes back to Old English is borrowed word as one of their elements. He has treated all these relatively small: the OED lists among its 275,000 headwords cases together, since for present purposes the most important entries approximately 9,600 words(around 3.5%) surviving point is that all these high frequency lexemes have loanwords as beyond 1150 that were first attested before 1150. (Even this total their basis, either directly or indirectly includes several hundred pre-1150 loanwords from Latin and The breakdown of donor languages is as follows smaller numbers of loanwords from Scandinavian and Celtic languages, but these are very approximately counterbalanced by words not recorded until after 1150 that are nonetheless generally considered to be of native origin and to have existed already in Old English.) Thus, if we put together all of the words found before 1150 and all of the words known to have been borrowed subsequently from other languages, we have only about one-third of the OED headword list. Some of the remaining words are of unknown origin, and may be borrowings , while others can be identified pretty confidently as imitative formations reflecting non- linguistic sounds in the external world(e.g. bangs or crashes, animal cries, or natural utterances such as groans), and others are derived from proper names. However, the vast majority are formed from those words that are either inherited or borrowed, chiefly by processes of compounding, derivation, or conversion, e.g. from fork, we find fork handle, forked and to fork. In some cases the relationship with the parent words remains transparent; in others it has become opaque, e.g. in lord or lady, both of which originally showed compounds of loaf.

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The history of loan words in English and its impact on the English Lexicon

: Number of words Donor Language Remarks from Durkin 487(92%) French, Latin or French and/or Latin Comprising 220 just from French 58 just from Latin 209 just from French and/or Latin 32(6%) Scandinavian 4(1%) Italian 1 from each language notes Welsh; Middle Low (collectively 1%) German, Spanish and /or Italian; French or Italian; French or Latin with maybe some direct Greek input; hybrid from Scandinavian, Latin and/or French

Totals of loanwords from Scandinavian, French, Latin, and french and/or Latin in the 1000 most frequent words in the BNC. 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Old English 1150-1299 1300-1499 1500s 1600s 1700s

Scandinavian French Latin Latin and/or French

Fig 3.

SOED (%) ALD (%) GSL (%) Inherited 22.2 27.43 47.08 French 28.37 35.89 38.2 Other Romance 1.86 1.6 0.2 languages Latin 28.29 22.05 9.59 Greek 5.32 1.59 0.25 Scandinavian element 2.16 2.51 3.11 Dutch, Low German, Frisian 1.42 1.61 0.7

High German (incl. Yiddish) 0.5 0.28 0

Celtic 0.43 0.32 0.025

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Other European languages 0.13 0.11 0 Non-European Languages 2 1.12 0.05

Unknown Etymologies 4.03 3.84 0.98 Proper names 3.29 1.96 0 Source: Scheler (1977) 72

Fig 4. Proportions of words of different origins in modern English

Column 1 60 0

40 0

20 0 Not Latin and Scandinavi Other borrowed French an s 0 Combined

Thus in these charts category ‘others’ is by far the largest. The West Germanic and because of this, some English words are vast majority of the words in this category are formed by essentially similar to their German lexical counterparts, either in compounding, conversion, or derivation, either from words that spelling (Hand, Sand, Finger) or pronunciation (fish = Fisch, go back to the earliest stage of the English language, or from mouse = Maus). Another feature is that many English words have words that have been borrowed from other languages. been borrowed directly from German in recent years, for which Attempting to estimate what proportion of the vocabulary of most of them will be recognized by many English speakers. Loan English is formed ultimately from inherited words, amd what words in food and drink include delicatessen, Gummi bear, proportion of words from Latin origin, French origin, etc., is Berliner, weisse, kirschwasser, hefeweizen, schnaps, spritzer, fraught with difficulties. Any figures arrived at can only be very stein, pilsner, hasenpfeffer, lager, bundt cake, kipfel, biergarten, approximate, depending on how one deals with a great many bratwurst, muesli, pretzel, pumpernickel, rollmops, sauerkraut, variables. Scheler(1977 72) presents the figures reproduced in etc; Sports borrowings are rucksack, turnverein, kletterschuh, table 1, drawn from Finkenstaedt et al. (1973). The first column volkssport, blitz, wanderlust, Gemütlichkeit, Gesundheit, etc. shows data taken from the Advanced Other loan words of daily life are zeitgeist, Gestalt, doktorvater, learner’s Dictionary of current English (ALD, 1953 edition), and festschrift, kitsch, privatdozent, Professoriat, gemutlich, the third from the basic vocabulary list, the General Service List of kaffeeklatsch, kaput, wrangle, yodel, strudel, schadenfeude, English Words (GSL). Broadly the same data from Frinkenstaedt waldsterben. et al. (1973) is drawn upon in many of the accounts found in current handbooks of English. Italian Origin Words of Italian origin mostly have something to do with cuisine: Donor Languages bresaola, bruschetta, caffèlatte, calzone, focaccia, mascarpone, Though English has words from Languages across the world, it is panzanella, radicchio, rucola, taleggio, confetti, lasagne, pasta, out of the scope of this paper that we can discuss each and every broccoli, zabaglione, linguini, spumante, and zucchini. Music and donor language. Therefore only the major donor languages and architecture is another area of borrowing: Adagio, Allegro, alto, their contribution to English Language are given below. aria, bravo, cello, concerto, duet, mandolin operetta, tempo, viola, fresco, patio, grotto, graffiti, terra-cotta; Borrowings abound in French Origin fashion and furniture: baldachin, brocade, costume, jeans, Muslin, English contains many words of French origin in art, sports, Organza, parasol, stiletto, umbrella valise; Borrowings in other money, diplomacy, etc. Most are pronounced according to the fields include: casino, gondola, lido, mafiaI, mafioso, malaria, zany, English rules of phonology. Usually if the word or phrase retains paparazzi, snaparazzi, masquerade, cascade, bimbo, dildo, French diacritics or is usually printed in italics, it has retained its lothario, segragation, dodge, ghetto, marfia, arsenal, venture. French identity. Others may seem correct to English speakers, but not recognized as such by French speakers as many of them are Spanish Origin now defunct or have changed in meaning. Presently many of the Many Spanish words have entered English from three primary menus in British and American restaurants are in French: sources: Many of them entered American English in the days of extraordinary, fromage blanc, amusegueule, mesclun, nouvelle Mexican or Spanish cowboys working in what is now the US cuisine, aperitifs, pain au chocolat, café au lait, entrée, jambalaya, Southwest. The second primary source is by way of business chowder, etc. Other borrowings are related to politics, sports, transactions and trade. The third major source is the names of fashion, and art such as bon chic bon genre, chef d’équipe, foods whose names have no English equivalent. Many of the parkour, soigneur fonctionnaire, franc fort, touché, dossier, déjà words changed meaning upon entering English, often by adopting vu, vis-à-vis, faux pas, a narrower meaning than in the original language. Spanish loan nouveau riche, rentier, jamais vu, elite, ambiance, collage, words are fajitas, taco, ancho, tortilla, chipotle, habanero, repertoire, entourage, tranche, toboggan, bête noire, enfant maquiladora, palapa, sinsemilla, telenovela, tomatillo, tonto, terrible, etc. savvy, Lolita, El Nino, silo, bonanza plaza, salsa, fiesta, avocado, German Origin burrito, bizarre, bravo, guerrilla, chili, etc. English and German descend from the same ancestor language—

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Japanese Origin witnessed. Therefore we can really trace when and which words Words of Japanese origin have entered English language. Some were borrowed from what languages to an extent. This words are simple transliterations of Japanese words for concepts classification is only for the ease of our understanding but as we inherent to Japanese culture, but others are of Chinese origin know that languages keep changing all the time, it is difficult to which was first exposed to English via Japan. It is estimated that grasp the entirely of the topic. 900 Chinese characters entered English, 200 of which entered English via Japanese due to its prominence in international References economy. They include words from food, popular culture, 1. Finkenstaedt, Thomas; Dieter Wolff (1973). Ordered profusion; economy such as Nori, ginkgo, ramen, studies in dictionaries and the English lexicon. C. Winter. teppanyaki, kombu, matsutake, sashim, wakame; anime, ikabana, 2. "How English evolved into a global language". BBC. 20 December karaoke, manga, tamagotchi, kamikazek, araoke, sashimi, Otaku, 2010. Retrieved 9 August 2015. Otaku girl; kaizen, kanban, karoshi, keiretsu, tsunami, zaitech. 3. "Crystal, David. "Two thousand million?." English today 24.1 Russian Origin (2008): 3-6". Compared to other source languages, very few of the loan words 4. Crystal, David (2003b). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English in English come from Russian. Direct borrowing picked up heavily Language (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.. Retrieved 4 in the 20th century with the establishment of the Soviet Union as February 2015. Lay summary (4 February 2015). a major world power. Most of them are used to refer to things and 5. Algeo, John (1999). "Chapter 2:Vocabulary". In Romaine, Suzanne. concepts specific to Russia, Russian culture, politics, and history. Cambridge History of the English Language. IV: 1776–1997. Common usages are cosmonaut intelligentsia, glasnost, Cambridge University Press. pp. 57–91. Lunokhod, Mir, Lunik, Politburo, sputnik, icon, mammoth, doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521264778.003. muzhik, samovar, Troika, etc. 6. König, Ekkehard (1994). In König, Ekkehard; van der Auwera, Greek and Latin Origin Johan. The Germanic Languages. Routledge Language Family Most of the loan words from Latin and Greek are special and Descriptions. Routledge. pp. 532–562.. Retrieved 26 February 2015. science terms. For example, abducens nerve, candida, animation, (26 February 2015). millennium, decapitation, manicure, exvivo, realia from Latin, 7. Ayto, J. (2007). A century of new words. Oxford: Oxford gyro, ultrasaurus, television, bouzouki, olive from Greek, etc. One University Press popular word needs mentioning is Mega. It was used as a 8. Cowie, A. P. (1975). Oxford dictionary of current idiomatic morpheme from the 80s of 20th century meaning extra large and English. Oxford: Oxford University Press. become productive, for example, mega house, mega superstar, 9. Finkenstaedt, T., & Wolff, D. (1973). Ordered profusion: Studies in megavitamin, megawatt, megavolt, megaton, megastore, mega dictionaries and the English lexicon. Heidelberg: C. Winter. technology. 10. Speake, J. (1997). The Oxford dictionary of foreign words and phrases. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Arabic Origin 11. Durkin, Philip(2014). Borrowed Words. Oxford: Oxford University English loan words have been borrowed directly from Arabic or Press http://www.oed.com indirectly by passing from Arabic into other languages and later 12. Bosworth, Joseph Toller, T. Northcote (1921). "Engla land". An into English. Examples are Nadir, artichoke, arsenal, zenith, hijab, Anglo-Saxon Dictionary (Online). Charles University. Retrieved 6 doner kebab, imam bayildi, sheshbesh, gal, Hamas, Hezbollah, March 2015. Taliban or Taleban, bedouin, emir, jakir, gazelle, giraffe, harem, 13. Hogg, Richard M. (1992). "Chapter 3: Phonology and Morphology". hashish, lute, minaret, mosque, myrrh, salaam, sirocco, sultan, In Hogg, Richard M. The Cambridge History of the English vizier, bazaar, caravan, etc Language. 1: The Beginnings to 1066. Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–168. Conclusion 14. Smith, Jeremy J. (2 April 2009). Old English: a linguistic English has gone through many periods in which large numbers introduction. Cambridge University Press.. of words from a particular language were borrowed. The more 15. Trask, Larry; Trask, Robert Lawrence (January 2010). Why Do contacts, the more loan words the language will acquire. Languages Change?. Cambridge University Press.. Retrieved 5 Presently modern English has developed a set of scientific and March 2015. technological terms common to and used by all languages as is 16. Thomason, Sarah G.; Kaufman, Terrence (1988). Language Contact, true with politics, media, and finance. Although many words from Creolization and Genetic Linguistics. University of California Press. French, German, Russian, Spanish, Japanese, and Arabic have 17. Lass, Roger (2000). "Chapter 3: Phonology and Morphology". In been incorporated into English language, its wide usage, Lass, Roger. The Cambridge History of the English Language, openness, flexibility, tolerance, as well as creativity make it Volume III: 1476–1776. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. possible to be the main body of international language in the 56–186. merging of vocabularies. 18. Görlach, Manfred (1991). Introduction to Early Modern English. By far we can conclude that English has undergone different Cambridge University Press.. phases which can broadly be classified into three major phases 19. Cercignani, Fausto (1981). Shakespeare's works and Elizabethan namely proto, medieval and modern. These coexist with the pronunciation. Clarendon Press. Retrieved 14 historical phases that English in its socio-political conditions has 20. March 2015.

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