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The Vanishing Voyager and the Emerging Outsider, 1818-1930

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The Vanishing Voyager and the Emerging Outsider, 1818-1930 THE VANISHING VOYAGER AND THE EMERGING OUTSIDER, 1818-1930 Rebecca Nesvet A dissertation submitted to the faculty at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of English and Comparative Literature. Chapel Hill 2014 Approved by: Jeanne Moskal Ruth Salvaggio Megan Matchinske María DeGuzmán Ruth Salvaggio © 2014 Rebecca Nesvet ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT Rebecca Nesvet: The Vanishing Voyager and the Emerging Outsider, 1818-1930 (Under the direction of Jeanne Moskal) While some contemporary scholars have examined the nineteenth-century evolution of voyage and exploration literature, the cultural critic Joseph Roach has shown how “surrogation,” or reinventive replacement of lost elements, produces culture. I integrate these two critical pursuits by examining nineteenth-century literary surrogations of a haunting pantheon: famous British voyagers who mysteriously vanished overseas. I argue that the occasion of voyager disappearance creates a rupture in the official expedition narrative, which presents writers with the opportunity to reinvent and repurpose that narrative to serve new rhetorical purposes. Nineteenth-century coterie authors repurposed vanished voyagers’ narratives to sidelines official voyagers and instead foreground figures that I call outsider voyagers: traveling “savages,” political pariahs, Byronic heroes, non-English Britons, women, and queer subjects. I contend that nineteenth-century authors including Mary Shelley, Lord Byron, and James Malcolm Rymer present their outsider voyager protagonists as travelers, writers, and cultural critics, whose unauthorized voyage narratives depart from the official voyage- narrative tradition by questioning British imperialism, patriarchy, and other elite ideologies. By surrogating historical and largely forgotten vanished voyagers, nineteenth-century British writers facilitated the emergence of the outsider voyager protagonist. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I thank Prof. Jeanne Moskal for supervising this dissertation project, and especially for constructive, specific, and timely feedback. I also thank my magnificent committee: Profs. Jane Danielewicz, Maria DeGuzman, Megan Matchinske and Ruth Salvaggio, and former member Prof. Danielle Coriale (University of South Carolina). For access to vital primary sources, I thank Prof. (Emeritus) Alan Life, Prof. (Emeritus) Mark L. Reed, Dr. Claudia Funke (Wilson Library, UNC-Chapel Hill), Dr. Naomi Boneham (Scott Polar Research Institute, Cambridge University), Dr. Doucet Fisher and Dr. Elizabeth Denlinger (Pforzheimer Collection of Shelley and his Circle, New York Public Library), Dr. Elizabeth James (British Library), Prof. Louis James (Emeritus, University of Kent at Canterbury), and the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich. In the Graduate Proseminar “Into the Archives,” I learned how to perform archival research, for which I thank Prof. Reid Barbour and the Fall 2010 seminar group. I thank the Renaissance Computing Institute at UNC-Chapel Hill for access to the Social Computing Room, where I studied pertinent maps. I am grateful for two fellowships: a Pre-Dissertation Travel Award from the Center for Global Initiatives (CGI) at UNC-Chapel Hill and a Jennings Fellowship from the Department of English and Comparative Literature. iv PREFACE All copyrighted material included in this dissertation is used with permission from the relevant copyright holders. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ...............................................................................................................iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................v PREFACE ..................................................................................................................vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ...........................................................................................vii LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................viii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................................ix INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................1 CHAPTER 1. PATAGONIAN GIANTS, FRANKENSTEIN’S CREATURE.........15 CHAPTER 2. HAWAII’S VOYAGER KING ..........................................................35 CHAPTER 3. BYRON’S FLETCHER CHRISTIAN, JACOBITE VOYAGER ......57 CHAPTER 4. LOST EXPLORER, FEMALE SURROGATE ..................................79 CHAPTER 5. MR. WILDE, I PRESUME? ...............................................................107 BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................127 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Oscaria/Oscar #3 ........................................................................................125 vii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS BLJ Byron’s Letters and Journals CPW Lord Byron: Complete Poetic Works CUP Cambridge University Press CWOW Complete Works of Oscar Wilde DNB Dictionary of National Biography EEBO Early English Books Online ECCO Eighteenth Century Collections Online EUP Edinburgh University Press ELH English Literary History HUP Harvard University Press JHUP Johns Hopkins University Press JSTOR Journal Storage NCCO Nineteenth Century Collections Online MGM Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios MWSJ The Journals of Mary Shelley MWSL The Letters of Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley NMM National Maritime Museum NSW Novels and Selected Works of Mary Shelley OED Oxford English Dictionary OUP Oxford University Press PUP Princeton University Press RN Royal Navy viii SIR Studies in Romanticism SRN Surgeon, Royal Navy UHP University of Hawaii Press UTP University of Toronto Press VDL Sophia Cracroft: Diary, Van Diemen’s Land and Voyage to England YUP Yale University Press ix Introduction Louis-Edouard-Paul Fournier’s 1889 painting The Funeral of Shelley notoriously departs from the historical facts of Percy Bysshe Shelley’s 1822 funeral (Eisner 111, London 253, Nicholl 24, Parsons 22, Wheatley “Attracted” 175). In the painting, Mary Shelley kneels in prayer for her husband, while, at center, Lord Byron gazes at the pristine remains.1 Standing slightly apart from fellow mourners Leigh Hunt and Edward John Trelawny, Byron perhaps sees in Shelley his doppelgänger, foreshadowing Byron’s imminent death. Most strangely, in July, the mourners wear heavy cloaks and boots, and the windswept “grey and cold” beach (Walker Art Gallery), almost entirely bereft of vegetation, looks less Italian than Arctic. Fournier’s anachronisms, inventions, and incongruities make sense if he envisioned Shelley as an explorer, an archetype that emerged in the nineteenth century (Craciun, “What is an Explorer?” 30). Trelawny’s 1858 memoir characterizes Shelley as an explorer, claiming the poet consciously emulated the “daring” of “old navigators” including “Diaz” (Bartolomeu Dias) and William Bligh (Trelawny 95). Shelley’s literary activity also associated him with explorers. Two of the most famous Victorian explorers, Sir John Franklin and David Livingstone, wrote memoirs of their travels, then died or disappeared abroad. While Franklin left a pious widow and 1Mary Shelley did not attend. Byron swam out to sea in order not to watch, and died thirteen months later in April 1824 (Holmes 730). Although the body of the historical Shelley disintegrated beyond recognition before its discovery, Fournier’s corpse’s intactness draws attention to the poet’s body as a body. Fournier’s depiction of the body’s incineration suggests an auto-da-fé, affirming Shelley’s self-identification as an infidel, or the cremation of Hector with which the Iliad concludes. 2 fellow explorers, so does Fournier’s Shelley. Dying at the edge of the habitable world, Fournier’s Shelley perfectly embodies the Victorian explorer.2 Thus contextualized, the painting contains no mistakes. It poses the same question as Sir Edwin Landseer’s Franklin-inspired painting Man Proposes, God Disposes (1864). Both paintings ask whether explorers’ defiance of limits justifies the inherent risks. Fournier’s Funeral of Shelley succinctly visualizes the constellation of phenomena that this dissertation investigates. Responding to Robert Browning’s wish to have “see[n] Shelley plain,” Fournier participates in the culture-making reinvention or, as Joseph Roach puts it, “surrogation” of conspicuously vanished aspects of culture (Roach 2-5). Fournier’s imagery also suggests the impact of European imperialist voyagers’ mysterious disappearances upon their literary circles, and, via those circles, upon the literary culture of the nineteenth century. These phenomena deserve investigation because voyagers’ disappearances affected some of the most celebrated nineteenth-century literary families. In the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Admiralty-backed, official expeditions created absences in the prominent Byron, Graham, and Franklin families. Several members of the fin-de-siècle Wilde family fashioned themselves as intrepid voyagers and vanished from British society. How do these vanishing voyagers influence the writings of surviving relatives? To what rhetorical ends do nineteenth-century literary families represent, re-enact, and 2Searchers for Franklin included the young Frenchman Joseph-Réné Bellot, who drowned on his quest in 1853 (Spufford 94, Cavell 192). Perhaps, therefore, Fournier’s Shelley articulates
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