The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation - N° 1 / April-July 2015 SUMMARY

Over the years a number of papers have been devoted to the weightlifter’s warm up for competition. Some of this information is more than 50 years old. However, in the interim there have been a number of changes to the technical rules of weightlifting competitions. 56 2 EDITORIAL by Antonio Urso

4 MYTH OF STRENGTH by Livio Toschi

10 SOLAR ENERGY AND MUSCLE STRENGTH by Menotti Calvani

22 KINEMATIC ANALYSIS OF THE SNATCH LIFT WITH ELITE FEMALE WEIGHTLIFTERS DURING THE 2010 WORLD WEIGHTLIFTING CHAMPIONSHIP by Hasan Akkus

36 THE EFFECTS OF TRAINING VOLUME AND COMPETITION ON THE SALIVARY CORTISOL CONCENTRATIONS OF OLYMPIC WEIGHTLIFTERS by Blair T. Crewther, Taati HeKe, e Justin W. L. Keogh 36 46 WEIGHTLIFTING AND THE KNEE by Antonio Urso, Nicola Voglino Competition can influence the hormonal and performance outcomes in weightlifters. For instance, the salivary C (Sal-C) 56 COMPARISON OF WARM UP PROTOCOLS OF HIGH CLASS concentrations of Olympic weightlifters MALE AND FEMALE WEIGHTLIFTERS were found to be more than twofold higher by Andrew Charniga, Jr during actual competition, than a simulated event. 72 WHAT THE BUSINESS WORLD CAN TEACH A COACH ABOUT RESOURCE MANAGEMENT by Ann Swisher

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EDITORIAL The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The

Why a new magazine? In this era of excessive information, do we wanted to publish a magazine that contai- really need to put pen to paper again? A ned all the knowledge and information that series of words generally makes up a mes- we had always hoped to find in other ma- sage; who is the message in this magazine gazines or, more pretentiously, in library for? Is it a magazine about sport? And why books and in literature. And this was no the continuous focus on strength? marketing blitz either; albeit a legitimate idea, it never crossed our minds, because These were just some of the questions if that were the case perspective, it would that the EWF, along with the support of have been much simpler to produce a news its distinguished friends of the Editor’s bulletin rather than a magazine. Scientific Committee, deliberated on befo- re going ahead with this magazine, which We wanted to focus on a quality journal, a I can assure you, was no easy task: lots of prestigious publication that could, in some questions and plenty of answers, many of way, convey to a wide readership our point them exciting and stimulating; some gave of view on the evolution of training, and, rise to more questions and new doubts; in in particular, on the evolution of strength the end, the moment we are living in, our training applied to weightlifting. passion and a host of right ideas led us to believe that this magazine was necessary, Strength. That wonderful magic which and this is not just our biased opinion. We mankind throughout the ages has used

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to defend himself, to hunt, find we needed to dedicate a space that they are called movement food, reproduce and reach higher that dealt primarily with scientific therapists; just as “tout court” goals; the force with which hu- reasoning for those who strive to therapists treat health problems, man beings have competed (with obtain physical advantages from movement therapists are capable themselves and with others) to the development of strength (ar- of “healing” sports performance, win, to rejoice, to lose and so be- rogance excluded). together they must return athle- come stronger, but above all, it has tes to play following injuries or pa- allowed mankind to evolve from It was necessary to understand thological situations. a quadruped to Homo erectus. how strength can influence a Strength was a major element in performance model or if getting This magazine, therefore, is aimed standing up to observe and do- stronger is enough to win a com- at professionals with a capital P. minate the surrounding area and petition. For all of the above reasons, with beyond: slowly and steadily or with this new cultural vehicle we want bursts of strength, mankind has Of course, answering these que- to create an exchange of experti- come a long way. Strength was stions alone is a truly difficult task se and find in our area of compe- also paramount to the develop- and, conscious and aware of this, tence, which is already so vast, a ment of man’s cognitive abilities, we need to find as many travel non-static response to the needs the ability to move in his immedia- companions as possible along the of both amateur and professional te surroundings, to interact with way. sport. the environment and to process the ensuing stimuli. We must invest in culture, the We truly hope to gather as many vehicle with which we can spread illustrious authors as possible so Evolving through strength has in- knowledge and experience. The that this new-born magazine can deed been a beautiful journey, and world of sport needs to reflect on spread the culture of the science to thank nature for this gift and the importance of culture and we of training. Sincere thanks to all pay homage to her, man has cre- feel it is our duty to set the ball rol- those who are already part of this ated styles of movement: sport. ling and continue on this journey. initiative and to those who will be Man discovered, invented, explo- involved in the near future. red sport. No sport can express its Training centres, gyms and any style without resorting to stren- place where physical activity is car- gth, no coach can encourage his ried out, are vital spaces, along the Antonio Urso athlete to perform without calling same lines as a doctor’s surgery EWF President on his strength. Not a minute of where health issues are treated the day or night goes by when we with medicine, because a strong are not forced to fight against and man is a healthy man. For this re- win over the force that dominates ason, training professionals, co- our planet and the system we orbit aches and personal trainers are in: gravity. Even when we must con- not figures that can be improvi- vince somebody of something, we sed, nor must they be lacking in use strength of words and mind. If scientific knowledge and practi- all this is true, then it is clear that cal expertise. It’s no coincidence

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If it is true that from the dawn of time man has raced and fought either out of need or for sport, it is equally true that he has always taken pride in his own strength, displaying it in all kinds of tests, at times extravagant: lifting and bearing weights, throwing, stretching, bending, breaking, tackling, pushing and pulling were just some of the exercises they engaged it. In addition, «until the appearance of firearms, physical strength was the main resource of fighters, who relied on it for their survival» (Georges Lambert).

BY LIVIO TOSCHI

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At a later stage, when men began Hoards of giants fills the pages competing in sports contests, they of novels and the world of fables, realised that in order to win they such as Gargantua and his son would have to train methodically, Pantagruel, sprung from the ima- drawing, perhaps, on the expe- gination of François Rabelais, and rience of famous physicians. To in- Gulliver, the main character in Jo- crease their strength they did the nathan Swift’s novel. appropriate exercises, amongst which - obviously - weightlifting, In our time, other strength heroes by ingeniously using what they have been created by the fertile had at hand, such as boulders, imagination of writers and illu- logs and halteres, a type of metal strators. In the marvellous world or stone dumbbell, in the quest of comics how could we forget, for maximum functionality. Natu- among others, Popeye and Obelix,

The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The rally, without today’s extremely Il Grande Blek and Lothar (Mandra- accurate barbells, it was a difficult ke’s crime-fighting companion) task to measure one’s strength and of course, Walt Disney’s Her- and impossible to compete at a cules? distance. And yet, at the dawn of civilisation, there were plenty of Poland’s Henryk Sienkiewicz, No- contests which became more and bel Prize winner for Literature Gilgamesh strangles a lion - relief on Khorsabad Palace more frequent thanks to the use in 1905, at the end of the 1800s (VII century B.C.) Louvre, Paris of special equipment, such as the wrote the novel Quo vadis?, brou- “yardstick”. ght to the big screen in 1913 by Enrico Guazzoni for the Cines di The idea of a big, strong man has Roma, which gave life to the super In the film, L’uomo della foresta always incurred fear and comman- strong Ursus, interpreted by Ro- (1922), he played a sort of Tarzan ded respect. We need only think of man weightlifter Bruto Castellani. and the most important scene saw giants or cyclopes. In the Odyssey, The film Cabiria (1914), directed him overcome two bulls that the Homer tells of Polyphemus, who by Giovanni Pastrone and shot in “bad guys” had tied to his feet and threw “the top of a mountain” at Turin, marked the birth of Maci- hands and that were supposed Ulysses’ ship (Book IX), and the ste, played by rise of strongmen, to tear him apart. In 1959 cinema Laestrygonians who sank Laertes’ played by Genoan docker, Bartolo- called on Primo Carnera, former fleet with «immense boulders» meo Pagano. champion boxer and new catch (Book X). Ancient epic poems exalt world champion to play the giant the feats of the Phoenician Hercu- Many sports champions tried their Antaeus in the new film Hercu- les, Melqart, of Gilgamesh the Su- at acting in the so-called “strong- les Unchained, directed by Pietro merian King and of the Pharaoh, man’s cinema” (or athletic-acro- Francisci, with “Mister Universe”, Amenhotep II. batic”, according to Mario Verdo- Steve Reeves. Who better than And who has never heard of the ne’s definition). Amongst these Carnera, even if he was well over giant Philistine warrior, Goliath, was Trieste native, Giovanni Raice- 50 years old, could interpret the slain by David’s slingshot, or the vich, unrivalled wrestler and hol- mythical character that only the giant Libyan Antaeus, crushed der of various weightlifting world son of Zeus could defeat in wrest- by the arms of Hercules? All cha- records. He starred in 9 films, in- ling? racters that could identify with the cluding Il re della forza (1920): the The Colossus painted by Francisco King of Strength, a most appro- Samson, Atlas and especially Goya. priate title. Hercules are the most important

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Milo, marble statue by Edme Dumont, (1754) 78cm - Louvre, Paris

symbols of the eternal myth of strength. According to legend, Samson’s strength lay in his hair. The Old Testament recoun- ts that, having broken the strings that the Philistines had bound him with, he exterminated his enemies (a thousand two central pillars and bent them with all Hercules and men) with a donkey’s jawbone. Ambushed his might causing the temple to collapse. Antaeus, bronze in the city of Gaza by the Philistines, he He was found dead with many Philistines statue by Antonio rips open the gates and carries them on beneath the rubble. (Judges, 13-16). Pollaiolo (1475 his shoulders to Mount Hebron. Samson, circa) 45cm - Museo like Hercules and many other heroes and The second last of the 12 Labours of Her- del Bargello, athletes (for example, Polydamas of Sko- cules was to bring King Eurystheus some Florence. toussa, Astyanax of Miletus, Kera of Argo golden apples, like those the goddess Gea and even Cyrene, the Thessalian nymph), gave to the goddess Hera as a wedding killed a lion with his bare hands on his way gift for her marriage to Zeus. The tree of to Timnah. Betrayed by Delilah, to whom the golden apples was in the garden of he had revealed the secret of his energy, in Hesperides, at the ends of the earth, and other words, his long locks, he was captu- was guarded by a gigantic serpent named red, blinded and condemned to turning a Ladon, coiled around its trunk. In this gar- heavy. However, his hair slowly grows back den, Atlas the Titan, son of Iapetus and and with it returns his strength. Samson father of Hesperides, bore on his shoul- has his revenge when he is taken to the ders the celestial sphere on his shoulders, temple of Dagon: he braces against the condemned to do so by Zeus after the

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Titanomachy. The legend of Atlas were sung by Homer in the Iliad. his bare fist; twice Greek cham- intertwines with that of Hercules, For them, wrote Richard Mandell, pion athlete, Theagenes of Tha- who during his journey never fai- «winning a public match or lifting sos (V century. B.C.), celebrated led to flex his powerful muscles: a large boulder in front of an au- by Pausanias and Plutarch for first he takes on and defeats the dience, when these activities were his 1,400 victories in pankration Nereus the sea god, who refused socially approved and ritually per- and boxing, the aforementioned to show him the way to the garden; formed could be regarded as a in- Polydamas, Thessalian Olympic then he frees from chains Atlas’ dication in favour of the gods». Ho- champion in 408 B.C. with just brother Prometheus, whose liver mer often exalted the might of his one arm managed to block a was eaten by a eagle by day and heroes: the dreadful Telamonian chariot in flight and one day he grew back by night; then he lifted Ajax, for example, lifted heavy wo- grabbed a bull by its hoof so ti- and crushed the Libyan giant Anta- oden beams as if they were twigs ghtly that in order to free itself, the bull left its hoof in the cham- pion’s hand. Polydamas died

The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The trying to hold up the collapsing roof of a cave so that his friends could run to safety. Milo of Croton is famous for his success in wrestling - 7 victories at the Olympic Games, ± at the Pythian Games, 9 at the Nemean Games and 10 at the Isthmian Games. He was also endowed with incredible strength. A disci- ple of Pythagoras, during a ban- quet held by the master with his pupils, Milo showed his prowess by supporting the crumbling ceiling of the room after a pillar collapsed. Legend has it that he held a pomegranate so tightly in his hand that nobody could pry it open, yet the fruit was not even bruised. Moreover, it appears that the same Milo personally Atlas and the Hesperides, placed the statue dedicated to oil on canvas by John Singer him by his fellow countryman, Sargent (1925) - Museum of and hurled them at his enemies, the sculptor Damea, in the sacred Fine Arts, Boston knocking out Hector, saved only by sanctuary of Olympia. One of the the help of Aphrodite. most celebrated feats was when eus, son of Gea; and finally he slew In the Greek world there is evi- he carried an ox on his shoulders the hostile King of Egypt, Busiris, dence of many other men with su- through the stadium at Olympia. who was intent on sacrificing him pernatural strength, such as the Milo, however, suffered a stin- to Zeus. giant boxer Glaucus of Caristo (in ging defeat against Titormus of The Mycenaeans (or Achaeans) Euboea), Olympic champion in 520 Aetolia, in what we can define as were a warlike people, whose B.C., who straightened the blade the most ancient weightlifting deeds beneath the walls of Troy of a plough by hammering it with contest ever documented.

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Samson pulls down the pillars of the house, illustration by Marc Chagall

Having abandoned contests, in 510 B.C. he led the Crotonian army in the blo- ody battle against the Sybarites: «He launched himself in the fray – recounts Diodorus Siculus – wearing his Olympic crowns and in a manner similar to Her- cules, wearing a lion-skin and carrying a club». Although the enemy troops were overpowering, the fury of Milo led his men to victory. Weightlifting is a noble and ancient sport, whose origins are lost in the halo of mystery, from which emerge powerful figures of gods and heroes, giants and cyclopes, athletes and strongmen, who lie on the boundary between history and legend. Their fame still shines today and will continue to do so everywhere and eternally because the myth of strength is boundless. It lives in us all and is a ne- ver-ending source of inspiration for lite- rature and art for all peoples. It is a cultural heritage that weightlifting must cultivate with increasing commit- ment. The fruits will no doubt be plenti- ful.

Hercules bears the celestial sphere - bronze statue by Giambologna - Civiche Raccolte del castello Sforzesco, Milan

LIVIO TOSCHI A qualified architect, his interests extend to sporting facilities and the history of sport. He is the historical and artistic consultant of the Italian Karate, Judo, Wrestling and Martial Arts Federation, of the Italian Weightlifting Federation, of the San Marino Wrestling, Judo and Weightlifting Federation and also of the European Weightlifting Federation. He is a history lecturer at the National FIJLKAM School and at the San Marino Judo School. In the sports environment he has written 15 books and numerous articles and has organised many exhibitions.

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It all began with a bone disease that affected thousands of children

By MENOTTI CALVANI

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In 1889, 20 of the 21 young lions born in London zoo died, all pre- senting bone deformities very similar to those described in chil- dren in 1645 by Daniel Whistler, a student of Medicine at the Univer- sity of Leyden, Netherlands in his famous thesis entitled “Inaugural Medical Disputation of the Chil- dren’s Disease of the English which the inhabitants idiomatically cal- led the rickets”. The first complete description of the disease was, in fact published in England by Fran-

The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The cis Glisson, a Cambridge doctor, The Hobbits in the saga of the English writer JRR Tolkien, would who in 1650 published a Latin trea- always triumph over their enemies because they are exposed to the tise entitled “De Rachitide”, hence light of the sun and eat properly. As affirmed by an article in the the English term rickets. December 2013 issue of Medical Journal of Australia. Prior to the lions, a veritable epi- demic of rickets struck the chil- nowledged the presence with an The Diet Factor dren of London with a high morta- impact far greater than that which In nutritional terms, the lions lity rate that reached 300 in 1,000! afflicted the Greek population and in London Zoo were not treated The shape of the children’s bones considered it to be a disease linked as wild kings of the jungle, their of the entire skeleton were defor- to the poor hygiene of mothers. diet was very refined, consisting med, with an abnormal curvature Not knowing the cause, it was im- only of boneless meat! Dr. John of the long bones, which were less possible to implement a therapy. Bland-Sutton, a luminary doctor, solid due to a gross impairment in Glisson, author of De Rachidite, very famous in England at the time, ossification. The bone appeared, proposed wrapping the bones in he was called to the bedside of the in fact, less resistant and affected tight bandages to force the “bent” lions, and, convinced that the dise- children were prone to infectious bones to grow straight; however, ase was linked to the lack of fat and diseases. since time immemorial, mothers calcium in the diet, goat’s meat The babies were born healthy and had always swaddled babies as and ground bones supplemented became ill before 4 years of age. shown by small votive sculptu- with milk both for mother lions Doctors at the time excluded that res found in Crete dating back to and their cubs and, for the latter, a the disease was contagious or he- 2600-2000 BC. Sacred art is full of good dose of cod liver oil. The lions reditary, and as it was more com- images of newborn Jesus wrapped got better, Bland-Sutton’s experi- mon in poor areas of the city, they in swaddling clothes. The concept ment was not published, but the suspected that it was somehow that swaddling infants was an results were exploited by Edward linked to the economic conditions excellent way of helping children Mellamby, also convinced that ri- of the families. In fact, during the grow without bow legs survived ckets was related in some way to Renaissance, rickets struck the until some years ago, and, albeit nutritional deficiencies: he indu- Medici family in Florence, who cer- for different reasons, it is once ced the disease in dogs adopting a tainly had no financial problems! again taking off in the USA. In fat-free diet! Rickets was not a new disease as it some parts of the world, it is thou- He then gave the sick animals vi- ght that bandaging the lower lim- had already been described in the tamin B1 (yeast), vitamin C (orange papyri of the ancient Egyptians and, bs of female infants ensures strai- juice) without success, but he pre- in ancient Rome, the doctors ack- ght legs and a wide pelvis. vented the disease by giving foods

Rivista_EWF_N°1.indd 12 06/03/15 17:41 SOLAR ENERGY AND MUSCLE STRENGTH 13 N° 1 / April-July 2015 a b rich in fat and vitamin A ver oil as a preventative (milk, butter, cod liver and whole generations oil). Vitamin A had been have been drinking gal- identified in 1920, but lons of cod liver oil, with it had been considered many children trying to a milk accessory factor escape the sickening since 1816, when dogs odour and taste of the fed on bread alone died “precious “liquid. after 50 days with se- The oil worked, but the rious eye injuries, and chemical structure of since 1912 when the the therapeutic factor same diet induced the called “vitamin D” was lack of growth in rats: unknown! c d both conditions were treated with the admi- nistration of milk. Vita- The Light Factor min A, was contained in In 1861, the French phy- milk, but also in the liver, sician, Trousseau, had which was effective in already asserted that the treatment of night rickets, in addition to blindness, cured by the a poor diet, was linked Egyptians and Romans to the lack of sun expo- e f by placing mashed ani- sure. In 1890, the first mal liver on the eyes. article was published Was rickets related to that correlated geo- vitamin A deficiency? graphical distribution Another step was ne- and prevalence of ri- cessary. Cod liver oil was ckets: more numerous chemically manipulated cases of rickets were in order to destroy the evident when moving vitamin A it contained: north and decreasing denatured oil, devoid of sun exposure. In addi- vitamin A, could no lon- tion, the Industrial Re- ger treat the problems volution, which began Figure no. 1 of night vision, but re- at the end of the 1600’s A) Child with rickets (1896); B) Rickets is also present in modern times; C) Dogs with a fat-free diet developed tained its effectiveness had shifted the popula- rickets and led to the discovery of vitamin D; D) against rickets. The sub- tion from the country- votive statuettes, Crete 2600-2000 BC; E) Ambrogio stance, which differed side to the cities, which Lorenzetti, Madonna with Child (1319); F) In the early from vitamin A, capable became more and more 1900s, in order to keep their children with them at of curing rickets, was crowded with houses the workplace, mothers wrapped up their babies called vitamin D becau- separated by very nar- and put them, like umbrellas, into little carts with se, in chronological or- row streets where the wheels (called Scannedda, Capicarru or other terms, depending on the location). der, its discovery came sun never shone; this after that of vitamins A, situation was exaspera- B and C. ted by the thick blanket This marked the begin- of smog caused by the ning of the use of cod li- use of coal. At the end of

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a Figure no. 2 A) 65 million years ago, the fall of an asteroid filled the atmosphere with dust that blocked the synthesis of chlorophyll in plants and the production of vitamin D in dinosaurs; B) Atmospheric Pollution in London at the end of the 1800s: infant mortality rose to 300/1,000; C) The atmosphere of Salzburg was not different from that of London - Mozart’s poor health is attributed by many to a severe vitamin D b deficiency; D) The administration of cod liver oil to pupils; E) Children exposed to sunlight on the veranda of Meidling Hospital in Vienna (1923); F) Huldchinsky successfully treats Polish children suffering from rickets with the Finsen lamp (1919).

1800’s, 90% of children in Leyden sky thought to solve the problem (Netherlands) and Boston were using the lamp that the Danish

The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The suffering from rickets. English physician Finsen had invented c children (and with them the lions to produce “chemical rays of the in London Zoo) were more likely to sun” and with which he had cured get sick than those who lived in the tuberculosis skin, earning him tropics or in the savannas, or sim- the Nobel Prize in 1903. Huldchin- ply in places with good exposure to sky’s intuition proved correct, the sunlight. children were cured without the At the end of World War I, Vien- disgusting fish oil that in a time of na also suffered from a veritable famine was not easy to find. epidemic of rickets and an experi- ment was put in place to test and d compare the therapeutic effect of Vitamin D and sunlight fish oil and sun exposure. The chil- In 1923, Harry Steenbock (Wiscon- dren were divided into 4 groups. sin), discovered that food irradia- One group followed a standard ted with ultraviolet light cured diet, one group had the same diet animals suffering from rickets: it + liver oil, one group spent a part was the beginning of the spread of of the day on a veranda with a sub- irradiated foods, which was a gre- stantial amount of clothing, the at business and, above all, another e last group spent same hours on a blow to rickets. Vitamin D became a veranda, but with less clothing so real fashion, fortifying food, drin- as to take the sun. The group trea- ks, creams, soaps and even sha- ted with oil and the group exposed ving creams. to the sun improved, unlike the In 1930, Adolf Windaus (Berlin) cla- other two groups, which remained rified the formula of vitamin D and unchanged. In addition to the fish described its formation from cho-

f liver oil, the “sun bath”, a method lesterol, but we had to wait until of prevention and treatment was 1972 for a complete description of introduced, but at those latitudes its metabolism. and with that pollution, it was not We now know that the first steps a sound practice. In Warsaw, the occur in the skin by the action of situation was no different and, sunlight that transforms a meta- in 1919, Polish doctor Huldchin- bolite of cholesterol (7-idrossico-

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b c d

Figure no. 3 A) Harry Steenbock discovers that food irradiated with ultraviolet light can help cure rickets; B) and C) A milk bottle cap and beer cans containing vitamin D obtained by exposure to ultraviolet light; D) Mushrooms after irradiation are an excellent source of vitamin D2, note the “tan” several hours from the start a of exposure to UV light.

lestero- him) into pre-vitamin D Things to Know re and the season, it is estimated and the body temperature which, Exposure to light through win- that in the summer, 5-10 minutes in turn, transforms the pro-vita- dows is not utilisable for synthe- of sun exposure between 10 and

min into Vitamin D3, which leaves sis, as the glass almost completely 15 induce the synthesis of 10,000 the skin and reaches the liver blocks the UVB. IU. Vitamin D synthesized in the

where it is modified 25OH-Vit. D3: The skin provides for the synthesis summer is stored in adipose tis- the molecule that is dosed in the of 90% of the necessary vitamin D, sue and acts as a deposit for the blood to assess the metabolism of the rest is supplied by the diet (sal- needs of winter. In winter, vitamin vitamin D. The last stage is at the mon, egg yolk, fish, cereals, forti- D synthesis does not occur at lati- level of the kidneys, where 25OH- fied milk, etc.). Cod liver oil is by far tudes higher than 35° (latitude of

D3 is modified into the more active the food with the highest content Agrigento 37.18 N, 41.54 Rome,

1-25 (OH)2 Vitamin D3. of Vitamin D, 15 millilitres contain Milan 45.28 N). As the saying goes:

Also plants, that are exposed to the 1,360 International Units (IU). You do not synthesize vitamin D3

sunlight, produce vitamin D2 (ani- This concentration depends on the if your shadow is longer than you.

mals produce D3), starting from a diet of marine microalgae which, The skin of the elderly produ- molecule, ergosterol, similar to under the action of sunlight, pro- ces less vitamin D. A 70 year old that of cholesterol. On average, vi- duce large amounts of vitamin D: man has - in his skin - 25% of the

tamin D2 is 2-3 times less powerful in one year microalgae under the 7-dehydrocholesterol (precursor

than vitamin D3. action of the sun produce more of vitamin D) that a 20 year old Not all of the sunlight participa- than 120 billion tons of organic has. Considering 30 ng/ml as the tes in the synthesis, only the part carbon (!). limit of sufficiency, the prevalence whose wavelength is between 315 The daily requirement varies from of vitamin D deficiency in over 65 and 280 nanometres, commonly 200 International Units (IU*) for year olds often exceeds 60% and known as Ultraviolet B Light (UVB) children, to 600 IU for over se- 50% in postmenopausal women. differentiating from UVA (400-315 venty year olds (*40 IU = 1 micro- It is estimated that in Italy, 70- nm) and UVC (280-100 nm). gram). The skin must be exposed 80% of people over 69 are lacking to sunlight at least 5 minutes a in vitamin D. The use of sunscreen day, bare face, arms, legs. Much blocks the synthesis processes of depends on the time of exposu- the skin.

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The obese have low levels of vita- arctic circle, in areas with low UV whole body and the finding was min D in their blood that easily dis- radiation, have kept their dark skin not unexpected, considering that solves in fats and is sequestered in because the reduced synthesis of vitamin D is not a vitamin! It is, the excess of adipose tissue. the vitamin is abundantly compen- in actual fact, a hormone that is sated by their diet of fish and ani- very similar in structure to other mals that feed on fish, notoriously hormones that are derived from • Deficiency: <20 ng / ml rich in vitamin D. cholesterol. • Renal: <30-32 ng / ml The darker the complexion, the Vitamin D cannot be a vitamin, as • Sufficiency: ≥30-32 ng / ml lower, with the same solar irra- vitamins are substances introdu- • Optimal levels: 40-70 ng / ml diation, is the skin’s synthesis of ced with food indispensable for • Toxic levels:> 150 ng / ml + vitamin D. life but not synthesized by the hypercalcemia body: Vitamin D is synthesized by the skin. Functions of vitamin D Table no. 1

The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The Defining blood levels of The alterations in the bones in Vitamin D is a hormone because vitamin D rickets initially concentrated at- it is able to act on distant cellular tention on the role of vitamin D in system selective and specific bin- Skin colour is of huge importance the metabolism of calcium. It has ding with a protein (the Vitamin D as the light the complexion, the been determined that vitamin D Receptor) that uniquely recogni- greater the synthesis of vitamin plays an essential role in calcium ses it, in the same way a lock reco- D. This phenomenon is linked to balance: gnises its key. an evolutionary process that has • Determines calcium absorption The vitamin D receptor has been come about with human migra- in the intestine identified in the cells of all organs; tion from equatorial areas, where • Adjusts the absorption of once bound to the vitamin, and Homo Sapiens appeared, to re- calcium and phosphorus in the only if bound, it attaches to predi- gions closer and closer to the po- kidneys sposed points of the DNA and re- les. The energy intensity of light • Regulates the reabsorbtion gulates the transcription. at the equator is very high and can of bone calcium by acting on Today we know that the vitamin overcome the barrier of the skin osteoclasts D-receptor complex regulates and damage the DNA of cells; to • Along with Parathyroids, it more than 1,000 genes and in- protect themselves from this dan- keeps the blood levels of calcium fluences activities such as, among ger early humans developed a high necessary for the ossification many others (Table 2). capacity for synthesis of melanin that gives the dark colour of the But in recent years it has been skin and acts as a filter for solar discovered that the functions of radiation. In moving northwards, vitamin D go far beyond calcium man gradually diluted the mela- affecting the functioning of the nin content and with it the colour of his skin so as to allow the redu- Immunity Glucose metabolism ced solar irradiation to not have Inflammation Cell proliferation filters that blocked the synthesis Calcium metabolism Trophism of the nervous and muscular system of vitamin D: the selection of the colour of the skin of the Nordic Table no. 2 populations was determined by Activities that presents evident influence of the vitamin D-receptor the need to synthesize vitamin D complex. with the exception of the Eskimo tribes who, although living in the

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a b

Figure no. 4 A) Skin phototypes according to Fitzpatrick: complexion is the evolutionary adaptation of the migration of the primordial black race towards areas with low solar radiation. B) Gwyneth Paltrow (grade I / II Fitzpatrick) says she suffers from severe hypovitaminosis D due to a lack of exposure to the sun. (Author: Francis Antognarelli)

Vitamin D and athletic Vitamin D deficiency in athletes spring, when they run out of performance A growing number of scientific their stores produced during The use of the Finsen lamp impro- studies shows a situation of in- the summer months. A recent ved not only the situation of bone, sufficient vitamin D in athletes. survey, conducted in spring, but also the strength of the pa- Among the causes, in addition to revealed that 81% of football tients. Long before evidence was a reduced nutritional intake, we players of New York Giants available that the anti-rickets fac- must consider the reduced endo- were clearly deficient. One tor acted on the muscle, in 1927, genous synthesis that should en- study evaluating the seasonal the German Swimming Federation sures more than 90% of the needs. differences in women gymna- suggested to improve the perfor- Given the importance of vitamin sts and runners showed a 15 mance of the swimmers exposing D for performance and especially ng / ml level of vitamin in the them to UV rays: many accused for the health of the athlete, mo- winter period, compared with them of doping, but the experi- nitoring plasma levels should be 25ng / ml of the summer pe- ment continued. From the 1930s done systematically, taking into riod in 75% of patients. improvements began to show in account: • Skin colour: dark phototypes athletes performances with the are at high risk; the Afri- use of lamps and / or treatment • Seasonality: levels are higher can-Americans in the Natio- with vitamin D. In 1968, the extra- in summer. Best performan- nal Football League showed ordinary performance of long ju- ces in training and in compe- average levels of 20.4 ng / ml mper, Bob Beamon, after a period tition are obtained in summer compared to 30.3 ng / ml of acclimatization in situation of high and autumn, periods in which their Caucasian teammates. solar radiation, led to an increased the levels of vitamin D are It was determined that Afri- interest in the properties of vita- higher. Many athletes have can Americans need 10 times min D. problems in winter and in the longer UVB exposure times to

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Figure no. 5 In 1938, Russian doctors used UV rays in addition to training methods for students in the 100, resulting in a marked improvement in their performance; B) In 1952, in Germany, the use of radiation and/or administration of vitamin D to children in elementary schools during non-summer months, determines a marked improvement in cycle ergometer performance; C) 1968 Olympic Games Mexico City, Bob Beamon improves the record jump by 55 cm.

reach the same levels of exposure of a few minutes vitamins D as Caucasians. in the summer would be However, individuals with sufficient and appropriate. Fitzpatrick skin type Type 1 • Musculoskeletal trauma are equally at risk for their and post-trauma recovery: a

The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The reluctance to exposure to levels of vitamin D in fo- sunlight for fear of getting otball players hospitalised burned. for trauma were an avera- • Latitude: in winter, latitu- ge of 19 ng/ml, significant- des above 35° do not have ly lower than their compa- sufficient irradiation. It nions who had not suffered must be considered that from trauma. Recovery many Olympian athletes, after surgery for traumatic originating from areas with anterior cruciate ligament lower latitudes, showed was more rapid in those levels of insufficiency (for with levels> 30NG/ml. example, 42% of outdoor • Bone Health: bone den- athletes and 80% of Israeli sity is related to the pla- indoor athletes): latitude is sma levels of vitamin D. In not a guarantee! situations of deficiency • Indoor activities: it is by (blood levels <30 ng / ml), b far the highest risk factor, the intestinal absorption especially in the presence of calcium drops to 10- of all the others. Deficien- 15%, whereas it rises to cies of vitamin D were de- 30% with vitamin D levels tected in 94% of basketball > 30 ng / ml. Levels above players and 83% of gymna- 40 ng / ml protect against sts. bone fractures and repre- • Type of clothing: over-dres- sent a safety limit to redu- sed women of the Middle ce stress micro-fractures, East are at high risk, but very common in runners so are those who protect and jumpers. themselves with clothes • Muscular strength: a cor- for fear of burns. relation has been demon- • Using sunscreen: synthe- strated between plasma sis decreases in the mon- concentrations of 25 (OH) ths of maximum radiation. D and power, muscle c 3 In our hemisphere a daily strength, speed and high

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25(OH) D3 10 ng/ml 20 ng/ml 30 ng/ml 40 ng/ml 50 ng/ml Rickets

Atrophy of muscle fibre type II + falls

Risk fractures and microfractures

Optimising muscle function

Table no. 3 critical levels of vitamin D and related pathologies. a b

jump. Levels below 20 ng / ml induce the loss and atrophy of type II fibres, with the con- sequent loss of strength, especially in the proximal areas, reduction of power, height and speed in the jump and a reduction in perfor- mance in general. In older individuals, loss of muscle fibre type II is responsible for falls. • Inflammation and Immuni- ty: athletes with levels below 38-40 ng / ml are at high risk of the onset and recurrence Figure no. 6 c of colds especially of the up- A) Joseph Pilates, born in 1883 per airways. In the marathon in Mönchengladbach (Germany), runners, the concentrations latitude 51° 12 ‘, of inflammation markers, inventor of the homonymous technique, suffered from rickets TNF-alpha and interleukin-6 as a child; B) Muhammad Ali: are elevated when concentra- dark skin, long period of indoor tions of 25 (OH) D fall below activities, multiple head injuries: 32 ng / ml. suffers from Parkinson’s • Muscle pain: a variable per- disease. His daughter has created centage between 89 and 93% a foundation for the study of of patients with chronic mu- vitamin D in Parkinson’s; C) Jenny and Susanna Kallur, twin Swedish sculoskeletal pain have vita- champions 110 m hurdles, both min D deficiency had stress microfractures in • Sleep disorders: a high per- August 2009: light skin type, centage of subjects with sle- running and jumping, living in ep disorders have low levels Sweden (Latitude> 55 ° N). of vitamin D. Levels should be maintained at 60-80ng / ml.

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• Diseases of the nervous system: Parkinson’s, Dementia, Depression, Multiple Sclerosis, head trauma are conditions associated with low plasma levels of vitamin D.

Vitamin D is not a vitamin, it is a hormone with important functions in the maintenance of home- ostasis of the organism. Is not an ergogenic substance as it does not improve performance, but its deficiency has severe consequences on the health and performance of the athlete.

An algorithm for the approximate calculation of vitamin D levels

The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The The regression analysis elaborated by Mc Carty et al., can be used, calculating the bio- marker (B) of vitamin D deficiency.

B (x) = x1 + 0.011x2 • 0207 - 0092 + 0.007x3 where: x1 is the race (1 = white, 2 = black) x2 is the body mass index (kg / m2) In the case of B = 0.4, the approximate level of vitamin D is equal to 20 ng / ml

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Recommended reading

1. Cannell JJ et al. Athletic performance and vitamin D, Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2009;41(5):1102-10. 2. Hamilton B. Vitamin D and athletic performan- ce: the potential role of muscle. Asian J Sports Med. 2011;2(4):211-9 3. Hopkinson JA, Hopkinson NS. The hobbit - an unexpected deficiency. Med J Aust. 2013 Dec 16;199(11):805-6 4. Ogan D, Pritchett K. Vitamin D and the athlete: risks, recommendations, and benefits. Nutrients. 2013 May 28;5(6):1856-68

MENOTTI CALVANI Prof. Calvani is a specialist in neurology, clinical pharmacology and medical toxicology. He also has a degree in the Human Nutritional Sciences. He has published over 200 scientific articles in international journals primarily on issues of metabolism, mitochondria and degenerative diseases.

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The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The KINEMATIC ANALYSIS OF THE SNATCH LIFT WITH ELITE FEMALE WEIGHTLIFTERS DURING THE 2010 WORLD WEIGHTLIFTING CHAMPIONSHIP

BY HASAN AKKUS School of Physical Education and Sports, University of Selcxuk, Alaaddin Keykubat Campus, Konya, Turkey

Rivista_EWF_N°1.indd 22 06/03/15 17:42 23 ORIG: KINEMATIC ANALYSIS OF THE SNATCH LIFT WITH ELITE FEMALE WEIGHTLIFTERS DURING THE 2010 WORLD WEIGHTLIFTING CHAMPIONSHIP. JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING RESEARCH - VOLUME 26 | NUMBER 4 | 2012

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INTRODUCTION more slowly in the turnover and taken from national-level women The 1987 World Weightlifting catch phases (16). The larger hori- weightlifters competed in 1999, Championship was the first such zontal displacement of the barbell more than a decade ago (21). Hen- event in which female weightlifters by women in the 69-kg category of ce, analyzing data obtained from participated as competitors (9,16). the 1999 US Men’s and Women’s elite female weightlifters com- Not until the 2000 Olympic Games Weightlifting Championships was peted in 2010 can demonstrate in Sydney did female weightlifters accounted for by the inconsistent the development of the snatch contest the snatch and clean and or irregular displacement of the technique in women weightlifters jerk at an Olympic event (21). De- barbell, and less than half of the fe- and provide additional and use- spite increasing interest in female males’ snatch attempts displayed ful information for coaching. The weightlifting after 1987, the num- the optimal toward-away-toward objective of this study was to de- ber of studies focused on the sna- horizontal bar trajectory. Moreo- termine the kinematics of snatch tch performances of female wei- ver, as the load of the barbell in- lifts by elite female weightlifters ghtlifters in World Championships creased, the drop-under time also who won gold medals in the 2010

The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The and Olympic games is relatively increased, whereas the drop-un- World Weightlifting Champion- limited compared with the number der displacement, the maximum ship, an Olympic qualifying com- of studies focused on males. vertical displacement, and the ma- petition, and compare the results The results of female weightli- ximum vertical velocity of the bar- with previous data reported for fters in 9 categories in the 1987 bell decreased (21). The differen- men and women. World Weightlifting Championship ces between the characteristics The research hypothesis of this showed that women could ge- of snatch lifts by male and female study was that the analysis of the nerate higher short-term power weightlifters have been reported snatch lift performances of elite outputs than previously documen- to be caused by women’s recent female weightlifters in this study ted; however, their powers were participation in weightlifting, a would exhibit important differen- lower than those of men both in lack of experience and weightli- ces in kinematic variables when absolute terms and relative to fting skills, insufficient training, compared with previously repor- body mass (9). According to repor- and other variables (9,12,14,16,21). ted data for weightlifters, provi- ted values from the 1998 World In weightlifting, a higher perfor- ding useful information for athle- Championship, women lifted grea- mance level can be achieved by tes and their coaches to utilize in ter loads and exerted more power decreasing the total work done training and competition. in the second pull than men, but and by more effectively utilizing the duration of their second pull, the power-generating ability of their maximum vertical barbell ve- the muscles (21). A comparative METHODS locity, and their maximum barbell analysis detecting the changes in Experimental Approach height were lower (14). The authors the recent performances of elite to the Problem of another study found that the female weightlifters in the snatch This study was descriptive in na- mechanical work done by men to lift event in comparision to pre- ture. The data for this study were vertically displace the barbell was vious data reported in the litera- collected only from female world greater in the first pull than in the ture can show the importance of champion weightlifters in 7 cate- second pull and that the mecha- different kinematic variables in gories in the 2010 World Weightli- nical work done by women was si- achieving a higher performance. fting Championship. To determine milar in both phases. Additionally, In conclusion, there has been the development of female snatch female weightlifters flexed their considerable research into the performance, the collected data knees less and more slowly than variables involved in weightlifting were then analyzed and compa- men during the transition phase, in for men and relatively few studies red with data for male and female which elastic energy is stored, and for women. And the latest one of weightlifters reported since the they dropped under the barbell those few studies analyzed data 1987 World Weightlifting Cham-

Rivista_EWF_N°1.indd 24 06/03/15 17:42 DURING THE 2010 WORLD WEIGHTLIFTING CHAMPIONSHIP 25 N° 1 / April-July 2015 Subjects Weigth category (kg) Age (y) Height (cm) Body weight (kg) Result (kg) 1 48 27 150 47.88 93 2 53 19 162 52.84 100 3 58 25 156 57.67 103 4 63 28 163 62.59 112 5 69 27 171 68.23 116 6 75 24 175 74.67 134º 7 +75 19 176 96.93 145* Mean ± SD 24.14 ± 3.76 164.71± 9.79 65.83 ± 16.43 114.71 ± 18.81 º Senior World record * Senior and junior world record

Table no. 1 The caracteristics of elite female weightlifters

pionship, the first event in which female weightlifters participated as competitors.

Subjects This study was conducted in accor- dance with the guidelines set for- th by the Institutional Review Bo- ard of Selcuk University. The data used in this study were obtained from the 2010 World Weightlifting Championship in Antalya, Turkey. Necessary permissions for visual recordings were obtained from the Turkish Weightlifting Federa- tion and the World Weightlifting Federation. The heaviest succes- sful lifts of 7 women who won gold medals were analyzed (Table 1). The snatch lift in the female 75-kg Figure no. 2 category was a senior world record The phases of the snatch: (A) the first pull, (B) the transition, (C) the (134 kg), and the snatch lift in the second pull, (D) the turnover under the barbell, (E) the catch phase, female kg category was a senior and (F) the rising from the squat position. junior world record (145 kg). from the weightlifters, forming (Sony DCR-TRV18E, Tokyo, Japan), Procedures an approximate 45° angle with the which captured images at 50 fields Two digital cameras were posi- sagittal plane of the weightlifters per second. The lift-off of the bar- tioned on the diagonal level of (Figure 1). The snatch lifts were bell was used to synchronize the 2 the platform at a distance of 9 m recorded using 2 digital cameras cameras.

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To determine the 3-dimensional kinematic data of the barbell and the angular kinematics of the hip, knee, and ankle joints during the snatch lifts, 1 point on the barbell and 5 points on the body were digi- tized using the Ariel Performance Analysis System (APAS, San Diego, CA, USA). The digitized points in- cluded the little toe, ankle, knee, hip, and shoulder on the right side of the body. In addition to these points, the digitized point on the barbell was located on the medial

The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The side of the right hand. A rectangular cube with a length of 250 cm, a depth of 100 cm, and a height of 180 cm was used to Figure no. 3 calibrate the movement space. Three key horizontal positions of the barbell in the snatch lift. The 3-dimensional spatial coordi- nates of the selected points were calculated using the direct linear were studied as follows—the first the starting position of the barbell transformation procedure with pull:: from barbell lift-off until the was used as a reference to deter- 12 control points. The calibration first maximum knee extension; mine the horizontal displacement cube was placed on the platform “the transition phase”: from the of the barbell (8). Movement of the Figure no. 1 first maximum knee exten- bar toward the lifter was regarded The cameras setup sion until the first maximum as a positive horizontal displace- knee flexion; “the second ment, and movement of the bar before the competition, recorded, pull”: from the first maximum away from the lifter represented a and then removed. The raw posi- knee flexion until the second ma- negative horizontal displacement tion and time data were smoothed ximum extension of the knee; “the (Figure 3). using a low-pass digital filter. Ba- turnover under the barbell”: from sed on the residual analysis, a cut- the second maximum extension of The work performed on the bar- off frequency of 4 Hz was selected the knee until the achievement of bell during the first and the se- (15,16). the maximum height of the bar- cond pulls was calculated from The snatch lift was divided into ± bell; “the catch phase”: from the changes in the barbell’s potential phases: (a) the first pull, (b) the achievement of the maximum hei- and kinetic energies. These calcu- transition, (c) the second pull, (d) ght of the barbell until stabiliza- lations included the vertical work the turnover under the barbell, (e) tion in the catch position. done by lifting the barbell. The the catch phase, and (f) the rising power output of the weightlifter from the squat position (Figure 2). The angular displacements and was calculated by dividing the The phases were determined ac- velocities of the ankle, knee, and work done in each phase by the cording to the change in direction hip joints were analyzed to investi- duration of the phase. The rela- of the knee angle and the height gate the angular kinematics of the tive power and work values were of the barbell (2,15,19). The first 5 lower body. In addition, the kine- calculated by dividing the abso- phases of the lift, from the lift-off matics of the barbell were calcula- lute work and power values by the of the barbell to the catch phase, ted. A vertical line drawn through lifter’s body mass. The calculated

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power outputs only included the vertical work done The vertical displacement of the barbell during the N° 1 / April-July 2015 by lifting the barbell (11). first pull (from lift-off until the end of the first pull) Statistical Analyses was 29.34 ± 6.24 cm and during the second pull, it was The assumption of normally distributed data was 25.91 ± 2.81 cm (Table 3). Although the distance of checked using a p-plot and the Anderson-Darling test. the barbell from the point of lift-off to the end of the The paired t-test was used to determine the kinema- first pull was greater than that in the second pull, no tic differences between the first and second pulls, significant difference was found between the displa- and the multivariate Wilks’ Lambda (λ) test with Bon- cement of the 2 phases (t = 1.215; p = 0.270). Conver- ferroni correction was used to compare the angular sely, the maximum vertical linear velocity of the barbell kinematics during the first and second pulls and the was greater in the second pull than in the first pull (t differences between the durations of the phases. A significance level of p ≤ 0.05 was used.

RESULTS A significant difference was found between the du- rations of the first 4 phases (λ = 0.024; p < 0.05). The duration of the first pull (0.60 ± 0.08 s) was signifi- cantly greater than the durations of the transition phase (0.14 ± 0.01 s), the second pull (0.17 ± 0.01 s), and the turnover under the barbell (0.21 ± 0.02 s). The duration of the turnover was greater than the durations of the second pull and the transition pha- se (p < 0.05). The angular displacements and velocities of the an- kle, knee, and hip joints in the second pull were gre- ater than those in the first pull. The average knee angle was 66.32 ± 12.96° in the starting position and 134.14 ± 4.73° at the end of the first pull, followed by flexion of approximately 11.02 ± 5.32° in the tran- sition phase and 159.09 ± 2.74° at the end of the second pull. The differences between the angular ve- locities of the ankle, knee, and hip joints during the first pull (λ = 0.135; p < 0.05) were significant. Signifi- cant differences were also found in the joint angular velocities during the second pull (λ = 0.231; p < 0.05). During the first pull, the maximum knee angular ve- locity was greater than the maximum ankle and hip angular velocities (p < 0.05). The maximum hip angu- lar velocity was also greater than the maximum ankle angular velocity in the first pull (p < 0.05). During the second pull, the maximum hip angular velocity was greater than both the maximum knee angular veloci- ty (p < 0.05) and the maximum ankle angular velocity (p < 0.05). The angular velocities of the knee during the first pull and the hip during the second pull were greater than those of the other 2 joints (Table 2).

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First pull Second pull Maximum ankle extension angle (°) 120.95 ± 3.95 149.06 ± 5.23 13.234* Maximum knee extension angle (°) 134.14 ± 4.73 159.09 ± 2.74 12.845* Maximum hip extension angle (°) 88.09 ± 7.87 185.86 ± 5.39 27.151* Decrease in knee angle during 11.02 ± 5.32 the transition phase (°)

Maximum ankle angular velocity (rad.s-1) 11.02 ± 5.32 5.96 ± 1.34 8.828* Maximum knee angular velocity (rad.s-1) 3.79 ± 1.11 5.92 ± 1.05 4.619* Maximum hip angular velocity (rad.s-1) 3.79 ± 1.11 7.86 ± 1.52 9.615* *p , 0.05.

Table no. 2 The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The Angular kinematics of the ankle, knee, and hip joints in the first and second pulls.

Mean ± SD Vertical kinematics Barbell height at the end of the first pull (cm) 52.16 ± 6.36 Barbell height at the end of the second pull (cm) 92.60 ± 6.12 Maximum barbell height (m) 1.18 ± 0.19 Drop displacement (cm) 13.72 ± 2.94 Maximum vertical velocity of the barbell in the first pull (m.s-1) 0.99 ± 0.19 Maximum vertical velocity of the barbell in the second pull (ms.s-1) 1.68 ± 0.14 Horizontal kinematics Horizontal displacement toward weightlifter in the first pull (cm) 5.92 ± 3.11 Horizontal displacement away from weightlifter in the second pull (cm) 1.83 ± 4.62 Horizontal displacement toward weightlifter after beginning of descent from maximum height (cm) 4.39 ± 3.43

Table no. 3 Linear kinematics of the barbell.

First Pull Second Pull t-Value Absolute work (J) 391.50 ± 84.25 314.65 ± 42.76 3.499* Relative work (J/kg) 6.02 ± 0.79 4.90 ± 0.75 4.057* Absolute power (W) 642.74 ± 159.04 1847.62 ± 336.06 13.472* Relative power (W/kg) 9.85 ± 1.35 28.95 ± 3.02 15.625* *p , 0.05.

Table no. 4 Mechanical work and power output in the first and second pulls.

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Figure no. 4 Barbell trajectories for various female weight categories.

= 10.533; p < 0.05). The barbell mo- pull (Table 4). The work values of The duration of the first pull in ved between 4 cm (21 to 3 cm for the first pull were greater than the the current study, which was the Subject 5) and 9 cm (0 to 9 cm for power values of the second pull. longest of all 4 phases, was signi- Subject 4) toward the body during DISCUSSION ficantly greater than previously the second pull (Figure 3). During In weightlifting, load is an impor- reported results due to the maxi- this pull, however, the barbell also tant variable that plays a determi- mal lift performance of the fema- moved between 1 cm (9–8 cm for ning role in the magnitudes of the le weightlifters (15,16). Conversely, Subject 4) and 9 cm (3 to 26 cm vertical and horizontal kinematics the duration of the second pull for Subject 5) away from the body, of the barbell. Previous work has was shorter than that in the 1987 crossing the vertical reference line shown the most distinctive effect Women’s World Weightlifting of the barbell before lift-off. After of increased barbell weight to be Championship (9) and longer than the drop from the maximum height, an increase in the pull duration that in the 1998 event (14). The the barbell moved from 0 cm (6–6 and a decrease in the maximum duration of the first pull for na- cm for Subject 6) to 10 cm (7–17 cm and average pull velocities, the tional-level female weightlifters for Subject 3) toward the body, and maximum barbell height, and the in the 69-kg category was shorter a negative value was observed for 1 power output (13). than that found in this study, but weightlifter (69 kg), as the barbell the duration of the second pull for was fixed in front of the vertical The average value of the barbell these women was nearly twice as reference line. The work values du- weights of the heaviest snatch long as that found in this study ring the first pull were significant- lifts in the 2010 Women’s Wor- (21). The relatively longer duration ly higher than those of the second ld Weightlifting Championships of the first pull detected in this pull. Conversely, the power output was greater than those in the study was attributed to the maxi- during the second pull was signifi- 1987 and 1998 competitions by mal barbell weights. In addition, cantly higher than that of the first 45% and 18%, respectively (9,14). the increased average snatch lift

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indicated an increase in the skills bell when used by women (16). The and strength of the female wei- large improvements observed in ghtlifters (Figure 4). the performance of female wei- Our results were not consistent ghtlifters between 1987 and 1998 with those of Gourgoulis et al (16), are connected to technique chan- who reported that the mechanical ges during the second pull (14). The work performed during the first relative power output during the pull was less than that performed second pull has increased by 80% during the second pull for women. according to the relative power However, the snatch lift results for output in total pull in female wei- men were similar as follows: the ghtlifters, and by 53% in men mechanical work performed du- weightlifters. The power values of ring the first pull was greater than faster and slower movements for that performed during the second women, such as the second and

The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The pull, and the power output during complete pulls, were consistently the second pull was greater than higher percentages of the values that of the first pull (2,7–9,15). The for men (12). greater work values during the In previous studies, an optimal first pull in the current study sug- barbell trajectory has been taken gest an increase in the strength of as an indicator of a mechanically female weightlifters and the use effective pull and a proper tech- of a snatch pattern similar to that nique (1,3,8,20–24). The horizontal di- of male weightlifters. During the splacement of the barbell during first pull of the snatch lift, changes the snatch is one of the kinematic in the barbell’s kinetic and poten- variables used to assess weightli- tial energies were greater, and fting technique (21). The horizontal the lifters had to exert a conside- movement of the barbell during rable amount of work over a long the pull phase should be consi- period to overcome the inertia of dered an effective application of the barbell (15). During the second muscle power (22). As the horizon- pull, the lifters had to work much tal displacement of the bar incre- more quickly than in the first pull ases during the lift, the lifter must because of the short duration of exert more energy to control the the second pull. The first phase of loaded barbell (4,21). The optimum the total pull is relatively slow and trajectory is affected by relative can be considered to be strength body segment lengths and other oriented, whereas the second pull leverage factors, such as muscle is faster and can be considered to attachment points (8). However, be more power oriented (9,17,18). the role that anthropometric fac- The power output generated for tors play in the determination of the vertical displacement of the the optimal barbell trajectory is barbell during the second pull, unclear (21). an indicator of explosive stren- As shown in Figure 3, 3 key position gth, was lower for female than values have been identified for for male weightlifters, and this the horizontal movement of the can be explained by the relatively barbell during the snatch (8). The lower vertical velocity of the bar- first horizontal movement of the

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barbell is toward the weightlifter, N° 1 / April-July 2015 away from the vertical reference line drawn through the position of the bar just before lift-off du- ring the first pull. This value was always found to be positive. The second value was often negative, indicating movement of the bar away from the lifter toward the opposite side of the vertical refe- rence line during the second pull. The third value, the distance of the bar from the vertical referen- ce line just after the beginning of descent from the maximum hei- ght, was usually positive. These 3 horizontal movements of the bar- bell have been described as posi- tive-negative-positive or toward- away-toward displacement patterns (8,21). The horizontal di- splacement of the barbell by men has been reported to be between 3 and 9 cm in the first pull, betwe- en 3 and 18 cm in the second pull, and between 3 and 9 cm just after the beginning of descent from the maximum height (8). The average horizontal displacement of the barbell has been reported to be 3.65 cm during the first pull and the transition phases for natio- nal-level female weightlifters and 6.29 cm for men at the Olympic level. During the second pull, the average horizontal displacement was −1.88 cm for women and 3.87 cm for men (16). The toward-away- toward displacement pattern of the barbell during the first and second pulls was similar for men and women, and no significant dif- ferences were observed between the genders (16). A gender-based difference was found in the hori- zontal movement of the barbell during the second pull: the barbell

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moved away from female lifters height of the barbell at the end of ring the catch phase and faster and crossed the vertical referen- the turnover and the loss of height drop during the turnover under ce line, whereas it moved hori- during the drop under the bar- the barbell (4,16). zontally away from male lifters bell to the catch position (8,16,22). In this study, the maximum ex- without crossing the vertical line A lower maximum height and the tension of the knee angle during (16). In another study, the barbell drop displacement distance are the first pull was lower than that trajectory of female lifters was among the most important indica- reported for men, whereas it was different from that of males, and tors of an effective technique for a greater than that reported for an optimal toward-away-toward maximal snatch lift in elite female female weightlifters (16). Knee pattern was observed in less than weightlifters. flexion during the transition pha- half of the female lifters (6 of the se for female weightlifters was si- 14 lifts, approximately 43%) (21). The absence of a notable dip du- milar to the values reported in the In the present study, only 2 of the ring the transition phase is cha- literature, whereas it was lower 7 elite female weightlifters (53 kg racteristic of better weightlifters than values reported for men (16). 2

The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The and 69 kg categories) exhibited ( ) and indicates an effective tech- The maximum extension angle of an optimal toward-away-toward nique (1,22). During the transition, knee joints during the first pull pattern. Hoover et al (21) have re- the vertical force on the barbell di- affects explosive strength during ported that most of the literature minishes. This, in turn, decreases the second pull. By flexing the pertaining to optimal trajectories the vertical velocity of the barbell knee joint at a greater extension during the snatch has considered although smoothing and accele- angle at the end of the first pull, skilled to elite men. The horizontal rating the transition and produ- the biomechanics of the phase displacement values of the barbell ces a smaller decline in velocity are maximized and elastic ener- for highly skilled female weight- (8). The presence of 2 clear peaks gy is effectively used. During the lifters in this study were within in the vertical velocity of the bar- transition from the first pull to the the recommended limits for an bell is suggestive of an ineffecti- second pull, knee flexion is used effective snatch technique. Howe- ve technique (2). In the present to realign the lifter relative to the ver, the observed trajectory of the study, an ineffective technique barbell, and this movement is re- barbell was consistent with the was detected in only 1 (48 kg) of ferred to as the double knee bend 15) for 5,6). Knee flexion during the tran- results of Gourgoulis et al ( the 7 weightlifters. The vertical ( Courtesy of EWF male weightlifters. In most cases, linear velocity of the barbell de- sition phase has similar effects to the barbell did not cross the verti- creased by 13% in the transition that observed during the counter- cal reference line before lift-off in phase, and 2 distinct peaks were movement in vertical jumps (16). the current study (Figure 4). observed. In an earlier study, the This countermovement and the maximum vertical linear velocity second bending flexion of the kne- It was found that the maximum during the second pull and the ma- es during the snatch lift may be height of the barbell in women ximum height of the barbell after performed rapidly enough to sto- weighlifters in this study was the second pull were higher in na- re recoverable elastic energy and lower than those reported but tional-level female than in male elicit a stretch reflex immediately greater than the results found for Olympic champions (16). In addition after the concentric contraction men (8,9,14,16). The height loss from to gender, skill level affected this of the knee and hip joint extensor the maximum height of the barbell result, and the vertical kinematics muscles (10). until the squat position was simi- of the barbell decreased in elite lar to the drop displacement re- weightlifters, especially in men The extension angle of the ankles corded for men lifters but smaller (14). Skill-related factors affected during the second pull, which is than that of females (16,21). Lifting snatch performance, and highly used to increase power output, the barbell effectively requires skilled weightlifters achieved a was considerably higher in this minimizing both the maximum relatively lower barbell height du- study than the values reported for

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women in the literature, whereas sion velocities during the second reported in the literature, the the values of the extension angle pull. Thus, the knee angular velo- performances of the elite female of the hip and knee joints were city was the greatest during the weightlifters in the 2010 World similar (16). Furthermore, the ex- first pull, whereas the hip angular Weightlifting Championships were tension velocities of the hip, knee, velocity was the greatest during improved compared with reported and ankle joints during the second the second pull. This finding was values, and a snatch-lift pattern pull, when explosive strength is consistent with the results of Bau- similar to that of male weightli- needed, were much greater than mann et al (2) who suggested that fters was observed. the extension velocities of the faster execution of the second pull same joints during the first pull. contributed to the explosiveness The knee extension velocity du- of the second pull (15). PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS ring the first pull was greater than Although the magnitudes of the The snatch techniques of elite that of the ankle and hip, and the linear kinematics, the angular ki- female weightlifters in the 2010 hip extension velocity was greater nematics of the lower limbs, and World Weightlifting Champion- than that of the ankle. The hip ex- the other energetic characteri- ships were analyzed in this work. tension velocity was greater than stics found in this study were not Thewomen weightlifters in this both the ankle and the knee exten- entirely consistent with those study exhibited superior per-

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formanceswhen comparedwith previously reported results since References 1987. Although their pulling velo- cities and explosive strength va- 1. Bartonietz, KE. Biomechanics of the snatch: toward a hi- lues were less than those of male gher training effi ciency. Strength Cond J 18: 24–31, 1996. weightlifters, the increase in the 2. Baumann, W, Gross, V, Quade, K, Galbierz, P, and average load lifted, the mecha- Schwirtz, A. Th e snatch technique of World Class Wei- nical energy during the first pull, ghtlift ers at the 1985 World Championships. Int J Sport and the power output during the Biomech 4: 68–89, 1988. 3. Bruenger, AJ, Smith, SL, Sands, WA, and Leigh, MR. Va- second pull indicated an increase lidation of instrumentation to monitor dynamic perfor- in strength and skill levels of fema- mance of Olympic weightlift ers. J Strength Cond Res 21: le weightlifters since then. On the 492–499, 2007. other hand, although relatively si- 4. Burdett, RG. Biomechanics of the snatch technique of milar to those ofmen, the barbell highly skilled and skilled weightlift ers. Res Q Exerc Sport

Th e offi cial journal of the European Weightlift ing Federation ing Weightlift European of cialthe journal offi e Th trajectories of the successful 53: 193–197, 1982. snatch lifts performed by the wor- 5. Enoka, RM. Th e pull in Olympic weightlift ing. Med Sci ld champion women weightlifters Sports 11: 131–137, 1979. were different from each other. 6. Garhammer, J. Performance evaluation of Olympic wei- This finding of the present study ghtlift ers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 11: 284–287, 1979. suggest that successful lifts are 7. Garhammer, J. Power production by Olympic weightli- not necessarily dependent on a ft ers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 12: 54–60, 1980. single and specific barbell trajec- 8. Garhammer, J. Biomechanical profi le of Olympic weight- tory pattern but that they are more lift ers. Int J Sport Biomech 1: 122–130, 1985. a result of power output. In addi- 9. Garhammer, J. A comparison of maximal power outputs tion, it was found that the greater between elite male and female weightlift ers in competi- the power output, which is related tion. Int J Sport Biomech 7: 3–11, 1991. to vertical velocity of the barbell, 10. Garhammer, J and Gregor, R. Propulsion forces as a fun- the more consistent the horizon- ction of intensity for weightlift ing and vertical jumping. J tal barbell displacement patterns Appl Sport Sci Res 6: 129–134, 1992. were with those reported for men 11. Garhammer, J. A review of power output studies of weightlifters. As a result, coaches olympic and powerlift ing: methodology, performance can focus more on training tech- prediction, and evaluation tests. J Strength Cond Res 7: niques that develop maximum 76–89, 1993. 12. Garhammer, J. Weightlift ing performance and techni- strength for greater mechanical ques of men and women. In: International Conference on work during the first pull and in- Weightlift ing and Strength Training. P.V. Komi, ed. Lahti, crease the explosive strength of Finland: Gummerus Printing, 1998. pp. 89–94. the extensor muscles about the 13. Garhammer, J. Barbell trajectory, velocity and power hip, knee, and ankle joints during changes: Six attempt and four world records. Weightli- the second pull. ft ing 19: 27–30, 2001. 14. Garhammer, J, Kauhanen, H, and Hakkinen, KA. Com- parison of performances by woman at the 1987 and 1998 world weightlift ing championships. Selected Publica- tions-John Garhammer [Internet]. Available at: http:// www.csulb.edu/;atlastwl/98vs87womenWLcompare(po- ster).pdf. Accessed August 05, 2011.

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15. Gourgoulis, V, Aggelousis, N, Mavromatis, G, and Garas, A. Th reedimensional kinematic analysis of the snatch of elite Greek weightli- ft ers. J Sport Sci 18: 643–652, 2000. 16. Gourgoulis, V, Aggeloussis, N, Antonıou, P, Chritoforidis, C, Mavromatis, G, and Garas, A. Comparative 3-dimensional kinematic analysis of the snatch technique in elite male and female Greek weightlift ers. J Strength Cond Res 16: 359–366, 2002. 17. Gourgoulis, V, Aggeloussis, N, Kalivas, V, Antonıou, P, and Mavromatis, G. Snatch lift kinematics and bar energetics in male ado- lescent and adult weightlift ers. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 44: 126– 131, 2004. 18. Gourgoulis V, Aggeloussis N, Garas A, and Mavromatis G. Unsuccessful vs. successful performance in snatch lift s: a kinematic approach. J Strength Cond Res 23: 486–494, 2009. 19. Hakkinen, K, Kauhanen, H, and Komi VP. Biomechanical changes in the Olympic wei- ghtlift ing technique of the snatch and clean and jerk from submaximal to maximal loads. Scand J Sports Sci 6: 57–66, 1984. 20. Hiskia, G. Biomechanical analysis of world and Olympic champion weightlift ers perfor- mance. In: Proceedings of the Weightlift ing Symposium. A. Lukacsfalvi and F Takacs, eds. Budapest, Hungary: International Wei- ghtlift ing Federation, 1997. pp. 137–158. 21. Hoover, DL, Carlson, KM, Christensen, BK, and Zebas, CJ. Biomechanical analysis of wo- men weightlift ers during the snatch. J Stren- gth Cond Res 20: 627–633, 2006. 22. Isaka, T, Okada, T, and Fuanto, K. Kinema- tic analysis of the barbell during the snatch movement in elite Asian weightlift ers. J Appl Biomech 12: 508–516, 1996. 23. Stone MH, O’Braynt, HS, Williams, FE, and Johnson, RL. Analysis of bar paths during the snatch in elite male weightlift ers. Strength Cond J 20: 30–38, 1998. 24. Vorobyev, AN. A Textbook on Weightlift ing. In: Ttrans. W.J. Brice, ed. Budapest, Hungary: InternationalWeightlift ing Federation, 1978. pp. 172–242.

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THE EFFECTS The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The OF TRAINING VOLUME AND COMPETITION ON THE SALIVARY CORTISOL CONCENTRATIONS OF OLYMPIC WEIGHTLIFTERS BY Blair T. Crewther1, Taati HeKe2, Justin W. L. Keogh3 1Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom; and 2Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand, School of Sport and Recreation, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand

Rivista_EWF_N°1.indd 36 06/03/15 17:42 37 ORIG.THE EFFECTS OF TRAINING VOLUME AND COMPETITION ON THE SALIVARY CORTISOL CONCENTRATIONS OF OLYMPIC WEIGHTLIFTERS IN JSCR (USA) VOL. 25, NUMBER 1, JANUARY 2011, PP. 10-15 N° 1 / April-July 2015

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Rivista_EWF_N°1.indd 37 06/03/15 17:42 38 THE EFFECTS OF TRAINING VOLUME AND COMPETITION ON THE SALIVARY CORTISOL CONCENTRATIONS

INTRODUCTION ce, the salivary C (Sal-C) concen- tions of Olympic weightlifters. It Cortisol (C) is an important steroid trations of Olympic weightlifters was hypothesized that the weekly hormone mediating resistance were found to be more than two- changes in Sal-C concentrations training adaptations. Tradi- tio- fold higher during actual compe- would positively mirror the weekly nally, C is regarded as the primary tition, than a simulated event (32). changes in training volume. It was catabolic hormone, because it de- The 1 repetition maximum (1RM) also hypothesized that Sal- C con- creases protein synthesis and in- lifts were also greater during the centrations and 1RM performan- creases protein breakdown (3,40). actual competition. Similarly, a ce would be greater in an actual Likewise, the antianabolic proper- rise in C concentrations has been rather than a simulated competi- ties of C are linked to the attenua- implicated in the performance tion. tion of anabolic hormones such and behavioral outcomes in other as testosterone (T) and growth sports competitions (12,36–38). hormone (3). However, changes in In this environment, the psycho- METHODS C secretion may be a prerequisite logical stressors of competition Experimental Approach

The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The for the repartitioning of metabo- may be the prime regulator of C to the Problem lic resources during exercise and and performance. To our knowled- This study was designed to evalua- training (40). It is important to ge, no research has examined the te the effects of training volume note that the majority of C (95– effects of both training volume and competition on the Sal-C con- 99%) is bound to proteins in blood, and competition (simulated and centrations of Olympic weightli- with the remaining portion (1–5%) actual) on the C concen- trations fters. The basic design was based circulating freely, thereby repre- of Olympic weightlifters. on published research (5,18,32). senting the biologically active hor- In the first part of this study, Sal-C mone (9). Another limitation of the literatu- concentrations were monitored Training volume is a key factor in- re is the amount of time between across 5 workouts to assess the fluencing endogenous hormones. pre and posttraining assessmen- weekly effects of changes in trai- For example, adjustments in re- ts, which can span from several ning volume. In the second part, sistance training volume can ele- weeks to months (21–23). Intuiti- Sal-C concentrations and 1RM vate or reduce C concentrations vely, monitoring weekly workouts performance from 2 simulated (13,14,18, 20,21,23). Some training would allow for a more thorough and 2 actual competitions were studies have also reported correla- analysis of those factors me- compared. Cortisol was assessed tions between the individual chan- diating training adaptation and in saliva, a surrogate marker of the ges in the T/C ratio and strength how adjustments in 1 variable blood-free hormone (2,16). The adaptations (13,22,23). In female (e.g., volume) might affect others snatch and clean and jerk exerci- weightlifters, the changes in the (e.g., hormones and performan- ses were assessed during compe- T/C ratio also negatively correla- ce) (5,18). Most studies have also tition, these being the main exer- ted to the changes in load volume assessed the bound hormone in cises for Olympic weightlifters and to improvements in force pro- blood, rather than the biologically (28). duction (18). Thus, the physiologi- active free hormone. Saliva offers cal stressors imposed by different a stress-free method for monito- Subjects volumes of training may influence ring blood free hormones and the Five male (age 21.2 ± 3.8 years, these hormones and subsequent bio- available portion (i.e., free height 171.4 ± 4.7 cm, body mass performance. It is possible that plus albumin bound) that is po- 82.0 ± 22.8 kg) and 4 female (age these outcomes are largely driven tentially available to target tissue 23.8 ± 4.6 years, height 161.1 ± by the stress hormone C. (2,16). 5.5 cm, body mass 68.6 ± 15.3 Competition can also influence the This study sought to assess the ef- kg) weightlifters with an average hormonal and performance outco- fects of training volume and com- training experience of 4.7 ± 3.1 mes in weightlifters. For instan- petition on the Sal-C concentra- and 4.6 ± 1.8 years, respectively,

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volunteered for this study. The N° 1 / April-July 2015 Week Training volume TOtal sets Loading range best 1RM lifts for the snatch, cle- an and jerk, and the Olympic total 1 High 200 42-100% 1RM were 119.4 ± 27.8, 150.8 ± 34.6, 2 Low 75 42-100% 1RM and 270.2 ± 62.4 kg for men and 3 High 200 42-100% 1RM 66.6 ± 15.8, 83.6 ± 18.8, and 150.3 4 High 209 42-100% 1RM ± 34.6 kg for women. All subjects had competed in national and in- 5 Low 86 42-100% 1RM ternational weightlifting compe- *1RM = 1 repetition maximum. titions before this study, and each

had a National ranking in the top Table no. 1 5 for their weight class and age. Training volume across the experimental period.* Subjects were informed of the experimental risks and signed an calculations. Workout duration for the Olympic total lift (i.e., sum informed consent form before the differed considerably, depending of the snatch and clean and jerk) start of this investigation. The in- on whether a high- or low-volu- were also calculated. To account vestigation was approved by an In- me session was undertaken, and for gender differences in body stitutional Review Board (Waikato generally ranged from 45 to 120 size, relative 1RM (rel1RM) per- Institute of Technology, Hamilton, minutes. Despite the weekly dif- formance was calcu- lated by divi- New Zealand) for the use of human ferences in volume, a similar lo- ding the measured 1RM by fat-free subjects. ading range or training intensity mass in kilograms. The pretraining (% of personal best 1RM lifts) was values for fat-free mass were used Training Procedures employed by subjects across each to normalize the 1RM data from The 2 study aims were addressed week (Table 1). weeks 1 and 2, with the posttrai- concurrently across a 5-week pe- ning values applied to the 1RM riod during the competitive sea- Competition Procedures data from weeks 4 and 5. son. Subjects were training 1–2 The competition procedures were times daily, 5 days a week from based on previous research (32). A standard warm-up was perfor- Monday to Friday. Each training The simulated competitions were med before training and compe- workout involved 3 main exerci- performed under normal training tition comprising low-intensity ses; snatch, clean and jerk, and the conditions (i.e., venue, time of day, aerobic exercise, light lifts (Olym- front squat. The order of exercises exercises), but longer recovery pe- pic bar only) focusing on techni- was consistent across each wor- riods (.5 minutes) were used with que, and stretching of the major kout, as outlined above. The as- greater loading intensities and muscle groups. The assessment sessed workouts were performed fewer repetitions to replicate an of Olympic lifts by trained weight- on the first training day (Monday) actual event. Single repetition lifts lifters are highly reliable with co- of weeks 1–5. Weekly training vo- were performed with increasing efficients of variation from 2.3 to lume was described as being ei- loads until a successful 1RM lift 2.7% (28). Lifting platforms and ther ‘high’ or ‘low,’ based on the was achieved. The simulated com- standard gymnasium equipment total number of sets completed petitions were performed on the were used during the training and across the 3 main exercises (Table last training day (Friday) of weeks competition procedures inclu- 1). The criterion for a high-volu- 1 and 4, with the actual competi- ding squat racks, Olympic barbells me week was the performance of tions performed at the end (Satur- and free weights (Eleiko Sports, 200 or more sets, with 100 or less day) of weeks 2 and 5. The snatch Halmstad, Sweden). The training sets performed across a low-volu- and clean and jerk exercises were workouts and simulated compe- me week. Competition data (see assessed during the competition titions were conducted between below) were included in these settings. The performance results 3 PM and ± PM, with the actual

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competitions undertaken betwe- of 4 skinfolds (i.e., subscapular, su- each assay. The Sal-C concentra- en 10 AM and 4 PM. This difference prailliac, biceps, triceps) was con- tions of men and women are si- was unavoidable because of the verted to a body fat percentage milar both at rest and in response prior scheduling of training and using a standard formula (10). The to exercise (11,25,27,39), so the the weightlifting events. However, same tester performed all of the hormonal data were subsequently the effect of diurnal variations on body composition analyses. pooled for analysis. Sal–C secretion (26) and sporting performance (8) was minimized, Hormone Assessment Statistical Analyses to some extent, by ensuring that The saliva samples (1 ml) were Changes in body composition from individuals were assessed at the collected before and after the pre to posttraining were asses- same time of day during all pro- assessed training workouts, si- sed using paired t-tests. The ef- cedures. There was further consi- mulated competitions, and actual fects of weekly training on Sal-C stency during the actual competi- competitions using standard pro- concentrations were examined tions with subjects tested at the cedures (5,6). Briefly, sugar-free using a 2-way (workout 3 sample)

The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The same time of day. gum (Extra-peppermint, Wrigley’s, analysis of variance with repeated Each weightlifter was instructed to Auckland, New Zealand) was first measures. The pooled differences maintain their normal dietary inta- used to increase saliva flow for a in Sal-C concentrations and 1RM ke across this experiment (5). Daily short period, after which a small performance between the simula- information on nutritional intake saliva sample was collected in ste- ted and actual competitions were and training loads were noted in rile containers and stored at 220°C. compared using paired t-tests. a diary and examined at the com- To prevent saliva contamination, Power calculations revealed va- pletion of the study. The food con- no hot drinks or food were taken lues of 0.95–0.97 and 0.39–0.46 sumed by each subject was similar 1 hour before each session. Saliva for the Sal-C results during com- before each trainingn and competi- was assayed in duplicate using a petition and training, respectively, tion session, as were the frequency commercial enzyme-immunoas- based on an alpha level of 0.05 and timing of these meals. Thus, say kit (Salimetrics, State College, and a sample size of 9 subjects. the study population exhibited con- PA, USA) and the manufacturer’s Relationships between the Sal-C sistent nutritional habits across instructions. Cortisol assay sensi- and 1RM competition data were the experimental period, and this tivity was 0.012 mg·dL21 with in- examined using Pearson product helped to partially offset the nutri- terassay coefficients of variation moment correlation coefficients. tional effects on Sal-C (15), becau- ranging from 10 to 13%, based on Significance was set at an alpha se each subject acted as their own high and low control samples in level of p # 0.05. control. Subjects also monitored their hydration levels each day by Pretraining Posttraining recording fluid intake. Age (y) 22.3 ± 4.2 Body Composition Height (cm) 166.9 ± 7.3 Body composition was assessed on Body mass (kg) 76.0 ± 20.0 76.2 ± 19.8 the first and last days of this study Body fat (%) 21.8 7.0 21.5 7.1† using a wall-mounted stadiome- ± ± ter, electronic scales (SECA 702, Fat-free mass (kg) 59.0 ± 14.2 59.3 ± 14.1 Birmingham, United Kingdom) and *Values are given as mean 6 SD. skinfold measurements taken by †Significantly different from pretraining p , 0.05. a qualified anthropometrist using body fat callipers (Holtain, Crym- Table no. 2 mych, United Kingdom). The sum Subject information pre and posttraining.*

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RESULTS Sal-C values were higher during (r = 0.48–0.49, p < 0.05). No signi- N° 1 / April-July 2015 There were no significant changes the actual (vs. simulated) compe- ficant correlations were identifi in body mass and fat-free mass titions (p < 0.001, Figure 2), but no between these parameters during across the training period (Table significant changes (from pre to the actual com- petitions (r = 0.09– 2). Body fat percentage decreased post) in Sal-C occurred across ei- 0.012, p > 0.05) or between Sal-C slightly posttraining (p < 0.05). No ther condition (p > 0.05). and the rel1RM lifts in either com- significant main workout and sam- The pooled 1RM and rel1RM va- petition (r = 0.16–0.27, p > 0.05). ple effects and no interactions lues for the clean and jerk, and were found when examining the the Olympic total lift, were both weekly changes in Sal-C concen- found to be greater in the actual DISCUSSION trations with training (p> 0.05, Fi- (vs. simulated) competitions (p < This study on Olympic weightlifters gure 1). 0.05, Table 3). The snatch 1RM and revealed 3 main findings: First, the No significant main effects or in- rel1RM lifts were not significant- weekly changes in training volume teractions were identified for the ly different (p > 0.05). Significant had no apparent effect on Sal-C Sal-C, and 1RM data across either correlations were found between concentrations; second, actual the simulated or actual competi- individual Sal-C concentrations competitions produced higher tions (p > 0.05). Thus, data from before the simulated competi- Sal-C concentrations and superior each compe- tition setting were tions and the snatch, clean and 1RM lifts (clean and jerk, Olympic pooled for analysis. Pre and post jerk, and Olympic total 1RM lifts total) than the simulated compe-

Figure no. 1 Weekly changes in training volume and salivary cortisol (Sal-C) concentrations (mean ± SD).

Figure no.2 Pooled differences in salivary cortisol (Sal-C) concentrations between the simulated and actual competitions (mean ± SD). *Significantly different from the simulated competitions p <0.001.

Rivista_EWF_N°1.indd 41 06/03/15 17:42 42 THE EFFECTS OF TRAINING VOLUME AND COMPETITION ON THE SALIVARY CORTISOL CONCENTRATIONS

Snatch Clean and jerk Olympic total Simulated competitions 1RM (kg) 92.8 ± 34.7 114.7 ± 42.0 207.4 ± 76.6 Rel1RM (kg[kg21]FFM) 1.5 ± 0.3 1.9 ± 0.4 3.4 ± 0.7 Actual competitions 1RM (kg) 94.1 ± 35.4 117.4 ± 41.7‡ 211.5 ± 77.0‡ Rel1RM (kg[kg21]FFM) 1.6 ± 0.3 2.0 ± 0.4‡ 3.5 ± 0.7‡ * 1RM = 1 repetition maximum; FFM = fat-free mass; Rel1RM = relative 1 repetition maximum. † Values are given as mean ± SD. ‡ Significantly different from the simulated competitions p < 0.05.

Table no. 3 Pooled differences in 1RM performance between the simulated and actual competitions.*† The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The

titions; third, individual Sal-C con- The actual weightlifting compe- The 1RM lifts in the actual com- centrations before the simulated titions produced higher (128– petitions were generally superior competitions correlated to all of 130%) Sal-C concentrations than (1.9–2.6%) to that seen in the si- the 1RM lifts. the simulated ones, which could mulated events and this may be Adjustments in training volume be explained by the greater chal- explained by the concomittant have been shown to alter C con- lenge, motiva- tion, and stress increase in cortisol concentra- centrations in male and female presented by a real event (32,35). tions. Similarly, improvements in weightlifters (13,14,18,20, 21,23). Highly trained athletes might also the 1RM per- formance of Olympic In general, the greater the training possess an adrenal system that re- weightlifters were noted during stress (i.e., higher training volume sponds more to competition (i.e., actual (vs. simulated) competi- and intensity) imposed on the neu- greater C response) than lesser tion when Sal-C also increased romus- cular system, the greater trained individuals (32,37). Other by more than twofold (32). A rise the C changes occurring. The lack competition factors influencing in C levels has been observed of any significant Sal-C responses hormone secretion include physi- in many sporting competitions over the 5 weeks of this study could cal fitness, physical effort or exer- (11,12,25,31,36–38), and these be explained by the absolute vo- tion, mood, motivation, coping hormonal changes often enhan- lume of training, the time of expo- styles, and player position (35). We ced the performance and beha- sure to different training volumes, recognize that the Sal-C results vioral outcomes. For example, and the competition phase, relati- in this study might be affected by judoists displaying higher Sal-C le- ve to previous research. Baseline C circadian variation (26), because vels also had higher motivation to concentrations at the start of this the actual events began earlier in perform and obtained the better study could also be important in the day than the simulated ones. outcome (36), and higher C levels this regard. Previous studies also However, the differences in Sal-C were found in judo winners when Courtesy of EWF suggest that C modifications may concen- trations between the re- compared with losers (38). These affect the T/C ratio and thus one’s spective competitions were still data confirm suggestions that C ability to express strength and re- much greater than time-matched may be essential for working ca- covery from training and competi- control data (26,39). Nutritional pacity and performance (40). Thus, tions (13,18,22,23). This is difficult intake is another confounding va- acute eleva- tions in C may actually to confirm with only C monitored in riable when assessing Sal–C levels benefit athlete performance du- this study and given the low stati- (15). ring competition. stical power of the training results.

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Positive correlations were de- relation- ships between variables. is needed to elucidate those C-re- N° 1 / April-July 2015 monstrated between individual Other research on weightlifters lated mechanisms contributing to Sal-C concentrations, and the have also reported no discernable athletic performance. This infor- 1RM lifts during the simulated relationships between these va- mation would help in the manage- competitions, similar to previous riables (4,13), possibly resulting ment, assessment, and training of work (5,6,32) This work implies from differences in training proce- athletes within their sporting en- that higher Sal-C concentrations dures and study design. vironment. (on an individual level) may also The mechanism(s) by which eleva- Other limitations of this study in- benefit 1RM performance during ted C levels may improve athlete clude the lack of a non- training weight training procedures. No performance is multifactorial. Cor- control group and the small num- significant relationships were tisol may contribute to human and ber of subjects recruited, althou- observed during the actual com- muscle performance by regulating gh the pool of Olympic wei- petitions, which could be explai- or con- trolling energy metabolism ghtlifters available for research is ned by individual variation in the (40), motor cortex function (34), limited. Indeed, the size of our stu-

Courtesy of EWF

adrenal responses to the com- the electrophysiological proper- dy population is consistent with petitive environment, especially ties of muscle (7), and intra- cellu- that of other studies in this area since participant C levels were lar signals (30). Additionally, C can (1,4,14,17–19,21). We also ack- already elevated. Nevertheless, affect brain neural activity (29) nowledge the possible con- foun- the correlations in this study only and cognitive function (24,33), ding effects of treatment order, or approached moderate strength and this has further implications any interactions thereof, given the and notwith- standing the fact for the expression of human mo- current study design (i.e., simula- that they still only reflect casual vement in sport. Further research ted competitions before the actual

Rivista_EWF_N°1.indd 43 06/03/15 17:42 44 THE EFFECTS OF TRAINING VOLUME AND COMPETITION ON THE SALIVARY CORTISOL CONCENTRATIONS

competitions) and the differences in training volume before the re- References spective com- petitions (i.e,. high- 1. Ahtiainen, JP, Pakarinen, A, Alén, M, Kraemer, WJ, and Häkkin- and low-volume weeks). However, en, K. Muscle hypertrophy, hormonal adaptations and strength these are inherent problems when development during strength training in strength-trained and working with elite athletic groups untrained men. Eur J Appl Physiol 89: 555–563, 2003. 2. Arregger, AL, Contreras, LN, Tumilasci, OR, Aquilano, DR, and so the observed findings do reflect Cardoso, EML. Salivary testosterone: A reliable approach to the the actual sporting environment. diagnosis of male hypogonadism. Clin Endocrinol 67: 656–662, Finally, we acknowledge that other 2007. hormones (e.g., T, growth hormo- 3. Crewther, B, Keogh, J, Cronin, J, and Cook, C. Possible stimuli for strength and power adaptation: Acute hormonal responses. ne, insulin-like growth factor 1, ca- Sports Med 36: 215–238, 2006. techolamines) may help to regula- 4. Crewther, BT and Cook, C. Relationships between salivary te- te athlete performance, but their stosterone and cortisol concentrations and resistance training discussion is beyond the scope of performance in Olympic weightlift ers. J Sports Med Phys Fit 50: 371–375, 2010.

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Rivista_EWF_N°1.indd 44 06/03/15 17:42 OF OLYMPIC WEIGHTLIFTERS DURING THE 2010 WORLD WEIGHTLIFTING CHAMPIONSHIP 45 N° 1 / April-July 2015 16. Gozansky, WS, Lynn, JS, Laudenslager, ML, and high intensity and low intensity bouts of resistan- Kohrt, WM. Salivary cortisol determined by en- ce exercise. J Sports Sci Med 3: 8–15, 2004. zyme immunoassay is preferable to serum total 28. McGuigan, MR and Kane, MK. Reliability of cortisol for assessment of dynamic hypothalami- performance of elite Olympic weightlift ers. J cpituitary-adrenal axis activity. Clin Endocrinol Strength Cond Res 18: 650–653, 2004. 63: 336–341, 2005. 29. Papir-Kricheli, D and Feldman, S. Modifi cations 17. Haff , GG, Carlock, JM, Hartman, MJ, Kilgore, in single cell activity in the rat midbrain during LJ, Kawamori, N, Jackson, JR, Morris, RT, Sands, the iontophoretic application of cortisol. Exp WA, and Stone, MH. Force-time curve characte- Neurol 79: 576–581, 1983. ristics of dynamic and isometric muscle actions 30. 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Rivista_EWF_N°1.indd 45 06/03/15 17:42 46 The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The WEIGHTLIFTING AND THE KNEE

The knee joint can certainly be considered among the most stressed joints in sports alongside the elbow and shoulder. In particular, it has been observed that when practising Olympic weightlifting, the knee is subjected to repeated flexion-extension movements with heavy loads, undoubtedly producing functional stress, as occurs in other sports, where technical skills require repetitive, sudden and ballistic movements of the knee: football, handball, tennis, volleyball, basketball, jumps (long, triple and high), fencing, cycling, skiing and gymnastics.

BY Antonio Urso, Nicola Voglino

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Statistics usually demonstrate the patellar surface and is maxi- nes, front and rear, preceded and that competitive athletes are mal at 45° flexion. At 90° flexion, followed by two depressions, the much more affected by “overu- the lower part of the patella (apex) so-called area anterior intercon- se” syndromes or direct trauma is located on the upper portion of dylar and posterior intercondylar to the knee joint. Data show that the femoral trochlea. area. The spherical configuration male athletes, by slightly higher The tibiofemoral joint is formed by of the articular surfaces shows percentage, are more affected the two femoral condyles, the me- little congruence that, in reality, than their female counterparts. dial and lateral, the former being when the knee is intact, is guaran- Among athletes in general, in more voluminous with symme- teed by the meniscal structures epidemiological terms, the most trical curvature, the latter being that extend the contact surfaces frequent pathology of the knee smaller and asymmetrical. and provide joint stability. is patellar tendonitis which, ac- cording to data from Curwin, re- presents 80% of cases. However,

The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The before studying the numbers that the statistics provide on trauma- tology in general and lifters in particular, let us take a look at the entire anatomical and functional structure of this extraordinary joint.

THE ANATOMY The knee is made up of two major joints, the patellofemoral and ti- biofemoral. The joint, considered as a whole, is circumscribed by a fibrous or articular capsule, cove- red by the synovialmembrane, or synovium, and is stabilised by the collateral and cruciate ligaments, by the menisci, tendons and mu- scular system. The joint surfaces are covered with strong, flexible cartilage known as hyaline carti- The tibial component is represen- The collateral, medial and lateral lage. ted by the tibial plateau, in turn ligaments are fibre-elastic, rib- The patellofemoral joint is formed formed by two hemiplates - medial bon-like formations stretched by the surface area of the patella and lateral. The first is wide and between the distal femurol me- joint, divided into two facets, the concave, the other is less conspi- taphysis (final part) and proximal medial and lateral, and by the fe- cuous and convex. The tibial plate tibial metaphysis, the medial liga- moral trochlea. The contact areas, is tilted by about 10° in the antero- ment, and the lateral ligament of and therefore the relative loads posterior direction, to encourage the femur and fibula.They have the on the bone surfaces, vary in rela- maximum knee flexion. The centre important function, together with tion to the degrees of flexion-ex- of the tibial surface is occupied by a other anatomical structures, of tension of the knee. The contact prominent bone, the intercondylar ensuring stability of the joints in area never exceeds one third of eminence, formed by the tibial spi- the medio-lateral direction.

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Unlike cruciate ligaments that lar part) and an average width of a length of about 3.5 cm, it has a N° 1 / April-July 2015 have a cylindrical structure and about 1 cm. triangular cross section and is of once damaged lose continuity and The posterior cruciate ligament is increasing thickness in the ante- must be surgically reconstructed, stretched between the rear part roposterior direction. It is formed collateral ligaments, with their of the lateral surface of the medial by the anterior horn, which inserts typical band structure, if damaged condyle of the femur and, like the into the intercondylar anterior of can heal if properly protected with anterior cruciate, its femoral in- the tibia, by the body, which repre- a knee brace. sertion is similar to the arc of a cir- sents the continuation of the joint The anterior and posterior cru- cle. Its fibres run a horizontal cour- capsule and the posterior horn, in- ciate ligaments are, on the other se. The posterior ligament also serted in the intercondylar poste- hand, are robust cylindrical has an average length of between rior tibia. The lateral meniscus for- structures that ensure the neces- 35-40 mm, but its width is grea- ms an almost complete circle and sary stability to the knee joint in ter than in the front: 13-15 mm, covers a larger area than its tibial the anteroposterior direction and on average. The characteristic of plateau counterpart. It too consi- during rotation. this ligament is its tibial insertion sts of an anterior horn, a body and that, unlike the insertions of the a posterior horn, it originates from The anterior cruciate ligament on anterior cruciate and the femoral the anterior tibial intercondylar the femur inserts into the poste- insertion of the posterior cruciate, area and inserts into the poste- rior part of the medial surface of it appears extra-articular. It is in rior region of the tibia. The lateral the lateral femoral condyle in the fact situated in a bone depression meniscus, because of its structu- shape of an arc of a circle. Its fibres located on the posterior cortex of re and the type and location of its run in an oblique course. The ante- the tibia, about 1 cm below the ar- insertions, is much more mobile rior part is straight whereas the ticular surface. than the medial meniscus and posterior is convex. The anterior There are two menisci, medial this explains the lower incidence cruciate ligament has an average and lateral. The medial meniscus of traumatic injuries compared to length of 35-40 mm (intra-articu- has the shape of a semicircle and the medial.

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The menisci play a key role in the gaments and alar ligaments of the ge to intra-articular structures congruence between the femoral patella. Fibre-elastic capsular pli- (meniscal or cartilage) or hypo-to- and tibial articular surface. Any ca (infra, supra- and medio-patel- ne-trophism of the muscle of the alteration, however small, of the lar), if hypertrophic and inflamed, lower limbs that as we have seen, structure of the meniscal fibro- become symptomatic and indicate causes an overload of the joint. cartilage tissue leads to a higher arthroscopic lysis. load transmission on the tibial The synovial membrane lines the When the effusion is a consequen- cartilage and subchondral bone. inner surface of the joint capsu- ce of a sprain with ligament inju- For this reason, the aim of arthro- le. The functions of the synovium ries, the blood spilled by tissue scopic meniscus surgery should be are essential to ensure the pro- injury fuses with the synovial fluid to save as much meniscal tissue as per functioning of the knee joint. and forms a typical effusion known possible. The synovial membrane regulates as hemarthrosis. the amount and quality of the sy- novial fluid. The function of the

The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The PHYSIOLOGY intra-articular fluid is to lubricate BIOMECHANICS Due to its anatomical structure, the sliding surfaces of the joints, The articulation or ROM (range of the knee joint has very poor intrin- to protect the cartilage that lines motion) of the knee is in 0° in ex- sic stability, which corresponds the joint surfaces, to ‘digest’ worn tension and 135-140° in flexion moreover to great mobility. The cells and small cartilaginous frag- and is permitted by the rolling of proper functioning of the joint, ments of the macrophages contai- the convex surfaces of the condy- therefore, is closely related to ned within. les on the tibial plateau. The extre- the integrity of the intra-articular The increase in synovial fluid (joint me degrees of flexion, from about structures and the tone-trophism effusion or hydrarthrosis) is indi- 130 to 140 ° (squatting), are acqui- of the extension and flexion mu- cative of a non-specific joint dise- red with posterior translation of scular system of the lower limbs. ase. The synovial fluid increases as the condyles on the tibial articular its quality deteriorates with age, surface. The joint motion is in rela- In particular, good muscle tone of systemic diseases (gout, rheuma- tion to both the shape of the bony the extension group (quadriceps toid arthritis, joint infections), but components and the ligamentous femoris and tibialis anterior) and can also increase following dama- insertions. With the knee in full ex- the flexors (biceps femoris, me- dial and lateral gastrocnemius, soleus) ensures the correct arti- cular ratio of bone heads and liga- mentous and meniscal structures, while not overloading the physio- logical articular mechanism with irregular friction. The knee joint capsule surrounds and contains intra-articular ana- tomical structures. Its function, however, is not purely that of a container. The knee capsule is the structure from which extra-articu- lar ligaments of the knee origina- te and to which they adhere: the main ones being the collateral li-

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Figure No. 1 Injury and syndromes of overuse in elite Powerlifting (see text for Authors of the paper)

tension, the collateral ligaments are stretched Injury area No. of cases % of total and the front surface of the meniscus is main- Spine 130 23.1 tained between the tibia and femur. In flexion, the menisci move backwards (as it Knee 107 19.1 is more mobile, the lateral meniscus in a more Shoulder 99 17.7 accentuated manner than the medial), the tibia rotates on the femur in a lateral direction, the Hand 56 10.0 collateral ligaments relax (the lateral one to a Neck 30 5.4 greater extent). When the knee is flexed, me- dial-lateral joint stability is ensured by other Thoracic vertebrae 27 4.8 structures such as tendons and ligaments, as Quadriceps 18 3.2 well as by the collateral ligaments. Pubic area 15 2.7 Elbow 14 2.5 Hip 14 2.5 Hamstrings 13 2.3 Tibia 10 1.8 Calves 9 1.6 Feet 6 1.1 Ankle 5 0.9 Chest 2 0.4 Abdominals 1 0.2 Total 560 100%

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These structures are formed by the medial meniscus, What are the figures related to knee pathologies in the flexor tendon accessories (gracilis and semiten- weightlifting? In general, is this sport really so wea- dinosus) and the ‘goose foot’ in the medial compart- ring on those practising it? ment, and by the lateral meniscus, the popliteus ten- According to statistics it would not seem so. Very in- don, the iliotibial band and the biceps tendon in the teresting data emerged from a longitudinal study lateral compartment. conducted in Germany by J. Siewe, J. Rudat, M. Röll- inghoff, UJ Schlegel, P. Eysel and JWP Michael of the The anterior cruciate ligament consists of an antero- medial (AM) bundle and a thicker, posterolateral (PL) bundle. When the knee is extended, the AM bundle is slack and the PL bundle is tight; in flexing the knee, the bundle AM extends, while the rest of the ligament is relaxed. In flexion, the AM bundle represents the main impediment against the anterior displacement

The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The of the tibia.

The posterior cruciate ligament is divided into two bundles: anterior and the posterior. When the knee is extended, the front bundle is relaxed and the poste- rior bundle is stretched. The opposite occurs in ben- ding.

The anterior cruciate ligament is a brake for both hyperextension and for intra- and extra-rotation; the posterior acts against the posterior displacement of the tibia with the knee flexed but does not oppose hyperextension.

Affected joint % relative to women % relative to men Elbow 27% Back 27% Quadriceps 32% Quadriceps 21% Elbow 26% Elbow 31% Back 14% Quadriceps 20% Knee 16% Knee 12% Shoulder 20% Hip 11% Foot 7% Foot 7% Fingers 5% Shoulder 7% Feet 5% Hands 6% Tibia 3% Hip 3%

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Universities of Cologne, Halle and Heidelberg, N° 0 / November-December 2014 entitled: Injuries and overuse syndromes in Powerlifting, a sport that presents some simila- rities to weightlifting. The longitudinal study was performed on 245 elite athletes throughout their careers, highli- ghting what has been shown in the chart below (Figure 1). The interesting result is that related to the fact that 27% of athletes (67) never reported pro- blems to the knee joint during their sporting ca- reer. In weightlifting, a study by Calhoon G. and A. Fry of “Human Performance Laboratories - Universi- ty of Memphis, published in the” Journal of Athle- tic Training “, entitled: “Injury rates and profiles of elite competitive weightlifters”, demonstra- ted how the knee, after the back, accounts for the most significant amount of injuries, even if the figures are very low. Out of 560 case studies, injury to the knee re- presents only 19.1% with the following types of injury out of 107 cases: • Overuse: 7 cases, accounting for 6.5%; • Tendinitis: 91 cases, 85%; • Other: 9 cases, 8.4%.

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The following data refer to non-training In high-level lifters, it was also reported, days due to injury: in comparison to the sedentary popu- lation with an average of 14%, the wear • 1 day in 102 cases, accounting phenomenon of the patellar cartilage, for 95.3% rarely bilateral and more evident in the • 1 week in 4 cases, accounting knee of the leg used in the sagittal thrust for 3.8% that moves forward in the clean and jerk • 3 weeks in 1 case, 0.9% exercise, probably due to a massive, rapid • > 3 weeks in no case, equal to 0.0%. and simultaneous contraction of the qua- driceps femoris, which creates additional Another interesting comparison was pressure on the quadriceps tendon and made between the number of hours of on the patellar ligament. training in competitive weightlifting se- nior and injury. The figure that emerges Another interesting study was conducted

Th e offi cial journal of the European Weightlift ing Federation ing Weightlift European of cialthe journal offi e Th is quite comforting. Out of 1,000 hours of by the Medical Committee of the Europe- high intensity specific training, the num- an Weightlifting Federation from 2002 to ber of injuries varies from 1 to 4. 2009, recording injuries in every Europe- This is not the case for other sports: an Championship, differentiating betwe- en male and female athletes. Compared • Ice Hockey: 62/1,000 to a statistically significant number of • American Football: 16/1,000 cases (about 3,500 participating athle- • Handball: 13.5 / 1,000 tes), once again, the data related to knee • Combat Sports: 20.1 / 1,000 injury are very low in men, and comple- • Rugby: 6.9 / 1,000 tely absent in women, despite the stress generated in such a high level of compe- Paradoxically, Olympic weightlifting has tition. the same high level of knee injury, for the number of hours of specific training, as dance which, in this statistical study showed the following data: 1.5 to 4 inju- ries per 1,000 hours.

Recommended reading

1. Calhoon G & Frey A, Injury Rates and Profi les of Elite Competitive Weightlift ers, J Athl Train, 1999 Jul-Sep; 34(3): 232–238 2. Siewe J, Rudat J, Röllinghoff M, Schlegel UJ, Eysel P, Michael JW, Injuries and overuse syn- dromes in powerlift ing, Int J Sports Med. 2011 Sep;32(9):703-11.

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ANTONIO URSO President of the Italian Weightlifting Federation and of the European Weightlifting Federation. Board member of the International Weightlifting Federation. Dr. Urso also has a degree in Sports Science, a Master’s degree in Preventive and Adaptive Sports Science; 1st level Master’s degree in Sport Rehabilitation; Weightlifting expert. He has coached the national male and female weightlifting teams and was an Italian weightlifting champion on several occasions.

NICOLA VOGLINO Graduated in Medicine and Surgery, Dr. Voglino is a specialist in Orthopaedics and Traumatology. He treats Arthroscopy of large and small joints and Traumatology. He is the Medical Director at Alto Tevere Hospital in Città di Castello (Perugia) and has a medical practice at Quisisana and Villa Stuart clinics in Rome. He is a member of the EUWC Medical Committee and has been the orthopaedic consultant for the FIPE since 2006.

Rivista_EWF_N°1.indd 55 06/03/15 17:42 56 The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The Comparison of Warm Up Protocols of High Class Male and Female Weightlifters

“The warm up should not be fatiguing. On the contrary, it should invigorate the sportsman to perform the exercises”. (A.N. Vorbeyev, 1988). BY Andrew Charniga, Jr.

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Over the years a number of papers have been devoted to the weight- lifter’s warm up for competition. Some of this information is more than 50 years old. However, in the interim there have been a number of changes to the technical rules of weightlifting competitions. For instance, there are now two competition exercises instead of three, two minutes instead of three to prepare if an athlete fol- lows himself/herself for the next attempt on the platform, and one

The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The minute instead of two minutes to begin lifting the barbell on the pla- tform after the athlete has been Olympic and World Champion CAO Lei rests between warm up lifts at called. the 2009 World Weightlifting championships. However, without question, the most dramatic change to the wei- accepted, reasonable definition of 5 sets of lifts with rest intervals ghtlifting program over past 50 an athlete’s warm up. The idea is of 3 to 4 minutes between them. years has been the inclusion of wo- to prepare physically and psycho- The first warm up sets are with men weightlifters. The question as logically to perform the upcoming 60 to 70% of the limit (taking into to whether there are, or for that work in the competition without account the individual peculiari- matter need be, different warm up becoming fatigued, i.e., to create ties of the athlete and the weight protocols for women weightlifters an optimum state of readiness to class). Five to ten kilos are added has not received any attention. perform in competition. to the barbell with each succee- Data collected at the 2008 Olym- A.N. Vorobeyev, Olympic and world ding attempt. Three lifts are done pics provided the impetus to look weightlifting champion, MD, and with the first two sets and the rest into this question. The specific a preeminent weightlifting sport with 1 to 2 lifts.” warm up loading of the four Chine- scientist defined the purpose of Vorobeyev goes on to recommend se female gold medalists in Beijing the warm up simply: “It should invi- that the final warm up weight represented a substantial depar- gorate the sportsman to perform should be 10 to 15 kilos below the ture for what is widely considered the exercises.” athlete’s first attempt in competi- to be a reasonable competition The Soviet era Weightlifting Tex- tion. warm up protocol for any sport! tbook (A.N. Vorbeyev, 1988. Tran- The basic parameters recommen- slated by Andrew Charniga, Jr.) ded by Khairullin (1993, 2002) outlined the parameters of the are presented in the references THE WEIGHTLIFTER’S WARM UP weightlifter’s competition warm section. However, the quantities FOR COMPETITION up: of lifts and sets include partial Most any formal definition of a “The special warm up begins 15 lifts and good mornings to warm warm up for athletic competition to 20 minutes before being cal- up the muscle groups individual- would go something like this: “to led to the competition platform. ly. This procedure is inconsistent briefly exercise in preparation.” The exercises with the barbell are with our observations at the wor- The key element of this broad de- the final preparation of the body ld championships and Olympic finition is the brevity of exercise. for the performance. Without ru- Games and is difficult to quantify This is probably the most widely shing, sportsman should do 4 to for analysis.

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Furthermore, regardless of the lifter some twenty years earlier the same weight are necessary N° 1 / April-July 2015 training system one employs, (1968). to enable a lifter to raise a given Russian, Bulgarian, Chinese, or According to Roman, (at that time weight to the maximum height. various permutations thereof, the the USSR national coach) Vladimir Therefore, if the athlete stopped following fact is central to success Belayev (USSR, 82.5 kg class) per- at 115 kg, in theory he may not be in weightlifting competitions: formed the following warm ups as well prepared to raise 127.5 kg The fundamental parameters of li- and competition attempts at the high enough on the first attempt fts with 90% and above weights in 1966 World weightlifting cham- to complete the exercise. Please the snatch and the clean and jerk pionships in East Berlin: note that this method to include are different than lifts with 80%, pulls in the final approach is no 70%, or less. Consequently, all Snatch longer employed at the interna- other factors being equal, in the- 90/2, 100/2, 110/2, 125/1 x 2: tional level. ory, the more lifts a weightlifter 1st attempt 135, (125/1) 2nd 145, Roman offered these warm up va- is able to execute in the competi- 3rd 147.5 (a new world record). riations for the clean and jerk: tion exercises with 90% and above 1st variant with Belayev USSR: weights, the better prepared the There were a total of five prelimi- 100/2+1, 130/2, 150/2, 160/1, lifter is to be successful with near nary warm up sets (the other lift 170/1: competition attempts maximum and maximum weights. with 125 kg was done because with 185, 185, 190 Spasov and Tsarvulkov (1983) ob- of the long wait between 1st and 2nd variant with Kurentsov served that 12 attempts on the 2nd attempts) and a total of eight USSR: 100/2+1, 120/1+2, 130/1, competition platform required ap- preliminary lifts. The first warm 140/1, 155/1: competition proximately 18 minutes. This rule up weight was 61% of the compe- attempts with 167.5 (or 170), of thumb is connected with the tition maximum (147.5); the final 175, 177.5. technical rules of 1979 where an warm up was 10 kg below the ope- 3rd variant with Kurentsov athlete had two minutes from the ning weight of 135 kg or approxi- USSR: 130/2, 140/1, 155/1: time his name was called to begin mately 93% of this weight. competition attempts with the exercise and three minutes It should be noted that this is oc- 167.5, 175 and 177.5 kg. if he followed himself to the pla- curred about 50 years ago; the tform. The current rule stipulates lifter is a male and the athlete In all three variants there were 3 one minute and two minutes re- completed the press competition to 5 sets, 4 to 9 total lifts. spectively, which obviously makes before proceeding to the snatch. Seven years after the publication this indicator invalid. In some ca- In the revised version of the same of Roman’s book, Spasov and Tsar- ses, 12 platform attempts concei- book, The Training of the Weight- vulkov (1983) analyzed the warm vably could require only 12 to 15 lifter (1974) Roman offered this up loading of the champions of the minutes. warm up for the snatch: 1965, 1979, and 1982 World cham- According to Vorobeyev’s recom- 50/3 x2, 70/2 x2, 90/1, 105/1, pionships. They determined that mendations, the weightlifter 115/1 x 2. the mean number of warm up sets should begin with about 60% of the This sequence was to be followed and lifts increased and the rest pe- anticipated maximum result which by two snatch pulls with 127.5 kg riod between sets decreased from is approximately 12 to 13 attempts which was to be the 1st attempt on 1965 to 1982. This was due, they before being called to the platform; the platform. The rationale to per- believed, to the rise in absolute this is in accordance with the tech- forming two pulls with the 1st at- weights lifted in all weight classes nical rules of the late 1980s. tempt weight was to tune the ath- which required more time and lifts A good practical example of the lete’s nervous system to reach the to achieve the desired result. aforementioned warm up para- maximum height of lifting prior to Model warm up variants were meters was given in R.A. Roman’s the first attempt. Soviet research established earlier by Spasov and book The Training of the Weight- showed that two or three lifts with Tsarvulkov (1979) based on analy-

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sis of top lifters at the world cham- Athlete/wt.cl exercise #≥60-≤79% #≥80-≤89% #≥90% Total pionships. This data appears in the Belayev/82.5 snatch 6 2 0 8 table along with converted data from Roman’s recommendations Roman/text snatch 2 2 2* 6* (≥60% and others designate the Spasov/Ts./82.5 snatch 2 2 1 5 percentage of the maximum re- Lu Yong/2009 snatch 4 2 1 7 sults achieved in competition on Table 1. Comparison of Roman’s recommendations (1974) for snatch that day for data presented in all warm ups with Spasov and Tsarvulkov’s (1979) and some data from tables). 2009 World Weightlifting Championships.

Two pulls, not snatches Athlete/wt.cl exercise #≥60-≤79% #≥80-≤89% #≥90% Total A comparison between Roman’s Belayev/82.5 C & J 4 1 1 6 recommendations with the theo- Roman variant 2 C & J 3 1 0 4 retical optimum of Spasov and the Kurentsov/75 C & J 5 1 0 6

The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The actual warm ups of 2008 Olympic Spasov/Ts./82.5 C & J 2 1 1 4 and 2009 world champion Lu Yong Lu Yong/85 C & J 4 0 1 5 (CHN), i.e., data from 30 to 50 years Table 2. Comparison of Roman’s models (1974) for C & J warm ups apart, show that the procedures with Spasov and Tsarvulkov’s (1979) and data from 2009 World are very similar. In all four cases Weightlifting Championships. there were only two lifts with wei- ghts in the ≥80 to ≤89% zone of Indices Snatch 1965 C&J 1965 Snatch 1979 C&J 1979 intensity, 0 to 2 with #≥90% and an # sets (average) 6.69 5.39 9.10 8.57 average of 7 total lifts from ≥60%. #lifts total 10.91 7.07 14.72 11.07 Table 2. Comparison of Roman’s Rep/set 2.28 1.71 3 3 models (1974) for C & J warm ups Time to 1st 2.11 2.11 3.03 3.25 with Spasov and Tsarvulkov’s (1979) and data from 2009 World Average rest/min. 2.24 2.36 2.20 2.32 Weightlifting Championships. Table 3. Comparison between warm ups of 1965 European Similar to the snatch data presen- Championships and 1979 World Weightlifting Championships (Alexander Tsarvulkov, Angel Spasov, Scientific Methodical Bulletin, ted in table 1, the warm up loading 03:17-20:1980, International Weightlifting Federation) of the clean and jerk in table 2 over the 50 year interval is almost identical: an exact mean of 5 lifts same rest period between warm would affect the third (C&J) was, (range 4-6) with ≥60; 0 – 1 with up sets. This circumstance the au- apparently, not taken into account. both #≥80-≤89 and ≥90%. So, the thors attributed to the higher ove- Also, it should be noted that the textbook recommended warm up rall results of 1979 and the grea- aforementioned Bulgarian data loading for the male weightlifter, ter fitness of the athletes of this counted weights less than 60% of the theoretical and the practical, time because the training loading maximum in the total, whereas we have remained relatively constant had increased substantially over have counted only warm up lifts for almost 50 years. that 14 year period. with ≥60% in tabulating the total The data presented in table 3, col- However, the authors did not take number of lifts executed in warm lected by Spasov and Tsarulkov, into account the fact that there ups. contrasts the mean warm up in- were three lifts in 1965. The pos- The data in table 4 shows clear- dices between 1965 and 1979. It sibility of the warm up loading for ly that the mean number of lifts, is obvious that the lifters of 1979 the first exercise (the press) would tabulating from the ≥60% zone performed more warm up lifts and reduce the overall warm up requi- to the first attempt in competi- more lifts with approximately the red for the snatch, which in turn tion for both exercises and both

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Table 4. Mean number of warm N° 1 / April-July 2015 Athlete/wt.cl exercise #≥60-≤79% #≥80-≤89% #≥90% Total Snatch/wt.cl. athletes ≥60-79% ≥80-89% ≥90% Total Lifts up lifts in each intensity zone of 48 – 63 kg 10 7.5 5.4 4.5 17.4 Belayev/82.5 snatch 6 2 0 8 female and male weightlifters Roman/text snatch 2 2 2* 6* 69 – +75 kg 11 5.4 3.1 2.8 11.3 at 2009 world weightlifting Spasov/Ts./82.5 snatch 2 2 1 5 C & J championships. 48 – 63 kg 10 4.0 3.1 1.3 8.4 Lu Yong/2009 snatch 4 2 1 7 69 – +75 kg 11 4.6 2.2 1.4 8.2 Males/Snatch 56 – 77 kg 9 5.4 2.6 1.3 9.3 85 - +105 kg 16 4.1 2.7 1.4 8.2 Athlete/wt.cl exercise #≥60-≤79% #≥80-≤89% #≥90% Total C & J Belayev/82.5 C & J 4 1 1 6 56 – 77 kg 9 3.2 1.6 1.8 6.6 Roman variant 2 C & J 3 1 0 4 85 - +105 kg 13 2.2 1.5 .92 4.6 Kurentsov/75 C & J 5 1 0 6 genders, exceed the theoretical minutes in 1979, the overall dura- Spasov/Ts./82.5 C & J 2 1 1 4 optimum of Spasov and Tsarulkov tion of a competition between the Lu Yong/85 C & J 4 0 1 5 established in 1979 and the model top 10 to 12 lifters is shorter, i.e., protocols of Roman established in more intense in the current era. World Weightlifting Champion 1968. Today’s lifters do more work in less and world record holder Wang For instance, the optimum number time than those of 1965 and even Mingjuan (CHN) wrapped in of lifts recommended by Spasov the lifters of 1979. This indicates blanket between warm up lifts Indices Snatch 1965 C&J 1965 Snatch 1979 C&J 1979 at 2009 World Weightlifting and Tsarulkov in the weight class today’s athletes possess a high # sets (average) 6.69 5.39 9.10 8.57 Championships. range of 52 to 75 kg for the sna- specific work capacity, but it is also #lifts total 10.91 7.07 14.72 11.07 tch was 6 to 8. The corresponding an indication the loading (both Rep/set 2.28 1.71 3 3 mean figure for the males in 2009 training and competition) has con- (excluding the Chinese women) Time to 1st 2.11 2.11 3.03 3.25 was 9.3 and between 11.3 to 17.4 tinued to evolve following the end warm up protocols. Average rest/min. 2.24 2.36 2.20 2.32 for females (all females investiga- of the three lift era. From the data presented in tables ted). The three lift era of 1965 was not 4 to 6 it is obvious that today the- This was essentially the same si- a purely speed strength era as is re are essentially two warm up tuation for the clean and jerk. The the two lift era of today. Athletes protocols for today’s high class mean number of lifts recommen- and coaches believed more re- weightlifter: the traditional (both ded by the Bulgarians was 5.8 for covery time was required (table genders) and the Chinese warm up the weight classes 52 to 75, where- A). For instance, even as late as (females only). as in 2009 the mean for 56 to 77 kg 1988 in his weightlifting textbook For instance, in table 4 the mean was found to be 6.6 for males and Vorobeyev recommended warm number of snatch lifts from ≥60% 8.3 for females (table 3). up sets be spaced 3 to 4 minutes to the first platform attempt is 17.4 The data collected shows today’s apart, i.e., to prevent fatigue. for females in the lighter weight athletes are doing a few more However, today some females se- classes (48 to 63 kg) and only 9.3 warm ups in the higher intensity quence warm up sets in less than for males (56 to 77 kg). This would range and in less time. This is due half this time. appear to indicate that females in part by the fact that the ‘A’ ses- require significantly more warm sions of World Championships and GENDER DIFFERENCES IN THE WEI- up loading than males. However, Olympic Games are restricted to GHTLIFTER’S WARM UP the data in table 5 reveals that the 8 to 12 lifters. With the shorter ti- actual difference between today’s mes for the athlete to begin a lift A closer look at the warm up lifts female lifters, exclusive of the Chi- (one minute) and if necessary fol- of today’s high class female lifters nese, and the males (inclusive of low him/herself to the platform, revealed that there is not a big dif- Chinese men) is for the most part two minutes today, versus three ference between male and female insignificant, i.e., 10.0 vs. 9.3.

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The data for the clean and jerk is Female weight divisions 48 to 63 The warm up of CAO Lei presen- similar. The mean number of lifts and 69 to +75; male classes: 56 to ted in table 8 is more than twice for the females (collectively) in the 77 and 85 to +105. the volume of 2009 female wor- lighter weight classes (table 3) was ld champion Podobodova’s with 8.4 versus 6.6 for the men (56 to 77 THE CHINESE WARM UP five times more lifts in the ≥90% kg). But, when the loading of the A comparison of the data in tables zone of intensity. CAO’s warm up Chinese females is excluded, the pi- 6 and 7 reveals there is huge qua- is almost three times volume of cture is radically different: 4.7 lifts litative and quantitative disparity the theoretical optimum with five for non-Chinese women from ≥60% between the Chinese warm up and times more lifts in the ≥90% zone versus 6.6 lifts for males and 5.0 for the rest of the world, regardless and likewise has five times more the heavier women versus 4.6 for of gender. It may be easier to en- ≥90% lifts than 2009 male world the heavier men. vision this disparity by placing the champion LU. The data in table 9 of the clean and Snatch/wt.cl. athletes ≥60-79% ≥80-89% ≥90% Total Lifts jerk is similar to that of table 8. 48 – 63 kg 6 4.7 3 2.3 10 CAO’s warm up volume and inten- 69 – +75 kg 7 3.3 2.1 1.1 6.5 sity are significantly larger than C & J the other two athletes and the 48 – 63 kg 7 2.0 1.4 1.3 4.7 theoretical optimum. 69 – +75 kg 8 2.9 1.5 .63 5.0 The warm up data presented in Table 5. Mean number of warm up lifts in actual loading of the four catego- table 8 and 9 of the loading of two each intensity zone of female weightlifters ries of warm up discussed side by females and one male (all world at 2009 world weightlifting championships, side: Chinese female, 2009 wor- champions) compared with a the- excluding Chinese female lifters. ld champion female, 2009 world oretical optimum determined in Snatch/wt.cl. athletes ≥60-79% ≥80-89% ≥90% Total Lifts 1979 for male lifters of that era il- 48 – 63 kg 6 11.2 7.7 8.0 26.9 lustrates three peculiarities of the 69 – +75 kg 4 11.0 6.0 5.5 22.5 modern warm up. C & J First, today’s athletes of both gen- ders do more lifts with higher in- 48 – 63 kg 6 5.3 7.0 6.7 19.0 tensity weights, in less time, than 69 – +75 kg 4 4.8 4.3 2.3 11.4 the male lifters of thirty to fifty Table 6. Mean number of warm up lifts champion male, and the theoreti- years ago. in each intensity zone of Chinese female cal optimum of Spasov and Tsar- Second, the warm up protocols of lifters weightlifters at 2009 World vulkov. today’s female lifters (excluding Weightlifting Championships and 2008 the Chinese) are very similar to Olympics. Snatch/wt.cl. athletes ≥60-79% ≥80-89% ≥90% Total Lifts 48 – 63 kg 6 4.7 3 2.3 10 Table 7. Comparison of mean 56 – 77 kg 9 5.4 2.6 1.3 9.3 number of warm up lifts in each 69 – +75 kg 7 3.3 2.1 1.1 6.5 intensity zone of female and male weightlifters at 2009 World 85 - +105 kg 16 4.1 2.7 1.4 8.2 Weightlifting Championships, C & J excluding data of Chinese female 48 – 63 kg 7 2.0 1.4 1.3 4.7 lifters. 56 – 77 kg 9 3.2 1.6 1.8 6.6 69 – +75 kg 8 2.9 1.5 .63 5.0 85 - +105 kg 13 2.2 1.5 .92 4.6

Rivista_EWF_N°1.indd 62 06/03/15 17:42 COMPARISON OF WARM UP PROTOCOLS OF HIGH CLASS MALE AND FEMALE WEIGHTLIFTERS 63 N° 1 / April-July 2015 CAO L Pod. S LU Xi. T.O. those of today’s male weightli- Set Wt. % Wt. % Wt. % fters. 1st 15 2nd 15 Third, the warm up protocol of the 3rd 35/2 Chinese women is substantially 4th 35/2 5th 45/2 35% larger of any male or female, of 6th 45/2 35% any era, especially the number of th 7 65/1 51% lifts in the higher intensity zones. 8th 75/2 60% 9th 75/2 60% 20 For instance, the Chinese women 10th 85/2 66% 20 lifters in the 48 to 63 kg classes 11th 85/2 66% 15 20 12th 95/2 74% 15 60/3 performed 15.7 lifts of ≥80% ran- 13th 95/2 74% 45/2 34% 60/2 ge versus 5.3 for the other high 14th 100/2 78% 65/2 49% 60/1 15th 105/2 82% 80/1 61% 90/2 class females of the same weight 16th 110/2 86% 90/1 68% 110/2 63% 34%/3 classes and only 3.9 for high class 17th 110/2 86% 90/1 68% 110/2 63% 47%/3 18th 115/1 90% 100/1 80% 120/2 69% 61%/2 males of 56 to 77 kg classes (tables 19th 115/1 90% 110/1 83% 130/2 75% 74%/1 6,7), i.e., 3 to 4 times the intensity th 20 120/1 94% 115/1 87% 140/2 80% 81%/1 of “normal” high class lifters of 21st 120/1 94% 120/1 91% 150/1 86% 88%/1 22st 120/1 94% 115/1 87% 160/1 92% 95%/1 both genders. 1st 120 125 165 The data in table 9 vividly illustra- 2nd 125 130 170 3rd 128 100% 132 174 tes another peculiarity of the Chi- nese warm up. All athletes reduce Table 8. Comparison of snatch warm up loading and competition attempts between two females and one male: CAO Lei (75 kg CHN 2008 the absolute number of warm up Olympics) Svetlana Podobodova (75 kg KAZ) and LU Xiaojun (77 kg lifts, especially in the ≥80% range CHN) both at 2009 World Championships compared with theoretical for the clean and jerk exercise, optimum (T.O.) of Spasov and Tsarulkov (1979) but less so for the Chinese fema- les. Cao L Pod. S LU Xi. T.O. Set Wt. % Wt. % Wt. % The obvious reason for limiting the 1st 15 number of clean and jerk warm 2nd 15 ups is that with generally fewer rd 3 45/2+2* lifters in a session competing with 4th 45/1+2 5th 65/1+2 less time to perform the exercises, 6th 65/1+2 there is a relatively shorter break 7th 85/1+2 between the snatch and clean and 8th 85/1+1 60 2+2 9th 105/1+1 68% 60 1+1 jerk exercises; i.e., the athlete’s 10th 105/1+1 68% 15 60 1+1 muscles are still warm from the 11th 115/1+1 75% 55/2+2 100 1+1 28/3 snatch competition. th 12 115/1+1 75% 75/1+2 100 1+1 39/3 However, the Chinese lifter CAO 13th 125/1+1 81% 95/1+1 59% 130 1+1 64% 50/2 14th 125/1+1 81% 95/1+1 59% 130 1+1 64% 62/1 Lei not only did a significantly lar- 15th 135/1+1 88% 115/1+1 72% 150 1+1 74% 73/1 ger number of high intensity lifts 16th 140/1+1 91% 130/1+1 81% 170 1+1 83% 84/1 17th 145/1+1 94% 130/1+1 81% 180 1+1 88% 90/1 10 versus 6 and 4 (table 9) for the 18th 145/1+1 94% 140/1+1 87.5% 190 1+1 93% 95/1 other female and male respecti- st 1 147 150 200 vely, but a total of 18 sets of clean 2nd 154 155 204 3RD 159 160 211 and jerk warm ups versus 9 and 11 for the other female and male re- Table 9. Comparison of clean and jerk warm up loading and competition attempts between two females and one male: CAO Lei spectively. (75 kg CHN 2008 Olympics) Svetlana Podobodova (75 kg KAZ) and LU CAO performed this relatively lar- Xiaojun (77 kg CHN) both at 2009 World Championships compared with ge volume and intensity despite theoretical optimum (T.O.) of Spasov and Tsarulkov (1979) the relatively short break between

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exercises and the small number of LI Xu Nov. A T.O. lifters in the session, i.e., the shor- Set Wt. % Wt. % (56 kg)% st ter, overall duration of the compe- 1 15 2nd 35/4 tition. She began the warm up for 3rd 35/3+2* the clean and jerk, from the very 4th 35/4+1 beginning with 15 kg, even though 5th 35/3 it was preceded by a huge warm up 6th 45/3 th and the actual competition in the 7 45/3 8th 45/3 snatch. 9th 55/2 The warm up of the Chinese female 10th 55/2 weightlifter may be the largest in 11th 55/2 volume and intensity in all of sport. 12th 55/2 th Another comparison of warm up 13 65/2 61% 14th 65/2 61% protocols between two females 15th 75/2 70% th The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The and the theoretical optimum is of 16 80/2 75% interest. The data in table 10 of the 17th 85/2 80% 15 gold medalist LI (CHN) and the sil- 18th 85/2 80% 15 th ver medalist Novikava (BLR), both 19 85/2 80% 45/2 20th 90/2 84% 45/2 58 kg class lifters and the theore- 21st 90/2 84% 65/2 65% tical optimum established for 56 22nd 95/1 89% 65/2 65% kg males in 1979, is an example of 23rd 95/1 89% 65/2 65% 45%/3 th this. 24 95/1 89% 75/2 75% 54%/3 25th 95/1 89% 80/1 80% 64%/3 The bodyweights of the female 26th 98/1 91% 85/1 85% 72%/2 athletes and theoretical optimum 27th 98/1 91% 85/1 85% 82%/1 th are very close. The Belarus female 28 100/1 93% 80/1 85% 91%/1 29th 100/1 93% 90/1 90% 96%/1 performed a higher volume and in- 1st 100 95 tensity warm up than theoretical 2nd 105 100 100% optimum established for a male of 3RD 107 100% 106 1979. Table 10. Comparison of clean and jerk warm up loading and However, LI’s warm up of 29 sets competition attempts between two females and one male: CAO Lei was the largest of all athletes in- (75 kg CHN 2008 Olympics) Svetlana Podobodova (75 kg KAZ) and LU vestigated. She performed each Xiaojun (77 kg CHN) both at 2009 World Championships compared with set approximately 1.5 minutes theoretical optimum (T.O.) of Spasov and Tsarulkov (1979). 35/3+2* denotes three squat snatch lifts followed by two apart, i.e., half the optimum rest over head squat lifts. period recommended by Voro- beyev in 1988. most part she never rested long To briefly sum up the data col- The warm up of LI Xueying pre- enough between sets to catch her lected, today’s top weightlifters, sented in table 10 is the single breath. During the short break both male and female, excluding largest, longest warm up of any between the snatch and the cle- the Chinese women, perform a athlete studied. It is significantly an and jerk competition, LI put on very similar warm up protocol to larger than both the silver meda- a heavy winter coat while sitting the athletes of 30 to 50 years ago. list Novikova and the theoretical for a period of less than 8 to 10 Today’s males and females do a optimum of Spasov and Tsarulkov minutes. It really can not be clas- few more lifts in the ≥60% inten- for a high class male lifter of the sified a warm up in the traditional sity zones in less time than the era dating back to 1979. meaning of the term; it was more athletes (male only) of 30 to 50 Over the course of 29 warm up a unique application of physiology years ago, stipulated in part by the sets, LI never sat down. For the and physics. changes in the technical rules whi-

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World Weightlifting Champion N° 1 / April-July 2015 and world record holder Wang Mingjuan (CHN) wrapped in blanket between warm up lifts at 2009 World Weightlifting Championships.

Consider our analysis of the warm up loading of the four Chinese gold medalists at the 2008 Olympics ch permit less time to prepare for for competition in any sport is to presented in table 11. the first attempt on the platform, prepare and not fatigue the athle- fewer athletes in a competition te, the two questions are why and The volume of warm up lifts pre- session, and less time for an ath- how. sented in table 11 is unusually lar- lete to follow him/herself to the Why would these women do so ge to say the least. However, the platform, with generally larger many warm ups when today’s high most atypical figures are the large weights lifted today. class lifters of both genders do so number of lifts in the ≥90% zo- Generally this indicates today’s much less? nes in both exercises. None of the athletes possess a higher level of How do you perform so many warm other elite athletes investigated, psychological and physical prepa- up lifts and not become fatigued male or female, were even close to redness. or at least compromise your po- this volume of high intensity lifts. However, since we have identified tential in the competition, i.e., how Whether in spite of, or because of, what in all probability is a unique can it work? the Chinese method of prepara- warm up protocol in all of sport, tion for the 2008 Olympic compe- apparently taken to the precipice WHY AND HOW tition was extraordinarily succes- of fatigue, it is necessary to exami- “The strength and speed of move- sful, i.e., the four Chinese females ne this phenomenon more closely. ment can be enhanced by the uti- made 23 of 24 attempts in the After comparing the data in table lization of elastic forces; the eco- competition. 6 to all of the other data presen- nomy of movement can be enhan- Even the lone missed attempt ted, some going back 50 years, ced by recuperation of the me- was more than accessible. When two questions about the Chinese chanical energy while diminishing asked afterwards why she mis- warm up come to mind. Given the the loss through dissipation” (V.M. sed her final weight of 159 kg in universal belief that the warm up Zatsiorsky, 1981). the clean and jerk (the gold me- Athlete/wt ≥60-79% ≥80-89% ≥90% Total Lifts Fin/1rst kg %Fin of 1st Suc. Snatch CHENXiexia/48 14 2 9 25 90/90 100% 3 CHENYan/58 6 8 8 22 100/100 100% 3 LIUChunhon/69 14 8 6 28 120/120 100% 3 CAO Lei/75 14 6 5 25 120/120 100% 3 C & J CHEN Xiexia/48 3 3 5 11 110/113 97% 3 CHEN Yan/58 7 3 4 14 125/130 96% 3 LIUChunhon/69 8 5 1 14 145/145 100% 3 CAO Lei/75 4 3 3 10 145/147 99% 2 Table 11. Warm up lifts of the four Chinese female gold medalists at 2008 Olympics. Notations: The percentages for the various zones (60 to 79% for instance) are based on the maximum weight achieved on that day. Fin/1st - the final warm up weight over the first attempt weight on the platform; %Fin of 1st - ratio of final warm up weight to first attempt on the competition platform; success - number of successful lifts in the competition for that exercise.

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dal was already assured), CAO In both exercises the Chinese THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS Lei said thoughts of her recently warm up far exceeded not only the WITH REGARDS TO THE CHINESE departed mother distracted her volume, but especially the inten- WARM UP concentration. sity of the rest of the world’s high In all probability the Chinese warm From our analysis of all 15 weight class lifters, regardless of gender. up method reduces the likelihood classes at the 2009 World Weight- The Chinese warm up with final the athlete will alter the optimum lifting Championships we found warm up lifts of very high intensi- coordination structure to perform that ratio of the final warm up to ty in comparison with that of elite the exercises with near maximum the first attempt was primarily males and non-Chinese elite fema- and maximum weights. between 94 to 96% for the women le weightlifters is followed by mo- In our experience (after many ye- (excluding the Chinese) and 94 to derate incremental weight increa- ars as a competitive weightlifter 97% for all males with 95% being ses for the competition attempts. and first hand observations of the most frequent final warm up This is in conformity with the the- numerous international competi- for the females and 96% for the oretical conclusions of P.A Do- tions) the most common manner

The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The males. brev (“Retrospective Analysis of a male weightlifter prepares for a In the clean and jerk the largest the Practical Preparation of the maximum effort is to proceed with proportion of final attempts were Weightlifter,” (Budapest, Interna- a pyramiding aggressive approa- with 95 to 96% for the females and tional Weightlifting Federation ch, through a biological chain the 92 to 97% for the men. The most Coaching medical seminar in Var- first link of which is testosterone, frequent occurring final warm up na, Bulgaria 1983, pp. 102-125.): i.e., testosterone + aggression for the females was with 96% whe- “The realization of three good lifts (anger) + adrenaline = stronger reas it was 92%, 95%, and 97% in the snatch and the clean and muscular contraction. evenly for the men. jerk with minimal increases of the However, with this aggressive, an- Compare these ranges for all the weight is an objective criterion of drocentric approach, the athlete high class athletes male and fema- the high level of the physical and risks disrupting the optimum co- le, exclusive of Chinese females, technical preparation and for a ordination structure of the exerci- with those in table 11. The mean comparatively high psychological se from unnecessary co-activation final warm up in the snatch was stability.” of muscle antagonists and inap- 100% of the first attempt, whe- propriate rhythm. For example, reas the rest of the “normal” elite The Chinese women gold medali- the weightlifter’s muscles have to weightlifters investigated perfor- sts at the Beijing Olympics reali- switch from contraction to relaxa- med at most one lift with heaviest zed an extraordinarily high level tion in a fraction of a second. This warm up weight. of psychological stability. They is hard to do effectively if you are performed three lifts with 100% in a psychologically aggressive “la- “The last warm up weights in the of their opening weights on the ther.” snatch should be 7.5 to 12.5 kg be- competition platform in the sna- A viable alternative to this “bio- low 1st attempt and 10 to 20 kg for tch to be followed successfully by logical chain of aggressiveness” C&J” (A.N. Vorobeyev, 1988). three successful lifts with weights may very well be the Chinese warm of near maximum and maximum up. Here prolonged, multiple re- The Chinese lifted an atypical weights. petition of exercises, even with 100% of the first attempt. Fur- high intensity weights, facilitates thermore, each Chinese lifter The relatively massive intensity of the movement of the body to per- performed 2 to 3 lifts with 100% of the snatch warm up was followed form the exercises with maximum the first attempt in snatch warm by a slightly lesser but, nonethe- weights without an aggressive ap- ups. The mean final warm up of the less, atypically high intensive proach. Chinese females for the clean and warm up for the clean and jerk. In our opinion, the facilitating me- jerk was 98%. chanism is heat which is built up

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“The increasing weight ach to lifting maximum weights in N° 1 / April-July 2015 of the barbell which is weightlifting, where the creation one of the fundamental of high muscular tension at high ‘peculiarities’ of weight- speed must be disciplined, unlike lifting training forces the power lifting for instance, is not lifter to alter the entire necessarily conducive to establi- system of muscular ten- shing and maintaining the most sion and even the move- efficient motor coordination; whi- ment rhythm; thereby, it ch must be performed against a complicates the coordi- backdrop of muscle relaxation, nation structure of the very similar to that achieved by exercise. high class sprinters in track and MENG Suping (CHN) covered field. in blankets during warm ups “The lifting of a limit weight is a at 2009 World Weightlifting complex matter: a) the athlete has Therefore, according to our theory, Championships to constantly change the weight the extra body heat facilitates the of the barbell, which forces him to elastic recoil of strain energy from over the course of the warm up alter the coordination of muscular tendons, muscles, and ligaments. and preserved close to the point tension; b) the athlete is unable This extra heat accumulated as a of discomfort, to the precipice of to perform the snatch and the cle- result of the Chinese warm up can fatigue. an and jerk with the competition facilitate preservation of the op- Our theory is that heat facilita- weight repeatedly because of the timum coordination structure of tes the retention of some stored limit loading” {A.N. Vorbeyev, Ti- the exercises while providing the strain energy in the viscero–ela- iazhelaya Atletika, 1988. Transla- source of the extra force neces- stic tissues. This arises from the ted by Andrew Charniga, Jr.). sary to lift the increasing weight prolonged elevation of body tem- of the barbell. perature accumulated after many So, the increasing weight of the warm up lifts. In its turn, this faci- barbell, the varying of muscular The risk of disrupting motor coor- litates economy of movement in tension to perform the exercises dination can be minimized with performance of the exercises, i.e., commensurate with the altering this “prolonged elevation of body through more effective storage weight of the barbell, and the heat” warm up because the ath- and release of strain energy from difficulty of performing (practi- lete dispenses with a heightened the muscles, tendons, and liga- cing) the competition weights in state of psychological agitation ments. Consequently, the Chinese the snatch and the clean and jerk and performs the exercise in a female lifters following this warm with near maximum and maximum more relaxed state, i.e., the extra up procedure place less emphasis weights defines the extraordinary heat facilitates the extra effort re- on pyramiding levels of muscular complexity of weightlifting. quired to lift bigger weights. effort, i.e., where the athlete tries Consequently, the high class wei- The reduction of blood and mu- to become more aggressive with ghtlifter has achieved a high level scle viscosity athletes experience each incremental increase in the of inter-muscular and intra-mu- from what is considered a normal, weight of the barbell. scular coordination under difficult relatively brief warm up of low to In sport, the unusual peculiarities conditions. moderate intensity probably can- of weightlifting make creation of not stimulate the physiological the optimum movement coordina- Coordination is connected first enhancements which accompany tion difficult. A.N. Vorobeyev, 1988, and foremost with the ability to re- a warm up protocol atypically lar- noted in addressing this issue. lax muscles. An aggressive appro- ge in volume and intensity.

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The primary purpose of the warm up for any sport is to prepare the athlete physically and psycholo- gically for optimum performance in the competition, which of cour- se precludes exercising to the point of fatigue, or even close to it. However, the Chinese warm up, especially the final high intensity lifts which precede the maximum attempts on the platform, on the

LI Xueying (CHN) waits out of breath between warm up lifts at the 2009 World Weightlifting Championships, wearing three layers of clothing from the waist up.

performed in the warm up is less guishes male from female” (Colet- than conventional logic would di- te Dowling, 2000). ctate. The lifter can approach the Consider for a moment the effort forthcoming maximum weight required to start a lawnmower (a with the same relatively relaxed two stroke engine) by pulling on effort with weights for the final a cord which provides the mecha- warm up; the accumulated heat nical energy to start the engine. is to the female weightlifter what When the engine is cold, it may aggressiveness is to the male in take several pulls with much ef- his approach to lifting maximum fort to get the engine to turn over. weights with an absence of actual However, if after the mower has aggressiveness. been running for some minutes, it Svetlana Podobodova (KAZ) We believe the female weightli- stops suddenly; then, if you try to waits between warm up lifts at fter who has performed this pro- restart it immediately in the usual the 2009 World Weightlifting Championships without extra longed warm up has tapped into manner, a single pull with minimal means to preserve body heat. heretofore unrecognized, special effort is all the mechanical energy biological reserves which facilita- needed to get it running. surface, would appear to be the te the lifting of maximum weights, This phenomenon can not only be antithesis of this notion. even though the athlete may still attributed simply to a lower vi- The Chinese females perform each be winded and have accumulated scosity of the oil from running the exercise so many times heat has to an atypically high body heat as she engine. The heat of the engine ac- be the mechanism which facilita- approaches the near maximum cumulated, not totally dissipated, tes elastic recoil of strain energy and maximum weights on the com- from running the machine has to from the muscles, tendons, and petition platform. have contributed to the less me- ligaments, i.e., each preceding lift chanical energy needed to restart of pyramiding weights facilitates a it. retention of strain energy to per- HEAT We believe this analogy explains form more economically, the hea- “… aggression in men is natural … why what would seem to be a lar- vier weights which follow. in women it is unnatural … or if not ge, ostensibly fatiguing warm up Consequently, the physical and unnatural, prohibited. Aggression would allow a weightlifter to per- psychological toll of all the work is part and parcel of what distin- form a maximum lift without maxi-

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mum psychological excitation, i.e., accompany the rising weight of at the 2009 World Weightlifting N° 1 / April-July 2015 without recruiting more mechani- the barbell are typical of male wei- Championships warming up with cal energy from volitional muscu- ghtlifters. This is usually absent the same or similar protocol em- lar contraction. with the female weightlifter. Our ployed by Vladimir Belayev (USSR) The accumulated heat may contri- observations of many internatio- at the 1966 World Weightlifting bute to a more effective release of nal level athletes, over the course Championships in East Berlin. strain energy accumulated in the of many years, has convinced us Part of the answer to this question viscera–elastic tissues, already an that more often than not females should be obvious. integral part of the performance exert maximum effort in the ab- of the weightlifting exercises but, sence of overt aggression, i.e., in a nonetheless, facilitating further more relaxed state. the volitional muscular effort re- Lifting or otherwise exerting maxi- quired to lift the barbell. mum force in a relaxed state offers So, based on this theory, an athle- distinct advantages. te who executes less warm up lifts The technically proficient weightli- needs more mechanical energy fter’s muscles are used repeatedly (more tugs of the cord on the lawn over the course of raising a bar- mower) and a more aggressive bell from the floor to arms length approach because there is less un overhead. These same muscles - dissipated heat energy available. must switch at high speed back It is known that the mechanical and forth from contraction to rela- efficiency of modern internal com- xation, while at the same time the bustion engines is only about 25%. muscles which are relaxing main- Approximately 60% of the ener- tain some optimum tension; the gy generated from combustion weightlifter must instantaneously of gasoline is lost through heat. reverse direction of movement About half from the exhaust and from up to down. half from the engine (Ben Knight, It is to the lifter’s advantage to (Scientific American 2:52:2010). perform these actions against an World and Olympic Champion So, 60% of the energy produced in overall backdrop of muscle relaxa- CAO Lei placidly lifts 150 kg the form of heat is lost. tion so that unnecessary muscle (two times bodyweight). The Chinese females go to unu- tension will not impede speed of sual lengths to generate what movement. This being the case, would seem an unnecessarily high elevated body heat can theoreti- The Chinese women perform their body heat through a large warm cally play an assistant role. atypical, in all of sport, warm up up loading. And, likewise, their for weightlifting because they be- atypical measures to preserve it ANOTHER WHY QUESTION lieve it works and has proven to be under normal room temperature Another why question which has to effective for reaching high results conditions lends practical creden- be raised after all of this analysis at competitions. The other part of ce to our theory that creation and is: why bother? Why would a wei- the answer to this question may retention of heat energy plays an ghtlifter select to perform so much not be so obvious: should the rest assistant role in performing the work in warm ups when the stan- of us in the weightlifting world weightlifting exercises with maxi- dard loading, modified upwards abandon the old warm up proto- mum weights. slightly by today’s weightlifters cols and adopt the Chinese exerci- We believe the Chinese warm up is of the past 50 years and more, se to the precipice of fatigue, high more applicable to females. Pyra- can suffice? Weightlifters of both heat method? miding levels of aggressiveness genders performed successfully

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References • Th e special warm up begins 11 to 32 minutes before the athlete is called to the 1. Polyakov, V.A., “Individual – Psychological platform; Features of Top Weightlift ers at the Moscow • Th e number of warm up sets for the Olympics”, Weightlift ing Yearbook, 68-72:1983, snatch is 7 to 14; Livonia, Michigan, Sportivny Press. Translated • Th e number of warm up lift s with the by Andrew Charniga, Jr. barbell is 8 to 22; • Th e rest period before the fi rst attempt 2. Polyakov, V.A., “Reliability of the Weightlift er’s on the platform is 2 to 5 minutes; Performance in Competition”, Moscow, Tiazhe- • Th e diff erence in weight between the fi - laya Atletika 67-70:1977; Translated by Andrew nal warm up lift and the fi rst attempt is 7.5 Charniga, Jr. Sportivny Press©. to 25 kg.

3. Genov, F. “Th e Length of the Weightlift er’s Th e parameters of the warm up for the Psychological Preparedness on the Platform clean and jerk: Th e offi cial journal of the European Weightlift ing Federation ing Weightlift European of cialthe journal offi e Th Depending on the Increasing Weight of the • Th e beginning of the special warm up for Barbell”, Moscow, Tribuna Masterov, 118 - the clean and jerk begins 12 to 30 minutes 126:1969. Translated by Andrew Charniga, Jr. before the athlete is called to the platform; Sportivny Press©. • Th e number of warm up sets is 5 to 10; • Th e number of warm up lift s is 5 to 13; 4. Roman, R.A., Th e Training of the Weightlift er, • Th e rest period before the fi rst attempt Moscow, FIS, 1968. Translated by Andrew on the platform is 2 to 5 minutes; Charniga, Jr. Sportivny Press©. • Th e diff erence in weight between the fi - nal warm up and the fi rst attempt is 7.5 to 5. Vorobeyev, A.N., Tiiazhalaya Atletika Moscow, 30 kg (in one case it was 42.5 to 50 kg). FIS, 72-74:1988. Translated by Andrew Charni- ga, Jr. Sportivny Press©. 9. Spasov, A. Tsarvulkov, A., “On Some problems Concerning the Structural Buildup of Warm- 6. Vorobeyev, A.N., Tiiazhalaya Atletika Moscow, ing Up for Highly Classifi ed Weightlift ers,” FIS, 1977. Translated by Andrew Charniga, Jr. Budapest, International Weightlift ing Federa- Sportivny Press©. tion Coaching medical seminar in Varna, 1983; 126-134. 7. Khairullin, R., “Rational Structure of the Warm Up”, Moscow, Olymp 17: 1993. Translated by 10. Spasov, A. Tsarvulkov, A., “Pre – Start Warm Up Andrew Charniga, Jr. Sportivny Press©. – An Essential Factor for High Performance,” Budapest, Scientifi c Methodological Bulletin, 8. Khairullin, R., “Th e Championships unrealized International Weightlift ing Federation, pub- potential”, Moscow, Olymp 3-4:34-37:2002. lishers; 3:17-20:1980. Comparison between Translated by Andrew Charniga, Jr. Sportivny warm-ups of 1965 European Championships. Press©. And 1979 {Alexander Zarvulkov, Angel Spasov, Scientifi c Methodical Bulletin, 03:17-20:1980, Th e parameters of the warm up for the International Weightlift ing Federation} snatch: • Th e general warm up begins 17 to 33 11. Dobrev, P.A., “Retrospective Analysis of the minutes before the athlete is called to the Tactical Preparation of the Weightlift er,” Bu- competition platform; dapest, International Weightlift ing Federation • Th e duration of the general warm up is Coaching medical seminar in Varna, 1983; 102- two minutes; 125. “Th e realization of three good lift s in the

Rivista_EWF_N°1.indd 70 06/03/15 17:42 COMPARISON OF WARM UP PROTOCOLS OF HIGH CLASS MALE AND FEMALE WEIGHTLIFTERS 71 N° 1 / April-July 2015 snatch and the clean and jerk with mini- mal increases of the weight is an objective criterion of the high level of the physical and technical Preparation and for a com- paratively high psychological stability…. Th e last warm up weights in the snatch should be 7.5 to 12.5 kg below 1st attempt and 10 to 20 kg for c&J.”

12. Medvedyev, A.S., “Training Load and Its Intensity and Structure of Volume with Female Lift ers of Russia, PRC and Bul- garia at the Preparatory and Competition Periods,” Proceedings of the Weightlift - ing Symposium, Olympia, Greece; 69 -81:1993 International Weightlift ing Fed- eration, Budapest, Hungary, publishers.

13. Verkhoshansky, Y.V., Fundamentals of the Special Physical Preparation of Ahtletes, Moscow: Fizkultura I Sport, 16:1988. Translated by Andrew Charniga, Jr., Sportivny Press©.

14. Suggs, T. “Behind the scenes”, Strength and Health, 09:71:1968.

15. CAO, Wenyuan, “Training Diff erence Be- tween Males and Females,” Proceedings of the Weightlift ing Symposium, Olym- pia, Greece; 97-101:1993 International Weightlift ing Federation, Budapest, Hun- gary, publishers.

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Rivista_EWF_N°1.indd 72 06/03/15 17:42 73 N° 1 / April-July 2015

Rivista_EWF_N°1.indd 73 06/03/15 17:42 74 WHAT THE BUSINESS WORLD CAN TEACH A COACH ABOUT RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

In weightlifting, ensuring that basis, athletes are limited by the te weightlifter who lifts twice per time (e.g., training hours) and re- time until the next meet and ba- day. The coach lists lifting, massa- sources (e.g., reps) are allocated lancing the demands of training, ge/recovery, and mental training properly is the task of the coach, work, and family. Plus, athletes as the top three training priorities and doing it well is one of the keys only have the physical and mental for the day. However, after exa- to making your projects (e.g., ath- energy to train for a small fraction mining the list, the coach disco- letes) successful. Unlike the bu- of each day. Are you confident that vers the time spent is not entirely siness world where projects can you are optimally spending each reflective of those priorities. The take longer than expected and minute of training working toward highest prioritized training activi- run over budget, the date of the your short- and long-term goals? ties for the day differ appear to be Olympic Games, or your next big To help answer this question, we lifting, warm-up, and mid-section meet, will not move back a week if can borrow an idea from project work. you made an error in planning. Co- managers: a good exercise for coa- After analyzing the schedule for aches should consider learning re- ches is to list all the training activi- this day, the coach realizes that

Th e offi cial journal of the European Weightlift ing Federation ing Weightlift European of cialthe journal offi e Th source allocation strategies from ties for the next day, week, or block training time needs to be reallo- the business world to help them of training and note the amount of cated and used more effectively make the most of the limited time time scheduled for each activity. so that training does not take fi-

they have to work with an athlete. Does your time allocation reflect ve-and-a-half hours. The optimi- In the long term, coaches are fi- your training priorities and goals? zed version of Monday’s workout ghting against the time until an Do you have enough time to fit in eliminates very low-priority work athlete moves from junior to se- all the activities you would like to such as competition tactics and nior ranks or the time until an ath- include? Let’s look at an example medicine ball work. Other areas lete’s physical peak is over. In the of this type of analysis for an ave- like warm-ups and lifting can be short term, on a daily or weekly rage Monday of training for an eli- run more efficiently to cut down

Rivista_EWF_N°1.indd 74 06/03/15 17:42 WHAT THE BUSINESS WORLD CAN TEACH A COACH ABOUT RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 75 N° 0 / April-June 2015 spread across several low-priority items. Faced with a finite amount of training time, coaches first work to trim the low-priority items, but they also must look at their own efficiency when running a training session. Are you organized, on time, and well prepared to transition between activities? Do you give clear and concise instructions? Salvaging time does not always mean removing activities; it may also mean being more time-efficient across the board. Making better use of a few minutes per day may seem insignificant, but over the course of a season those minutes translate into hours of training time. The simple exercise of allocating time for a day, a week, or a season can be very helpful for coaches, and this type of analysis can be as general or as detailed as you like. For example, you can also analyze the lifting portion of the training, brea- on overall time. The revi- job of allocating time and king down the time or reps spent on each major sed plan looks like this: meeting the needs of the lift. Quantifying and categorizing how training Even though the total li- athlete, eliminating one- time is allocated is the first step to ensuring its fting time is reduced, the and-a-half hours from efficient allocation. time spent lifting is a hi- training. Another beneficial use of this analysis and optimi- gher percentage of the to- Coaches doing this exer- zation of time is for athletes and coaches to shar- tal training time. cise for the first time are pen training priorities together. Over the course of This revised training pro- often surprised to see a a coach-athlete relationship, there comes a time gram does a much better large percentage of time where the coach begins to include the athlete in training decisions and the relationship becomes more collaborative. When coaches and athletes in- dependently prioritize training goals and collecti- vely agree on the best training program, athletes may be more fully invested in their training. A fully invested athlete is more likely to make good use of his time in and out of training and to maximize ef- fort put into each rep in the weight room. Regularly examining the macro-level training plan and comparing it to the micro-level day-to- day and week-to-week training helps maximize the effectiveness of training time by keeping coa- ches on track and athletes engaged in the training process. Coaches invest a tremendous amount of time, energy, and expertise in their athletes. To maximize the return on your investment, you need to tightly monitor your resources with the same zeal as businesses by prioritizing and allo- cating training time effectively.

Rivista_EWF_N°1.indd 75 06/03/15 17:42 76 ditorial guidelines

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Th ey must be related to transcripts are expressed in type IIb fi bers of the literature that currently exists; all hypothe- human skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol 267 (6 Pt ses therefore must be covered. 1): C1723-1728, 1994).

Rivista_EWF_N°1.indd 77 06/03/15 17:42 78 ABSTRACTS

panish resumenes

SEL MITO DE LA FUERZA cación olímpica), y de comparar las actuaciones (1,9-2,6 %) para la técnica de dos tiempos y el Livio Toschi de arrancada de las levantadoras de pesas con levantamiento olímpico completo, en compa- SM (ing), n.º1, año I, abril-junio 2015, pp. 4-9 las documentadas en la bibliografía especializa- ración con las competiciones simuladas (p < da. Se analizaron los ejercicios de arrancada que 0,05). Las concentraciones de Sal-C antes de Desde los albores de la historia, el hombre ha se completaron con las cargas más pesadas de las competiciones simuladas resultaron ser di- disfrutado mostrando su fuerza en las pruebas siete deportistas ganadoras de medallas de oro. rectamente proporcionales a todos los levanta- más variadas y extravagantes. Cuando empezó Se grabaron las arrancadas con dos cámaras Su- mientos de 1RM (r = 0,48-0,49; p < 0,05). En la época de las competiciones deportivas, los per-Video Home System (50 imágenes/s) y se conclusión, las competiciones reales produjeron hombres se percataron de que para destacar, digitalizaron manualmente los puntos del cuer- respuestas de Sal-C mayores que las competi- debían entrenarse de forma metódica: para au- po y de la barra mediante el Ariel Performance ciones simuladas, lo cual parece ser una ventaja mentar su fuerza practicaban ejercicios apropia- Analysis System. Los resultados indican que la para la ejecución de 1RM de los deportistas que dos, uno de los cuales era naturalmente el levan- duración del tirón inicial fue sensiblemente ma- practican el levantamiento olímpico. Asimismo, tamiento de pesas, utilizando diversos objetos yor de la duración en la fase de transición, en los deportistas con concentraciones de Sal-C como rocas, troncos y halteras. el segundo tirón y en el encaje bajo la barra (p más elevadas tendían a realizar levantamientos The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The Sansón, Atlas y especialmente Hércules son los < 0,05). Las velocidades máximas de distensión de 1RM superiores durante las competiciones símbolos más significativos del eterno mito de de la extremidad inferior en el segundo tirón simuladas. En vista de estos resultados, debería la fuerza. No obstante, cada época y lugar cuen- fueron notablemente mayores de las velocida- concederse más importancia al seguimiento del ta con hombres de inmenso vigor, como el im- des máximas de distensión en el primer tirón. cortisol (C) para establecer valores normativos, batible luchador Milón de Crotona, que se en- Las distensiones más rápidas se observaron a normas de entrenamiento y para ayudar a hacer frentó al legendario boyero Titormo en la que se la altura de la rodilla durante el primer tirón y previsiones de las ejecuciones. considera la competición de levantamiento de de la pelvis durante el segundo tirón (p < 0,05). pesas documentada más antigua. Las trayectorias de la barra para las arrancadas LA RODILLA EN LA PRÁCTICA El levantamiento de pesas es un deporte noble más pesadas de estas deportistas de alto nivel DE LA HALTEROFILIA y antiguo cuyos orígenes se pierden en el fas- fueron parecidas a las de los hombres. La velo- Antonio Urso y Nicola Voglino cinante halo del mito, de donde emergen po- cidad máxima vertical de la barra fue mayor en SM (ing), n.º1, año I, abril-junio 2015, pp. 46-55 derosas figuras de dioses y héroes, gigantes y el segundo tirón que en el primero (p < 0,05). Los autores exponen de manera fácil la anato- ciclopes, pero también de atletas y hombres de El trabajo mecánico realizado en el primer tirón mía de la articulación de la rodilla, su fisiología fuerza excepcional, que están entre la historia fue mayor que en el segundo, mientras que la y biomecánica, y ponen en relación los temas y la leyenda. Su renombre sigue vivo en la ac- fuerza producida en el segundo tirón fue mayor tratados con la práctica de la halterofilia, pues- tualidad y perdurará porque el mito de la fuerza que en el primero (p < 0,05). A pesar de que las to que es una especialidad que puede someter a es eterno para la humanidad, mora en nuestras amplitudes de los movimientos lineales de la ba- dicho complejo articular a un gran esfuerzo. Al almas y es una inagotable fuente de inspiración rra, los movimientos angulares de la extremidad contrario de lo que podría imaginarse, la prácti- para la literatura y la expresión artística de nu- inferior y otras características de expresión de ca de la halterofilia no parece ser traumatizante merosos pueblos. Es una herencia cultural que la energía no reflejaron con precisión las docu- para esta articulación, incluso a niveles altos y el levantamiento de pesas ha de fomentar con mentadas en la bibliografía, el esquema de la altísimos, ya sea en hombres o en mujeres. creciente compromiso y pasión y cuyos benefi- arrancada de las levantadoras de pesas de alto cios serán sin duda cuantiosos. nivel fue parecido al de los hombres. LA FIABILIDAD EN LA ACTIVIDAD COM- ENERGÍA SOLAR Y FUERZA MUSCULAR PETITIVA Y LOS PROTOCOLOS DE CA- Menotti Calvani LOS EFECTOS DE LA INTENSIDAD DE EN- LENTAMIENTO DE LAS MEJORES LEVAN- SM (ing), n.º1, año I, abril-junio 2015, pp. 10-21 TRENAMIENTO Y DE LA COMPETICIÓN TADORAS DE PESAS. NUEVO MÉTODO EN LAS CONCENTRACIONES DE CORTI- Andrew Jr. Charniga, Petr Poletaev y La disgresión del autor sobre la vitamina D y su SOL EN LA SALIVA DE LOS DEPORTISTAS Rustem Khairullin función compleja y esencial en la vida del hom- QUE PRACTICAN EL LEVANTAMIENTO SM (ing), n.º1, año I, abril-junio 2015, pp. 56-71 bre fue extensa y apasionante: del raquitismo a DE PESAS OLÍMPICO los factores de la alimentación y la luz solar, las Blair T. Crewther, Taati Here y Justin W. L. Keogh Los autores definen lo que se da en llamar “fia- funciones de la vitamina D y su peculiar carac- SM (ing), n.º1, año I, abril-junio 2015, pp. 36-45 bilidad en la actividad competitiva de los depor- terística de ser una hormona capaz de regular tistas”, esto es, la capacidad de competir con efi- (en la unión de la vitamina D y su receptor) más En este estudio se han examinado los efectos de cacia y un rendimiento estable, y a continuación de 1.000 genes e influir en actividades como la la intensidad de entrenamiento y de la competi- analizan, presentando un amplio conjunto de inmunidad, la inflamación, el metabolismo del ción en las concentraciones de cortisol en la sa- observaciones, los protocolos de calentamiento calcio y de la glucosa, la proliferación celular y liva (Salivary Cortisol, Sal-C) de los deportistas de las mejores levantadoras de pesas del ámbito el trofismo del sistema nervioso y del músculo. que practican el levantamiento de pesas olímpi- internacional. Se concentran en las diferencias El autor aborda también la función de esta hor- co. Los levantadores de pesas de sexo masculi- de género existentes en el calentamiento previo mona especial en el rendimiento deportivo y en no (n = 5) y femenino (n = 4) proporcionaron a la competición y describen las características, el mantenimiento de la homeostasis general del muestras de saliva durante un estudio de cinco los beneficios y las diferencias de otros métodos organismo. semanas de duración. El primer objetivo fue del sistema de calentamiento adoptado por las evaluar los efectos semanales de una intensidad deportistas de China. ANÁLISIS CINEMÁTICO DE LA TÉCNICA de entrenamiento elevada (≥ 200 series) y baja DE ARRANCADA REALIZADO EN LEVAN- (≥ 100 series) en el Sal-C. El segundo objetivo TADORAS DE PESAS DE ALTO NIVEL DU- fue comparar las concentraciones de Sal-C y la QUÉ PUEDE ENSEÑAR EL MUNDO DE LOS RANTE EL CAMPEONATO MUNDIAL DE ejecución de una repetición máxima (1RM) du- NEGOCIOS A UN ENTRENADOR EN MA- HALTEROFILIA DE 2010 rante dos competiciones simuladas y dos com- TERIA DE GESTIÓN DE LOS RECURSOS Hasan Akkus peticiones reales. Se evaluó el rendimiento uti- Ann Swisher SM (ing), n.º1, año I, abril-junio 2015, pp. 22-35 lizando las técnicas de arrancada (snatch) y de SM (ing), n.º1, año I, abril-junio 2015, pp. 56-71 dos tiempos (clean and jerk) y el levantamiento olímpico completo. Los datos obtenidos en cada Con frecuencia, los entrenadores han de luchar El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar el tra- situación competitiva se asociaron antes del por encontrar fondos, instalaciones y equipa- bajo mecánico, la producción de fuerza, el mo- análisis. No se produjeron cambios semanales miento, pero lo que deberían valorar en reali- vimiento angular de la extremidad inferior y el significativos en las concentraciones de Sal-C dad es su recurso más preciado: el tiempo. En el movimiento lineal de la barra en el primer y el (p < 0,05). mundo de los negocios, el tiempo es dinero y, en segundo tirón de la arrancada durante la com- Las competiciones reales produjeron concen- consecuencia, los profesionales de la gestión de petición femenina en el Campeonato Mundial traciones de Sal-C más elevadas (128-130 %) (p proyectos controlan y analizan constantemente de Halterofilia de 2010 (competición de califi- < 0,001) y levantamientos de 1RM superiores el tiempo para aumentar la eficiencia.

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RМИФ СИЛЫ сами у 7 спортсменок завоевавших золотые симулируемыми соревнованиями (p < 0,05). Livio Toschi медали. Упражнения регистрировались дву- Отдельные результаты концентрации Sal-C С незапамятных времен люди старались де- мя телекамерами «Super-Video Home System» перед симулируемыми соревнованиями монстрировать свою силу в самых различ- (50 изображений в секунду); точки на теле были прямо пропорциональны результатам ных и экстравагантных ситуациях. С нача- спортсмена и на штанге были зацифрирова- во всех максимальных повторениях 1Rm (r = лом эпохи рождения спорта, человек понял ны вручную с помощью «Ariel Performance 0,48-0,49, p < 0,05). В заключении отмечается что для того чтобы добиться успеха надо ме- Analysis System». Результаты демонстрируют что реальные соревнования оказали более тодично тренироваться: для развития силы что длительность начальной тяги была зна- высокий эффект на Sal-C по сравнению с начали выполнять специальные упражне- чительно выше чем длительность переход- симулируемыми соревнованиями. И это рас- ния. Естественно что одно из этих упраж- ной фазы, второй тяги и фазы стабилизации сматривается как преимущество в выполне- нений было поднятие тяжестей, используя под штангой (p<0.05). нии 1Rm для спортсменов выполняющих различные объекты (камни, брёвна, штанги). Максимальная скорость разгибания нижней олимпийское упражнение тяжёлой атлетики. Самсон, Атлант и особенно Гекулес являют- конечности во второй тяге была значительно Кроме того, участники эксперимента с более ся наиболее известными символами вечного выше по сравнению с первой тягой. Самая высокими концентрациями Sal-C демон-

The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation Weightlifting European of the official journal The мифа силы. Каждая эпоха и каждый народ высокая скорость разгибания была отмечена стрировали тенденцию к достижению более имеют примеры людей огромной сылы: не- на уровне колена во время первой тяги и на высоких результатов в выполнении 1Rm во победимый борец Милон из Кротоны бро- уровне таза во время второй тяги (p<0.05). У время симулируемых соревнований. На ос- сивший вызов легендарному пастуху Титро- спортсменок высокого уровня траектории нове этих результатов можно сказать что не- му в самом старейшем документированом штанги в упражнениях с наибольшими веса- обходимо уделять более высокое внимание соревновании по тяжёлой атлетике. Тяжё- ми были похожими на траектории штанги у мониторированию кортизола (C) для опре- лая атлетика это благородный и старейший тяжёлоатлетов мужчин. Максимальная вер- деления нормативных значений, трениро- вид спорта; его рождение имеет очарование тикальная скорость штанги была выше во вочных стандартов и для прогнозировании мифа который дает жизнь мощным фигурам второй тяге по сравнению с первой (p<0.05). производительности. борцов, героев, гигантов и циклопов, а так Механическая работа в первой тяге была же спортсменов и людей исключительной выше чем во второй, а сила проявленная КОЛЕННЫЙ СУСТАВ В ТЯЖЁЛОЙ силы, чья жизнь находится между историей во второй тяге была выше чем в первой АТЛЕТИКЕ и легендой. Их слава жива до сих пор и бу- (p<0.05). Даже если параметры линейных ки- Antonio Urso, Nicola Voglino дет жить вечно потому что миф силы вечен нематических характеристик штанги, угло- Авторы демонстрируют, в интересной и для человечества; миф силы живет губоко в вых кинематических характеристик нижней простой форме, анатомию, физиологию, сердцах людей и представляет собой беско- конечности и других характеристик пров- биомеханику коленного сустава, связывая нечный источник вдохновления для литера- ления энергии не соответствуют в точности эти аргументы с реальностью тяжёлой ат- туры и искусства многих народов. Тяжёлая данным описанным в специальной литера- летики, поскольку этот вид спорта затраги- атлетика должна пропагандировать, с боль- туре, схема упражнения рывка у спортсме- вает значительным образом этот суставный шой привеженностью и страстью, это куль- нок высокого уровня была аналогична схеме комплекс. Вопреки тому что можно было турное наследие плоды которого несомнен- спортсменов мужчин. представить, тяжёлая атлетика (даже элит- но будут изобильными. ного уровня) не провоцирует травмы этого ЭФФЕКТ ОБЪЕМА ТРЕНИРОВОЧНОЙ сустава как у тяжёлоатлетов так и у тяжёло- СОЛНЕЧНАЯ ЭНЕГИЯ И МЫШЕЧНАЯ И СОРЕВНОВАТЕЛЬНОЙ НАГРУЗКИ атлеток. СИЛА НА КОНЦЕНТРАЦИЮ КОРТИЗОЛА Menotti Calvani В СЛЮНЕ СПОРТСМЕНОВ «НАДЕЖНОСТЬ» СПОРТИВНОЙ Автор начинет свою статью с очень инте- ВЫПОЛНЯЮЩИХ ОЛИМПИЙСКИЕ ДЕЯТЕЛЬНОСТИ И ПРОТОКОЛЫ ресного и глубокого экcкурса о витамине Д УПРАЖНЕНИЯ ТЯЖЁЛОЙ АТЛЕТИКИ РАЗМИНКИ ТЯЖЁЛОАТЛЕТОК и о его важной роли в жизни человека: на- Blair T. Crewther, Taati Here e Justin W. L. Keogh ВЫСОЧАЙШЕГО УРОВНЯ. НОВАЯ чиная от рахита до таких факторов как ди- Это исследование изучило результаты воз- МЕТОДОЛОГИЯ ета и солнечный свет, как роль витамина Д действия объема тренировочных и сорев- Andrew Jr. Charniga, Petr Poletaev, Rustem и его особенная функция гормона, который новательных нагрузок на концентрацию Khairullin в состоянии регулировать (в сочетании с кортизола в слюне (Salivary Cortisol, Sal-C) Под так называемой «надёжностью» со- витамином Д-рецептором) более 1000 генов спортсменов выполняющих олимпийские ревновательной деятельности авторы и воздействовать на иммунитет, на воспали- упражнения тяжёлой атлетики. У тяжёло- понимают способность спортсменов эф- тельные процессы, на метаболизм кальция атлетов (мужчины: 5; женщины: 4) брались фективно участвовать в соревнованиях, и глюкозы, на пролиферацию клеток и на анализы слюны в течении 5 недель. Первая показывая стабильные результаты. Далее трофизм нервной и мышечной систем. Кро- цель исследования: анализ недельного эф- авторы анализируют, представляя резуль- ме того Автор обсуждает роль этого особен- фекта большого объема тренировочной таты обширной серии наблюдений, прото- ного гормона для достижении спортивных нагрузки (200 серий) и низкого объема тре- колы разминки спорсменок высочайшего ризультатов и для поддержании гомеостаза нировочной нагрузки (100 серий) на Sal-C. международного уровня, сосредоточивая организма. Вторая цель исследования: сравнение кон- внимание на половых различиях во время центрации Sal-C и результата выполнения предсоревновательной разминки, и описы- КИНЕМАТИЧЕСКИЙ АНАЛИЗ 1Rm (максимальное повторение) во время вая особенности, преимущества и различия УПРАЖНЕНИЯ «РЫВОК» У соревнований (2-х симулируемых (модел- этого вида разминки с другими видами раз- ТЯЖЁЛОАТЛЕТОК ВЫСОКОГО лированных) соревнований и 2-х реальных минки используемые китайскими спортсме- УРОВНЯ ВО ВРЕМЯ ЧЕМПИОНАТА соревнований). Результаты были оценены нами. МИРА ПО ТЯЖЁЛОЙ АТЛЕТИКЕ на основе анализа следующих упражнений: Hasan Akkus рывок (snatch), толчок (clean and jerk) и ком- ЧЕМУ МИР БИЗНЕССА МОЖЕТ Целью данного исследования было опреде- плексное олимпийское упражнение. Резуль- НАУЧИТЬ ТРЕНЕРА В ОБЛАСТИ лить механическую работу, силу, угловые таты полученные во время всех «соревнова- УПРАВЛЕНИЯ РЕСУРСАМИ кинематические характеристики нижних тельных сценариях» были ассоциированы с Ann Swisher конечностей и линейные кинематические ха- результатами полученными перед экспери- Тренерам часто приходиться «бороться» за рактеристики штанги в первой и во второй ментом. Не были отмечены значительные получение финансовых ресурсов, за спор- тяге упражнения «рывок» во время Чемпио- недельные изменения в концентрации Sal-C тивные помещения и тренировочное обору- ната Мира по тяжёлой атлетике (женщины) (p > 0,05). дование. Но тренеры должны реально оче- 2010 года (квалификационные сорквнования Во время реальных соревнований была от- нить самый главный ресурс: время. В мире на олимпиаду) и сравнить результаты вы- мечена более высокая концентрация Sal-C бизнеса, время это деньги. Поэтому специ- ступления тяжёлоатлеток в рывке с данны- (128-130%) (p <0,001) и более высокий ре- алисты в области прфессионального управ- ми специализированной литературы. Были зультат в максимальном повторении (1Rm) ления проектами должны постоянно анали- проанализированы успешные выполнения (1,9-2,6%) в рывке, в толчке и в комплексном зировать и расчитывать время необходимое упражнения «рывок» с очень высокими ве- олимпийском упражнении по сравнению с для их реализации.

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