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Ghosts in Enlightenment Scotland Martha McGill Ph.D. History The University of Edinburgh 2015 Declaration This thesis was composed by myself, and the work herein is my own except where explicitly stated otherwise. The thesis has not been submitted for any other degree or professional qualification. Martha McGill i Abstract This thesis analyses perceptions of ghosts in Scotland, with particular focus on the period from 1685 to c. 1830. According to traditional wisdom, this was a time when society was becoming progressively more rational, with magical beliefs melting away under the glare of Enlightenment scholarship. However, this thesis argues that ghosts actually rose to a new cultural prominence in this period, to the extent that Scotland came to be characterised as a haunted nation. The first chapter provides context, sketching attitudes towards ghosts from the Middle Ages to the late seventeenth century. It shows how ghosts were sidelined because of their questionable theological status, especially after the Reformation. The second chapter explores late seventeenth- and eighteenth-century attempts to reincorporate ghosts into Protestant society by converting them into religious propagandists. This endeavour was not only theologically problematic, but also came to be criticised on scientific grounds. Chapter three traces the evolution of sceptical and satirical depictions of ghosts, as well as discussing the debates that sprang up in the late eighteenth century as ghosts increasingly became an interesting object of enquiry. Under the pens of physicians and philosophers a medicalised vision of the ghost became widely influential. Literary works drew upon this interpretation, but also used gothic motifs to re-invest ghosts with horror. The fourth chapter discusses this theme, before exploring how romantic literature and folklore popularised a picturesque ghost that became entangled with conceptions of national identity. Finally, chapter five analyses the place of ghosts within popular culture. It uses ballads, cheap print and folklorists’ accounts to assess how and why ghosts remained important to the ordinary Scottish folk. The thesis as a whole shows how the ghost’s identity splintered in response to changing cultural contexts, allowing ghosts to take on new roles in Scottish society. This in turn reflects on broader questions of religious change, interactions between popular and elite culture, the formation of national identity and the legacy of the Enlightenment. ii Lay summary This thesis looks at Scottish perceptions of ghosts between about 1685 and 1830. The Scottish Enlightenment reached its peak in this period. Enlightenment thinkers argued that belief systems should be rational, so this is often seen as a time when magic stopped being relevant to everyday life. However, this thesis argues that ghosts actually became more important to Scottish culture in this period. The first chapter provides context, looking at ideas about ghosts from the Middle Ages to the late seventeenth century. It shows how kirk ministers and other educated folk dismissed ghosts because they did not fit into the accepted theological framework. The second chapter looks at attempts in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to overcome this issue by turning ghosts into religious propagandists. This approach was problematic from the religious point of view, but also came to be criticised on scientific grounds. The third chapter traces the evolution of sceptical views on ghosts, and explores the debates on apparitions that developed in the late eighteenth century. Chapter four goes on to discuss ghosts in fiction, focusing in particular on the influence of gothic literature. It also examines how romantic literature and folklore turned ghosts into an important facet of Scottish national identity. Finally, chapter five uses sources such as ballads, cheap pamphlets and folklorists’ accounts to analyse how and why ghosts remained important to the ordinary Scottish folk. Overall, the thesis shows that ghosts adapted to the changes of the eighteenth century, taking on new roles in Scottish society. This in turn reflects on broader questions about religion, social structures, national identity and the legacy of the Enlightenment. iii Contents Acknowledgements vii Abbreviations viii Introduction 1 I Historiography 2 II Terminology 7 III Methodology 13 IV Structure 15 Chapter One: Scottish Ghosts: The Background 17 I Medieval Ghosts 17 II The Reformation 25 III Surviving Ghost Stories 32 IV Popular Belief and the Dead Body 37 V Witches and Poltergeists 42 VI Seventeenth-Century Providentialism 48 Conclusion 52 Chapter Two: Religious Ghosts 55 I ‘That prevailing Spirit of Atheism and Infidelity’ 55 II Rehabilitating Ghosts 58 III Second Sight and Wraiths 75 iv IV Resurrections 79 V Theological Controversy and the Laird of Coul’s Ghost 82 VI The Decline of the Religious Ghost? 96 Conclusion 105 Chapter Three: Scepticism and Debate 107 I The Demonic Interpretation 107 II The Supernatural and the Enlightenment 109 III Mental Disorders, Dreams, Enthusiasm, and the ‘Prejudices of Education’ 112 IV Ghosts and the Authorities 124 V Popular Print Culture: Debate 131 VI Popular Print Culture: Satire 135 VII Sceptics Meeting Ghosts: The Case of Archibald Pitcairne 141 Conclusion 143 Chapter Four: Ghosts in Fiction and Antiquarian Studies 145 I Developments in the Literary World 146 II ‘In grim Array the grizly Spectres rise’ 153 III Ghosts in Vernacular Poetry 164 IV Ossian and the Romanticisation of the Highlands 170 V The Ghosts of Walter Scott and James Hogg 176 VI Antiquarian Studies 180 VII Belief 186 Conclusion 191 v Chapter Five: Ghosts in Popular Culture 195 I Ballads 196 II The Cheap Print Market 200 III Folklorists’ Accounts 210 IV The Highlands 216 V Fairies, Brownies, Will o’ the Wisps and Banshees 224 VI Belief 232 Conclusion 235 Conclusion 239 Appendix: The Letters of James Cowan 259 Bibliography 273 vi Acknowledgements In writing this thesis I have amassed a number of debts. My two supervisors, Julian Goodare and Thomas Ahnert, have been constant sources of practical advice, constructive criticism and moral support. I am immensely grateful for their patience, kindness and expertise. I have benefited from the suggestions and thought-provoking questions of numerous other colleagues and friends. Colin Kidd and Esther Mijers were truly inspiring examiners. I have also drawn on stimulating discussions with Adam Fox, Stana Nenadic, Alasdair Raffe and Louise Yeoman. Anna Groundwater gave me a valuable opportunity to present my research to a broader audience. Without the encouragement and guidance of Adam Budd, and the assistance of Stephen Bowd, I might never have begun this project. In addition, I am grateful to staff at the National Library of Scotland, National Records of Scotland, Edinburgh University Library, St Andrews University Library and Edinburgh City Archives. Now and then, it is good to be distracted from the dead. On that front I must recognise the sterling work of Alice, Boris and Katherine. I am thankful to my family for the love and books, and to Matt for making me happy. This research was funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council. vii Abbreviations DSL Dictionary of the Scots Language NLS National Library of Scotland NRS National Records of Scotland OED Online Oxford English Dictionary Online Oxford DNB Oxford Dictionary of National Biography STC Short Title Catalogue TNA National Archives of the UK viii Introduction Over the last five hundred years, the figure of the ghost has allegedly died many a death. After the Reformation (1560 in Scotland), Protestant theologians attempted to rout ghosts from their tenuous place within the Christian framework, and in 1597 James VI boasted that a Scotsman would scarcely ever hear word of ‘Ghostes and spirites’.1 Sceptical approaches towards the supernatural flourished during the Enlightenment, such that ghosts were said to have been ‘chased from the realities of existence ... before the light of the sun of science’.2 Nineteenth-century folklorist Walter Gregor blamed industrialisation, declaring that ‘the scream of the railway whistle is scaring away ... the ghost’, while literary scholars Peter Buse and Andrew Stott suggested that twentieth-century western society had replaced ghosts with aliens and conspiracy theories.3 Nevertheless, the idea of the ghost has – appropriately enough – lingered on post-mortem. Owen Davies writes that ghost belief in Britain has been steadily increasing since the 1950s.4 Ghosts have retained