ESIA Albania Section 6 – Environmental, Socioeconomic and Cultural Heritage Baseline Page 2 of 382 Area Comp. System Disc. Doc.- Ser. Code Code Code Code Type No. Project Title: Trans Adriatic Pipeline – TAP AAL00-ERM-641-Y-TAE-1008 ESIA Albania Section 6 - Environmental, Document Title: Rev.: 03 Socioeconomic and Cultural Heritage Baseline

TABLE OF CONTENTS

6
ENVIRONMENTAL, SOCIOECONOMIC AND CULTURAL HERITAGE BASELINE 11
6.1
Introduction 11
6.2
Offshore Biological and Physical Environment 11
6.2.1
Introduction 11
6.2.2
Geographical Scope of the Baseline 13
6.2.3
Methodology and Sources of Information 13
6.2.3.1
Video Methodology 13
6.2.3.2
Environmental Survey Methodology 13
6.2.4
Legislation 15
6.2.4.1
Designated Sites 15
6.2.4.2
Sensitive and Protected Habitats / Biocenoses 16
6.2.5
Regional Overview 16
6.2.5.1
Introduction 16
6.2.5.2
Physical Environment 16
6.2.5.3
Biological Baseline 33
6.2.6
Albanian Nearshore Study Area 56
6.2.6.1
Physical Baseline 56
6.2.6.2
Biological Baseline 69
6.3
Offshore Socioeconomic Environment 73
6.3.1
Introduction 73
6.3.2
Harbours 75
6.3.2.1
Durrës Harbour 75
6.3.2.2
Vlorë Port 76
6.3.3
Marine Traffic 76
6.3.3.1
Ferry Traffic 79
6.3.4
Fishing 80
6.3.4.1
National Overview 80
6.3.5
Cultural Heritage 87
6.3.6
Marine Ammunition / Unexploded Ordnances (UXO) 88
6.4
Onshore Physical Environment 89
6.4.1
Climate and Ambient Air Quality 89
6.4.1.1
Overview 89
6.4.1.2
Climate 89
6.4.1.3
Wind 99
6.4.1.4
Ambient Air Quality 103
6.4.1.5
Key Findings and Conclusions 107
6.4.1.6
Limitations 108
6.4.2
Acoustic Environment 108
6.4.2.1
Acoustic Environment along the Pipeline Route 108
6.4.2.2
Acoustic Environment at CS03 112
6.4.2.3
Acoustic Environment at CS02 116
6.4.2.4
Limitations 120
6.4.3
Surface Water 120
6.4.3.1
Introduction 120
6.4.3.2
River Hydro-Morphology 121
6.4.3.3
Water Quality 127
6.4.3.4
Sediment Quality 137
6.4.3.5
Key Findings and Conclusions 141

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6.4.3.6
Limitations 143
6.4.4
Groundwater 143
6.4.4.1
Overview 143
6.4.4.2
Groundwater Description 145
6.4.4.3
Groundwater Sampling 147
6.4.4.4
Key Findings and Conclusions 150
6.4.5
Geology and Geomorphology 151
6.4.5.1
Introduction 151
6.4.5.2
Eastern Section 153
6.4.5.3
Central Eastern Section 157
6.4.5.4
Central Western Section 159
6.4.5.5
Western Section 162
6.4.5.6
Key Findings and Conclusions 165
6.4.6
Soil Quality 165
6.4.6.1
Eastern Section 168
6.4.6.2
Central Eastern Section 169
6.4.6.3
Central Western Section 170
6.4.6.4
Western Section 171
6.4.6.5
Screening of Existing Soil Contamination 172
6.4.6.6
Key Findings and Conclusions 174
6.4.7
Landscape and Visual Amenity 175
6.4.7.1
Landscape of the Compressor Station Site CS02 175
6.4.7.2
Landscape of the Pipeline Corridor 178
6.4.7.3
Landscape – Compressor Station Site C03 197
6.4.7.4
Limitations 201
6.5
Onshore Biological Environment 202
6.5.1
Terrestrial Ecology 202
6.5.1.1
Eastern Section 202
6.5.1.2
Central Eastern Section 213
6.5.1.3
Central Western Section 228
6.5.1.4
Western Section 239
6.5.1.5
Northern Section 250
6.5.1.6
Terrestrial Ecology Survey and Desktop Study Limitations 256
6.5.2
Aquatic Ecology 256
6.5.2.1
Eastern Section 257
6.5.2.2
Central Eastern Section 261
6.5.2.3
Central Western Section 264
6.5.2.4
Western Section 268
6.5.3
Designated Areas 272
6.5.3.1
Natural Environment Protected Areas Overview 273
6.5.3.3
Cultural Heritage Protected Areas Overview 276
6.5.3.4
Eastern Section 277
6.5.3.5
Central Eastern Section 280
6.5.3.6
Central Western Section 282
6.5.3.7
Western Section 284
6.5.3.8
Key Summary of Protected Areas 287
6.6
Onshore Socioeconomic Environment 290
6.6.1
Introduction 290
6.6.2
Historical and Political Overview 293
6.6.2.1
Historical Overview 293
6.6.2.2
Modern Political Context 293
6.6.2.3
Local Administrative Structure 294

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6.6.2.4
Local Decision Making 296
6.6.3
Planning and Development 297
6.6.3.1
National Strategy for Development and Integration 297
6.6.3.2
Regional and Local Development Plans 298
6.6.4
Demographics 301
6.6.4.1
Population and Settlements 301
6.6.4.2
Migration and Population Change 303
6.6.4.3
Age 304
6.6.4.4
Gender 305
6.6.4.5
Ethnicity 306
6.6.4.6
Religion 307
6.6.5
Economy, Employment and Income 309
6.6.5.1
National Level Overview 309
6.6.5.2
Economy and Livelihoods in the Study Area 311
6.6.5.3
Working Practices and Labour Rights 315
6.6.5.4
Agricultural Production 317
6.6.5.5
Industry and Commerce 322
6.6.5.6
Fishing and Hunting 325
6.6.5.7
Tourism 326
6.6.5.8
Remittances and Social Assistance 327
6.6.6
Land Use and Ownership 328
6.6.6.1
Agricultural Land Tenure 328
6.6.6.2
Forested Land Tenure 332
6.6.6.3
Land Use 333
6.6.7
Infrastructure and Public Services 334
6.6.7.1
Road and Transport Infrastructure 334
6.6.7.2
Water and Sanitation 336
6.6.7.3
Irrigation 338
6.6.7.4
Waste Management 339
6.6.7.5
Telecommunications 344
6.6.8
Traffic and Transport 345
6.6.8.1
Traffic Study 345
6.6.8.2
Summary of Traffic Survey Carried Out 346
6.6.9
Education and Skills 349
6.6.9.1
Education Infrastructure 349
6.6.9.2
Education Levels 351
6.6.9.3
Vocational Training 352
6.6.10
Health 353
6.6.10.1
Facilities 353
6.6.10.2
Access to Healthcare 356
6.6.10.3
Health Issues 356
6.6.11
Vulnerable Groups 358
6.6.11.1
Vulnerability 358
6.6.12
Limitations 365
6.6.12.1
Data Adequacy and Uncertainty 365
6.7
Onshore Cultural Heritage 367
6.7.1
Introduction 367
6.7.2
Information Sources and Methods 367
6.7.2.1
Overview of Baseline Studies 367
6.7.2.2
Desk Review 369
6.7.2.3
Consultation 369
6.7.2.4
Fieldwork 370

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6.7.3
Cultural Heritage Findings 370
6.7.3.1
Historic and Cultural Context of the Study Area 370
6.7.3.2
Cultural Heritage Sites and Areas of High Archaeological Potential 372
6.7.4
Summary and Conclusions of Cultural Heritage Baseline 379

LIST OF TABLES Table 6.2-1 Potential Marine Protected Areas and Designated Sites 16 Table 6.2-2 Atmospheric Pollutant background concentration for marine environments 23 Table 6.2-3 Priority Species/Groups List found in the Albanian waters of the Southern Adriatic Sea (ADRIAMED, 2008) and their Conservation Status 47 Table 6.2-4 Conservation Status and Known Distribution of Turtle Species Present in the Adriatic Sea 48 Table 6.2-5 Conservation Status of Cetacean Species in the Adriatic Sea 51 Table 6.2-6 Conservation Status of Sea Birds Occurring or Potentially in the Study Area 55 Table 6.2-7 Turbidity values 62 Table 6.3-1 Ferry Routes Crossing the Pipeline 79 Table 6.3-2 Landing by Species (kg) in the Various Ports in 2003 82 Table 6.3-3 Distribution of Vessel by Port 83 Table 6.4-1 Wind directions at Shequeras and Fier 102 Table 6.4-2 Air Sampling Results (ppm) 106 Table 6.4-3 Noise Level Guidelines 108 Table 6.4-4 Summary of Noise Measurements 109 Table 6.4-5 Noise Sources Identified 111 Table 6.4-6 Noise Monitoring Sites at CS03 113 Table 6.4-7 Noise Pressure Levels at Receptors near CS03 115 Table 6.4-8 Noise Sources Identified During Noise Measurement at CS03 115 Table 6.4-9 Noise Monitoring Sites at CS02 117 Table 6.4-10 Noise Pressure Levels at Receptors near CS02 118 Table 6.4-11 Noise Sources Identified During Noise Measurement at CS02 118 Table 6.4-12 Hydrologic Analysis Points within the Eastern Section 124 Table 6.4-13 Hydrologic Analysis Points within the Central Eastern Section 125 Table 6.4-14 Hydrologic Analysis Points within the Central Western Section 125 Table 6.4-15 Hydrologic Analysis Points within the Western Section 126 Table 6.4-16 Reference Values and Classification Criteria for Surface Water Samples 128 Table 6.4-17 Water Sampling Points in the Eastern Section 129 Table 6.4-18 Description of Analytical Results (Low Flow) 130 Table 6.4-19 Water Sampling Points in the Central Eastern and the Central Western Sections 131 Table 6.4-20 Description of Analytical Results (High Flow) 132 Table 6.4-21 Description of Analytical Results (Low Flow) 133 Table 6.4-22 Water Sampling Points in the Western Section 134 Table 6.4-23 Description of Analytical Results (High Flow) 134 Table 6.4-24 Description of Analytical Results (Low Flow) 135 Table 6.4-25 Sediment Sampling Points 137 Table 6.4-26 Reference Values and Classification Criteria for Sediment Samples 139 Table 6.4-27 Description of Analytical Results 140 Table 6.4-28 Summary of Granulometric Results 141 Table 6.4-29 Summary of Samples Collected 147 Table 6.4-30 Surveys for Agricultural Use of Land Locations 167

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Table 6.4-31 Summary of Samples Collected and Analytical Program 172 Table 6.4-32 Description of Analytical Results 174 Table 6.4-33 Landscape Sensitivity to the Proposed Change – CS02 178 Table 6.4-34 Landscape Sensitivity to the Proposed Change – Eastern Section 183 Table 6.4-35 Landscape Sensitivity to the Proposed Change – Central Eastern Section 187 Table 6.4-36 Landscape Sensitivity to the Proposed Change – Central Western Section 192 Table 6.4-37 Landscape Sensitivity to the Proposed Change – Western Section 197 Table 6.4-38 Landscape Sensitivity to the Proposed Change – CS03 201 Table 6.5-1 CORINE Land Cover Types Present within the Eastern Section 204 Table 6.5-2 European Habitats Present within the Eastern Section 205 Table 6.5-3 Endangered and Threatened Plant Species in the Eastern Section 206 Table 6.5-4 Fauna Species Present in the Eastern Section Study Area 207 Table 6.5-5 CORINE Land Cover Types Present within the Central Eastern Section 215 Table 6.5-6 European Habitats Present within Central Eastern Section 216 Table 6.5-7 Endangered and Threatened Plant Species in the Central Eastern Section 218 Table 6.5-8 Fauna Species Present in the Central Eastern Section Study Area 220 Table 6.5-9 CORINE Land Cover Types Present within the Central Western Section 230 Table 6.5-10 European Habitats Present within the Central Western Section 231 Table 6.5-11 Endangered and Threatened Plant Species in the Central Western Region 231 Table 6.5-12 Fauna Species Present in the Central Western Section Study Area 233 Table 6.5-13 CORINE Land cover Types Present within the Western Section 242 Table 6.5-14 European Habitats Present within Western Section 242 Table 6.5-15 Endangered and Threatened Plant Species in the Western Section 243 Table 6.5-16 Fauna Species Present in the Western Section Study Area 245 Table 6.5-17 CORINE Land cover Types Present within the Northern Section 251 Table 6.5-18 European Habitats Present within Northern Section 251 Table 6.5-19 Endangered and Threatened Plant Species in the Northern Section 252 Table 6.5-20 Fauna Species Present in the Northern Section Study Area 253 Table 6.5-21 Protected Areas and Areas of Conservation Interest within the 2 km Pipeline Corridor Study Area 274 Table 6.6-1 Regional and Communal Development Plans 299 Table 6.6-2 Settlements within the Study Area and Associated Population 301 Table 6.6-3 Land Use by District 333 Table 6.6-4 Summary of Traffic Flow in Surveyed Locations Between 0600 and 2200 hours 346 Table 6.6-5 Highest Level of Education Achieved in Households in the Socioeconomic Study (by District) (2 km corridor) 351 Table 6.6-6 Results of Vulnerability Analysis 362 Table 6.7-1 Brief Timeline of Albanian History and Prehistory 371 Table 6.7-2 Cultural Heritage Site Importance/Quality Criteria 372

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 6.2-1 Albanian Offshore Study Area 12 Figure 6.2-2 Albanian Environmental Survey Stations 14 Figure 6.2-3 Salinity Profile for the Mediterranean and Adriatic (Oct 2011) 17 Figure 6.2-4 Marine Water Circulation in the Adriatic Sea 18 Figure 6.2-5 Superficial Current of the Adriatic Sea and Strait of Otranto 19 Figure 6.2-6 MFS Adriatic model domain and current fields 20 Figure 6.2-7 Yearly Wind Rose 21 Figure 6.2-8 Seasonal Wind Roses 22 Figure 6.2-9 Dominant Wave Direction and Height at the Mouth of the River Bojana, Albania 24 Figure 6.2-10 Wave Rose for the Albanian Nearshore 25 Figure 6.2-11 Astronomical tide cycle for the Dürres CMAP station 27 Figure 6.2-12 Geological Setting of the area within the Mediterranean Sea (A) and Geological setting of Souther Adriatic Basin (B) 29 Figure 6.2-13 Riverine Influence on the Albanian Coastal Environment 32 Figure 6.2-14 Average Winter Nitrate Concentration at 10 m and 125 m water depth (mg/l) 33 Figure 6.2-15 Chlorophyll a Monthly Mean – March and July (mg/l) 34 Figure 6.2-16 Diagram of Zones within the Marine Environment 36 Figure 6.2-17 Hake (Merluccius merluccius) Distribution – Recruits 40 Figure 6.2-18 Hake (Merluccius merluccius) Distribution –Total 41 Figure 6.2-19 Hake (Merluccius merluccius) Distribution –Spawners 42 Figure 6.2-20 Deep water rose shrimp (Parapenaeus longirostris) Distribution – Total 43 Figure 6.2-21 Deep water rose shrimp (Parapenaeus longirostris) Distribution – Recruits 44 Figure 6.2-22 Deep water rose shrimp (Parapenaeus longirostris) Distribution – Adult Spawners45 Figure 6.2-23 Fishing area for X. gladius and T. alalunga 46 Figure 6.2-24 Distribution of the loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta in the Mediterranean Sea 49 Figure 6.2-25 Juvenile loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta Migratory Routes 50 Figure 6.2-26 Mediterranean Distribution of the Bottlenosed Dolphin Tursiops truncatus 51 Figure 6.2-27 Mediterranean Distribution of the Striped Dolphin Stenella coeruleoalba 52 Figure 6.2-28 African-Eurasian Flyways migration routes (Adriatic Flyway in red) 54 Figure 6.2-29 Surface yearly current rose 57 Figure 6.2-30 10 m depth current rose (left) and 20 m water depth current rose (right) 58 Figure 6.2-31 Surface seasonal current roses 59 Figure 6.2-32 20 m depth seasonal current roses 60 Figure 6.2-33 Mediterranean Chlorophyll-a levels 62 Figure 6.2-34 Multi Beam Echo Sounder (MBES) Data for the Survey Area 66 Figure 6.2-35 Number of Species of Key Phyla on the Proposed TAP Route 70 Figure 6.2-36 Number of individuals of Key Phyla found on the Proposed TAP Route 71 Figure 6.3-1 Offshore Socioeconomic Study Area (in red) 74 Figure 6.3-2 View of Port of Dürres Albania 75 Figure 6.3-3 Marine Traffic Monitored in 2008 (pipeline in red) 77 Figure 6.3-4 Ship Traffic Density Plot (pipeline route in red) (ships/day) 78 Figure 6.3-5 Average Marine Production by Fishing Method for the Period 1992-2003 81 Figure 6.3-6 Distribution of Vessels by Port 84 Figure 6.3-7 Local fishing communities 85 Figure 6.3-8 Bottom Otter Trawling – Single Trawl Rigging 86 Figure 6.3-9 Location of Potential Unexploded Ordinance Dumping Areas 88 Figure 6.4-1 Relevant Meteorological Stations near the Study Area 90 Figure 6.4-2 Distribution of Air Temperature (1951 - 1990) 91 Figure 6.4-3 Monthly Precipitation (1951 - 1990) 92 Figure 6.4-4 Distribution of Air Temperature (1951-1990) 93

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Figure 6.4-5 Monthly Precipitation (1951-1990) 94 Figure 6.4-6 Distribution of Air Temperature (1951-1990) 96 Figure 6.4-7 Monthly Precipitation (1951-1990) 97 Figure 6.4-8 Distribution of Air Temperature (1951-1990) 98 Figure 6.4-9 Monthly Precipitation (1951-1990) 99 Figure 6.4-10 Wind Speed in Southeast Europe (2010) 100 Figure 6.4-11 Wind Speed in Southeast Europe (2006-2009) 101 Figure 6.4-12 Wind Anomalies in m/s and in % (2010) 102 Figure 6.4-13 Wind rose for Shequeras and Fier 103 Figure 6.4-14 NOx Annual Average Background Concentration 104 Figure 6.4-15 SO2 Annual Average Background Concentration 105 Figure 6.4-16 Location of Air Sampling Points 106 Figure 6.4-17 Location of Noise Measurements 110 Figure 6.4-18 Noise Monitoring Sites at CS03 114 Figure 6.4-19 Noise Monitoring Sites at CS02 117 Figure 6.4-20 Monitored Noise Levels at Receptor CS02-1 119 Figure 6.4-21 Hydrologic Stations and Hydrologic Analysis Points 122 Figure 6.4-22 Location of Water Sampling Points 127 Figure 6.4-23 Sediment Samples Location 138 Figure 6.4-24 Hydrogeological map of Albania 144 Figure 6.4-25 Groundwater Sample Locations 148 Figure 6.4-26 Tectonic-Stratigraphic map of Albania (1:200.000) 152 Figure 6.4-27 Seismotectonic Map of Albania (1:500.000) 153 Figure 6.4-28 Geological Map of Eastern Section 154 Figure 6.4-29 Tectonic Sketch of Korca Graben 1-1’ 155 Figure 6.4-30 Depressions of the Western Zone 156 Figure 6.4-31 Geological Map of Central Eastern Section 157 Figure 6.4-32 Geological Map of Central Western Section 160 Figure 6.4-33 Geological Map of Western Section 163 Figure 6.4-34 Geomorphologic Map Western Section 164 Figure 6.4-35 Field Survey Locations 166 Figure 6.4-36 Soil Samples Location 173 Figure 6.4-37 Baseline Landscape and Visual Amenity at site for CS02 176 Figure 6.4-38 Baseline Landscape and Visual Amenity - Eastern Section 179 Figure 6.4-39 Baseline Landscape and Visual Amenity - Central Eastern Section 184 Figure 6.4-40 Baseline Landscape and Visual Amenity - Central Western Section 188 Figure 6.4-41 Baseline Landscape and Visual Amenity - Western Section 193 Figure 6.4-42 Baseline Landscape and Visual Amenity at site for CS03 200 Figure 6.5-1 Sampling points with Key Species Observed or Potentially Present 203 Figure 6.5-2 Sampling Points with Key Species Observed or Potentially Present 214 Figure 6.5-3 High Forest Habitat present within the Vithkuq – Ostrovice Area 217 Figure 6.5-4 Bear Tracks (Female and Cub) and Wolf Tracks - Central Eastern Section 226 Figure 6.5-5 Old-Growth Mixed Broadleaf (Quercus sp.) Forest in the Vicinity of Çorovoda City (Annex 6.2.1.6, PW10) 228 Figure 6.5-6 Sampling Points with Key Species Observed or Potentially Present 229 Figure 6.5-7 Canyons of the Osumi river near Corovoda City (Sampling Point B-68 from 2009 survey) / (Annex 4.1, Z-034 from 2011 survey) 239 Figure 6.5-8 Sampling Points with Key Species Observed or Potentially Present 240 Figure 6.5-9 Sea Daffodil (Pancratium maritimum) on Sandy Dunes of the Western Section 244 Figure 6.5-10 Aquatic Sampling Points with Key Species Observed or Potentially Present 257 Figure 6.5-11 Sampling Locations within the Eastern Section of the Pipeline Route 258 Figure 6.5-12 Aquatic Sampling Points with Key Species Observed or Potentially Present 261

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Figure 6.5-13 Sampling Points within the Central Eastern Section of the Pipeline Route 263 Figure 6.5-14 Aquatic Sampling Points with Key Species Observed or Potentially Present 265 Figure 6.5-15 Sampling Locations within the Central Western Section of the Pipeline Route 267 Figure 6.5-16 Aquatic Sampling Points with Key Species Observedor Potentially Present 269 Figure 6.5-17 Sampling Locations within the Western Section of the Pipeline Route 270 Figure 6.5-18 Designated Nature Monuments near the Study Area and those that no longer Exist276 Figure 6.5-19 Nature Monument of the Crown Forest of the Semani River (Kurora e lumit të vjetër, Semani) 286 Figure 6.6-1 Administrative Units in Albania 294 Figure 6.6-2 Study Area Communes and Municipalities 295 Figure 6.6-3 Population Distribution in Communes within the Study Area 302 Figure 6.6-4 Age Distribution by Sex in Albania (2009) 305 Figure 6.6-5 Religion in the Pipeline Surveyed Settlements (%)* 308 Figure 6.6-6 Employment by Economic Activity in Albania 310 Figure 6.6-7 Economic Activities in Settlements Surveyed (by District) 311 Figure 6.6-8 Economic Activities in Surveyed Settlements within the Study Area 312 Figure 6.6-9 Household Income Sources (% contribution of each source) by District 313 Figure 6.6-10 Total Household Income in the Pipeline Surveyed Settlements* (`000 Lek)** 314 Figure 6.6-11 Occupations of Household Heads in the Pipeline Surveyed Settlements* 315 Figure 6.6-12 Agricultural Activities Undertaken by Households in the Pipeline Surveyed Settlements (by District)* 317 Figure 6.6-13 Animal Husbandry in Skrapar 318 Figure 6.6-14 Apple Production in Devolli 319 Figure 6.6-15 Satellite Images of Olive Trees Plantation in Otllak, Berat District (pipeline in yellow) 321 Figure 6.6-16 Satellite Images of the Development Area in Fier (in Blue) 323 Figure 6.6-17 Residential and Commercial Developent Sorrounding Main Pipe Yard south of Durres (Kavaje District) 324 Figure 6.6-18 Touristic and Residential Area in Durres town 326 Figure 6.6-19 Surveyed Households Land Ownership Prior to 1945 331 Figure 6.6-20 Access Road Type in Surveyed Settlements within the Study Area 335 Figure 6.6-21 Main Form of Transport in the Pipeline Route Settlements by District 336 Figure 6.6-22 Water Sources in the Pipeline Surveyed Settlements by District 337 Figure 6.6-23 Water Sources and Irrigation in the Surveyed Settlements within the Study Area339 Figure 6.6-24 Waste Collection in Korca 341 Figure 6.6-25 Waste Disposal in the Pipeline Surveyed Settlements by District 342 Figure 6.6-26 Household Energy Sources for Heating, Cooking and Lighting within the Pipeline Surveyed Settlements (by District) 343 Figure 6.6-27 Traffic Survey Locations 346 Figure 6.6-28 Traffic Survey Results – Traffic Composition for Daullasi 347 Figure 6.6-29 Traffic Survey Results – Traffic Composition for Ura Vajgurore 348 Figure 6.6-30 Traffic Survey Results – Traffic Composition for Vithkuq 348 Figure 6.6-31 Education Facilities in Surveyed Settlements within Study Area 350 Figure 6.6-32 Medical Facilities in the Surveyed Settlements within the Study Area 354 Figure 6.6-33 Provision of Health Professional in Pipeline Surveyed Settlements (by District) 355 Figure 6.6-34 Ailments Suffered in the Last 3 Months in Household in the Pipeline Surveyed Settlements (by District) 358 Figure 6.7-1 The Cultural Heritage Study Area Divided into 5 Sections 368

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LIST OF BOXES Box 6.6-1 Study Area Changes and Source Data for the Socioeconomic Baseline 291 Box 6.6-2 Study Area Changes and Source Data for the Socioeconomic Baseline 291 Box 6.6-3 Political Parties in Albania 294 Box 6.6-4 Functions of the Communes and Municipalities 296 Box 6.6-5 National Strategy for Development and Integration 297 Box 6.6-6 Territorial Planning Law 298 Box 6.6-7 Population Centres 303 Box 6.6-8 Minority Groups in the Socioeconomic Study Area 307 Box 6.6-9 Fruit Production in Korca and Devolli 319 Box 6.6-10 Olive Production in Berat 320 Box 6.6-11 Vegetable Production in Berat and Fier 321 Box 6.6-12 Bee Keeping 322 Box 6.6-13 Land Tenure Issues 329 Box 6.6-14 The Association of Private Forestry and Pastures (Korca & Devolli) 332 Box 6.6-15 Migration and Education in Albania 349 Box 6.6-16 Vulnerable Groups 359

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6 ENVIRONMENTAL, SOCIOECONOMIC AND CULTURAL HERITAGE BASELINE

6.1 Introduction

This section summarises the information currently available on the existing natural, socioeconomic and cultural heritage environment, which may potentially be affected by the TAP Project in Albania, both by offshore and onshore activities.

The methodology used to obtain the baseline data described in this section is described in Section 5 and the associated criteria is provided in Annex 5.1.

6.2 Offshore Biological and Physical Environment

6.2.1 Introduction

The following Section presents the detailed baseline for the marine environment within which the Offshore Albanian portion of the Trans-Adriatic Pipeline will be positioned. Of key significance for the marine element of the project are the nearshore Albanian environment, the nearshore Italian environment and the offshore environment lying between these areas. This section addresses the Albanian offshore and nearshore environments ( Figure 6.2-1 ). It should be noted that the divisions are essentially artificial and in place to enable the reader to gain an understanding of progressive units from the nearshore to the offshore, and that in reality the Adriatic is a complex ecosystem with a variety of intrinsically linked physical and biological interactions.

The marine biological and physical environmental baseline section is therefore laid out in the following way:

• Geographical scope of the baseline;

• An overview of the methodologies used and sources of information;

• An overview of relevant legislation for the marine baseline;

• A high level regional overview of the physical and biological key areas;

• Analysis of the Albanian coastal and nearshore environment;

• Analysis of the Albanian offshore environment, and

• A summary of the key habitats and species of importance from each of the sections will then be provided.

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Figure 6.2-1 Albanian Offshore Study Area

NEARSHORE AREA DETAILED IN MAP BELOW

Nearshore

Source: Institute of Hydrometeorology of Albania (IHMA) (2011)

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6.2.2 Geographical Scope of the Baseline

The Pipeline crosses the Albanian-Italian water boundary at approximately 750 m water depth, and approximately 60 km from the Albanian coastline. At about 100 m water depth, travelling from West to East, it enters the Albanian territorial waters 19 km boundary. The Albanian nearshore section is approximately 7 km long, at approximately 30 m water depth, stretching along a very gentle and regular slope (< 3%) up to reach a beach located in an area West of Fier.

6.2.3 Methodology and Sources of Information

The overall aim of the TAP Marine Biological and Physical Baseline section is to provide a characterisation of the offshore study area and identify key sensitivities which need to be assessed within the environmental and socioeconomic impact assessment.

The following provides an overview of the steps that were taken in developing the baseline to fulfil these aims. There were four main steps to this process, each of which is expanded upon in the sections below:

1. Initial review of existing desk top and historical survey data;

2. Gap analysis – to determine if sufficient data exists to fulfil the requirement for baseline characterisation for the TAP Project;

3. A survey to fill the gaps in data that were identified within the nearshore; and

4. Analysis of the desktop and environmental survey dataset to provide biological and physical characterisation of the area

6.2.3.1 Video Methodology

A video survey of the nearshore seabed was undertaken to identify potential sensitive habitats in the area or anomalies found during magnetometry survey that would require further analysis. In a number of nearshore environmental stations a drop down video ROV system was deployed from the MV Minerva vessel.

6.2.3.2 Environmental Survey Methodology

This survey took place during the first week of October 2011. Five sampling stations were positioned along 7 transects perpendicular to the proposed centreline (i.e. the proposed location of the pipeline within the pipeline corridor) at approximately 500 m intervals (typically 1 station 250 m upstream of the prevailing coastal current, 1 station on the centreline and 3 stations downstream of the prevailing current at 250, 500 and 1,000 m from centreline) resulting in a total of 38 sample stations. In addition a Reference station (REF) was positioned outside of the area of influence to the South in order to assess natural variation and background conditions and two additional stations were added further nearshore to characterise an area of coast that had undergone recent erosion according to charts used during pre-survey analysis. The station’s locations are shown in Figure 6.2-2 .

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Figure 6.2-2 Albanian Environmental Survey Stations

Source: D’Appollonia (2012)

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Each Station was sampled in triplicate for the benthic infaunal analysis, with an additional grab taken for sediment sampling and water samples were conducted. A geophysical survey by means of magnetometer and single beam was carried out along the environmental transects before sampling to verify water depth and clearance of each sampling station. The Environmental Survey scope of work included:

• Sediment sampling for analysis of physico-chemical parameters;

• Sediment sampling for macrobenthos analysis;

• Seawater sampling for analyses of physico-chemical parameters;

• Seawater profiling; and

• Chlorophyll-a sampling.

The environmental sampling activities were carried out as follows:

• Sediment sampling using a Van Veen type grab; and

• Water sampling using Niskin bottles.

The sampling activities performed on each station were divided into two phases. During the first phase all sediment and benthic macrofauna samples were collected, while in the second phase all water sampling was performed (water sampling and CTD profiles).

A deep water offshore survey will be conducted (late 2012 or early 2013) for the project with precise specifications to be defined. The survey will be required to assess the presence of sensitive habitats and species such as deep water corals found reported for some areas of the Adriatic Sea. The survey will be designed to assess the quality of the sediments and location of potential constraints that may impact the integrity of the pipeline such as unexploded ordinance or geological features, i.e. rock outcrops.

6.2.4 Legislation

This section discusses the key aspects of legislation that has relevance for the biological and physical baseline.

6.2.4.1 Designated Sites

No international or national marine protected sites currently exist in Albanian waters. However, due to the high ecological importance of the coast between the Karaburuni peninsula (Kepi i Gjuhezes or Punta Linguetta) to Kepi i Stillos (border with Greece), 6 areas have been proposed as potential Marine Protected Areas in the Albanian National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (1999). These are listed in Table 6.2-1 below and are more than 30 km away from the landfall area. There is recently a marine park established in Karaburuni-Sazani area (2010).

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Table 6.2-1 Potential Marine Protected Areas and Designated Sites

Areas Current Protection Status IUCN Category Karaburuni Peninsula Managed Nature Reserve/Marine Park IV/I Canyon of Gjipe; Natural monument III Porto Palermo Currently not protected NA Kakomea Bay – Qefali Cape Currently not protected NA Ksamili – Kanali i Çukes Currently not protected NA Pagane – Kepi i Stillos Protected Landscape/Seascape V Source: Institute of Hydrometeorology of Albania (IHMA)

6.2.4.2 Sensitive and Protected Habitats / Biocenoses

The offshore area of influence is not considered to contain sensitive or protected habitats given the absence of proposed marine protected sites within a radius of 30 km from the Landfall proposed location.

6.2.5 Regional Overview

6.2.5.1 Introduction

The following sections present the findings of the desktop study conducted to determine the baseline characteristics of the marine environment of the wider offshore study area, mainly the South Adriatic to North Ionian Seas, in what is relevant for the TAP Project. The aim of the section is to provide an understanding of the general marine habitat of the area of the Project, given that the sea is a complex ecosystem with a variety of intrinsically linked physical and biological interactions.

The desktop study has been conducted through the review of published and unpublished literature available in the public domain, which is detailed in the references section.

6.2.5.2 Physical Environment

The study area is located in coastal Albanian waters, approximately 150 km north of the transition between the Ionian Sea and the Adriatic Sea. The following sections provide an overview of the physical environmental parameters of relevance to the project at a wider regional scale.

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6.2.5.2.1 Seawater Temperature

Surface water temperatures in the south-eastern Adriatic goes from 16º C in winter to 25º C in summer, varying with distance from the coast. There is a distinct thermocline in summer (i.e a clear separation of upper mixed layer from the calm deep water below), with deep water reaching the minimum temperature of 13º as in all the Mediterranean. Geographically, the most distinct thermal features are the cold Western Adriatic Current on the opposite Italian coast, and the Ionian Sea inflow into the South Adriatic Gyre (shown as SAd Gyre in Figure 6.2-4 ). On the Albanian side the Ionian Sea water provides a warm seawater intrusion in the autumn-winter period and a cold layer in summer (Bohm et al., 2003).

6.2.5.2.2 Salinity

Salinity data has been extracted from the MyOcean database. Figure 6.2-3 shows salinity trends for the surface waters of the Mediterranean and Adriatic seas.

Monthly salinity averages range from 38,4 PSU (October) to 38,8 PSU (Feb to May), with no stratification of salinity between 20 m water depth and the surface.

Figure 6.2-3 Salinity Profile for the Mediterranean and Adriatic (Oct 2011)

Source: MyOcean data accessed via http://poseidon.ogs.trieste.it/cgi-bin/opaopech/myocean?20111019TRS [28/02/2012]

6.2.5.2.3 Oceanography

As shown in Figure 6.2-4 , in general, the Adriatic Sea presents a cyclonic circulation of the water mass which is subdivided into three re-circulation cells which also present a cyclonic circulation located in the northern, central and southern basins ( Poulain, 2001 ).

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Figure 6.2-4 Marine Water Circulation in the Adriatic Sea

Legend E_SAd South Adriatic current WAC Western Adriatic Current (divided in) NAd Northern Adriatic W_MAd Western-Middle Adriatic W_SAd Western-South Adriatic MAd Gyre Middle Adriatic Gyre SAd Gyre South Adriatic gyre

Source: Adriamed TD gcp/rer/010/rita

The Adriatic circulation is dominated by two main currents, one which flows northwards along the Albanian and Croatian coast (Eastern – South Adriatic Current (E-SAd), and the other that flows southwards along the Italian coast. The western current (also referred to as the Western Adriatic Current (WAC) is subdivided into three currents (the Northern Adriatic Current, Western Middle Adriatic Current, and Western South Adriatic Current). The gyres and the coastal currents are

Page 19 of 382 Area Comp. System Disc. Doc.- Ser. Code Code Code Code Type No. Project Title: Trans Adriatic Pipeline – TAP AAL00-ERM-641-Y-TAE-1008 ESIA Albania Section 6 - Environmental, Document Title: Rev.: 03 Socioeconomic and Cultural Heritage Baseline stronger in the summer and fall, whilst the WAC is weaker in the winter and spring (Poulain, 2001) (see Figure 6.2-5 ).

Figure 6.2-5 Superficial Current of the Adriatic Sea and Strait of Otranto

Winter

Landfall

Spring

Landfall

Summer

Landfall

Fall

Landfall

Source: CoNISMa (2008)

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6.2.5.2.4 Sea Current Modelling

An analysis of the the available data of wind, waves, tide, currents from the general circulation of the Adriatic Sea (the so called “ baroclinic currents”), together with an analysis of temperature and salinity, has been carried out by processing data coming from the Mediterranean Forecasting System (MFS) database, which is available within the framework of MyOcean EU Project.

MFS is a 3D global circulation model that provides daily analyses and 10 day forecasts of currents and temperature and salinity fields for the entire Mediterranean at approximately 6.5 km resolution.

Figure 6.2-6 illustrates the current fields of the MFS Adriatic Sea circulation model through an example of surface temperature distribution over region.

Figure 6.2-6 MFS Adriatic model domain and current fields

Landfall

Source: Image extracted from the GNOO (Gruppo Nazionale di Oceanografia Operativa) website, http://gnoo.bo.ingv.it/mfs/web_ita/contents.htm

The water exchange between the Adriatic Sea and the Ionian Sea has shown a certain degree of seasonality. In the eastern region, the inflow of water from the Ionian Sea prevails. During the

Page 21 of 382 Area Comp. System Disc. Doc.- Ser. Code Code Code Code Type No. Project Title: Trans Adriatic Pipeline – TAP AAL00-ERM-641-Y-TAE-1008 ESIA Albania Section 6 - Environmental, Document Title: Rev.: 03 Socioeconomic and Cultural Heritage Baseline summer and spring, this inflow is dominated by eddies and the exchange mechanism is weakened. During the autumn, the outflow of Adriatic Deep Water is high and it is associated to the contribution of dense waters formed in the northern basin of the Adriatic Sea (North Adriatic Dense Water) which reach the southern Adriatic depression 6 months after their formation (Gacic et al., 1996).

6.2.5.2.5 Wind Regime

Limited information is available for the local wind regime for the study area. The available data is derived from the “Wind and Wave Mediterranean Atlas” that is the result of the Medatlas project led between 1999 and 2004 by a consortium of six companies located in France, Italy and Greece.

This electronic atlas provides data in terms of univariate and bivariate statistics, yearly and seasonal, of wind and wave (speed/height and direction). In particular the reference station used in the present study is located at point of geographical coordinates LON 19° LAT 4130 Km North West (NW) of the focused area.

The available wind data are illustrated in the form of yearly and seasonal wind roses ( Figure 6.2-7 and Figure 6.2-8) .

Figure 6.2-7 Yearly Wind Rose

Source: derived from Wind and Wave Mediterranean Atlas

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Figure 6.2-8 Seasonal Wind Roses

Source: derived from Wind and Wave Mediterranean Atlas

The analysis of the wind data, in terms of speed and directions, shows that the most frequent winds come from South East (SE) while the strongest (maximum wind speed higher than 16 m/s) come from the sector around South (165° N to 195° N).

Also the NW sector is important in terms of frequency of occurrence; the importance of these directions is mainly observable during the summer season, when this sector becomes prevalent.

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6.2.5.2.6 Air Quality

Data stations to assess the air quality for the offshore study area are not available; however, considering the nature of atmospheric emissions offshore, general conclusions about the offshore air quality conditions can be drawn.

The offshore study area is characterized by the absence of continuous emission sources and the only emissions will be produced by ships and vessels in transit. Therefore, the atmospheric pollutants´ values for the marine environment can be reliably assumed to be only the existing atmospheric pollutant background concentration. Those concentration values are presented in the following Table 6.2-2 for the main primary macro pollutants: NO 2, SO 2, CO, PM10 (Nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide and particulate matter < 10µm). Table 6.2-2 Atmospheric Pollutant background concentration for marine environments

Pollutant s Background atmospheric concentration for marine environment s (1) NO 2 0,4 -9,4 µg/m³ (2) SO 2 << 1 µg/m³ CO < 114,5 µg/m³ (3) PM10 1 µg/m³ (4) (1) Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Indicazioni per gli studi di impatto ambientale relativamente alla componente salute pubblica, ISTISAN 94/19 Pt. 2. (2) Seinfeld, J.H., Pandis , S. N. , 2006. Atmospheric chemistry and physics: From air pollution to climate change. John Wiley and Sons Inc.: New York. (3) Floccia M., Gisotti G., Sanna M., 2003. “Dizionario dell'Inquinamento. cause, effetti, rimedi, normativa”. Carocci Editore. (4) Floccia M., Gisotti G. & M. Sanna, 1985. Dizionario dell’inquinamento: cause,effetti, rimedi e normativa. Ediz. NIS: 206-210

6.2.5.2.7 Wave Regime

The available data set on Wave Regime on the eastern side of the Adriatic Sea, close to the proposed landfall location, is located at the mouth of the Bojana River, which flows along the boarder between Albania and Montenegro, more than 100 km north. Data shows that the waves are predominantly from the South West (SW), with a maximum height of 2 m ( Figure 6.2-9).

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Figure 6.2-9 Dominant Wave Direction and Height at the Mouth of the River Bojana, Albania

Hs > 4.0 m

Hs =3.0÷4.0 m

H s =2.0÷3.0 m

H s = 1.0÷2.0 m

Hs = 0.25÷1.0 m

Calme=63.8%

Source: CoNISMa (2008)

The above wave rose shows a good correspondence in its main components from South-South West (SSW) with the additional data is available from the “Wind and Wave Mediterranean Atlas” (as presented in Section 6.2.5.2.5 ). The wave-roses are confirming the cyclonic circulation as presented in Figure 6.2-4 .

Given of the proximity of the Mediterranean Atlas point with the site of interest (approximately 30 km), the data provided by the atlas have been directly used in this study without any transposition.

These data are illustrated in the form of a wave rose in Figure 6.2-10 .

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Figure 6.2-10 Wave Rose for the Albanian Nearshore

Source: derived from Wind and Wave Mediterranean Atlas

The analysis of wave data, in terms of significant wave height and directions, shows that the highest waves come from SSW (maximum wave heights ranging from 4.0 and 5.0 m). Together with the SSW sector, the NW sector is characterized by a high frequency of incoming waves. The seasonal trend follows, in general, the same yearly behaviour apart from the summer season. In particular during the Winter/Autumn months the SSW sector is particularly relevant, characterized by high and frequent waves. During summer months both the highest and most frequent waves come from NW.

6.2.5.2.8 Tides

Local stations to provide detailed tidal analysis are not available. The tidal station used as reference for the present study for the Albanian Coast is Dürres, about 60 Km North of the landfall area.

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Figure 6.2-11 illustrates the astronomical tide cycle, in relation to a period which can be considered representative of the local average tidal conditions. As shown in the figure, the tide is semidiurnal (two highs and two lows each day). During Spring tide conditions the tide amplitude is in the order of 0.38 m, while during Neap Tide conditions the tide amplitude does not exceed 0.18 m.

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Figure 6.2-11 Astronomical tide cycle for the Dürres CMAP station

Source: The time series is extracted from the database available in the tool MIKE C-MAP, part of DHI software package, station: Dürres, period: 01/12/2010-31/12/2010

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6.2.5.2.9 Geology and Seabed Morphology

The floor of the Adriatic Sea is a 30–35 km thick continental crust whose upper portion is mostly made of a thick succession of Permian-Paleogene platforms and basinal carbonates. The Adriatic Sea is bordered on the West and East by the basins of the Apennines and Dinarides- Albanides (which were created through flexing of the Earth’s crust) where several kilometres of synorogenic sediments (which were sediments created through folding of the Earth’s crust) were deposited during the Oligocene-Quaternary. The Mesozoic Adriatic domain has been considered a continental promontory of the African plate (Channel et al., 1979; Muttoni et al., 2001 ). This domain, also known as Adria, includes not only what is now the Adriatic Sea, but also portions of the Southern Alps, Istria, Gargano and Puglia. The Adriatic Sea comprises a narrow, elongated, epicontinental shelf space surrounding the 250 m water depth, Meso-Adriatic Deep. Current sediment input derives mainly from the Italian mainland. Rivers draining the Po Plain to the northwest supply the majority of this material, with drainage from the Apennine chain supplying most of the remainder (Trincardi et al., 1996; Cattaneo et al., 2003; Syvitski and Kettner , 2007 ).

Figure 6.2-12 shows the Apulian platform as the foreland system of both the Apennines and the Hellenic–Albanides–Dinarides fold-and-thrust belts.

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Figure 6.2-12 Geological Setting of the area within the Mediterranean Sea (A) and Geological setting of Souther Adriatic Basin (B)

Landfall

Source Savini et al. (2011)

In terms of seabed morphology, from West to East the bathyal plain is located approximately in the median line between Italian and Albanian waters. The Albanian continental slope is deeply incised by canyons and channels. This sector of the Albanian margin appears relatively active, likely because it lies very close to an active subduction zone yielding intense seismicity that may trigger both landslides and turbidity currents. From this view, the entire slope sector should be considered active in terms of sedimentation processes. The Adriatic coastline with its sandy shores covers the area between Vlore and Shengjin with 10 m isobaths extending, in most areas, more than 4.5 km from the shore.

Further ashore, eastwards, deposits on the inner shelf, between approximately 70 m and 30 m water depth, consist of a relatively thick (up to 20 m) mud unit, interpreted as the late Holocene progradational wedge. The Albanian margin shows a gently sloping outer shelf, with a gradual transition between the shelf edge and the upper slope.

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Finally, the nearshore seabed morphology, linking with the Adriatic coastline with its sandy shores, covers the area between Vlore and Shengjin with 10 m isobaths extending, in most areas, more than 4.5 km from the shore. This is due to the coastal recession taking place in that section of coast in historical times.

6.2.5.2.10 Sediment Characteristics

The mineralogical composition of the Adriatic clay sediments consists, typically, of illite and smectite as the main components (70-80% of the total), with minor amounts of chlorite and kaolinite, and occasional low percentages of serpentine. Investigations carried out on different areas of the basin have shown that the composition of the clay sediments changes in relation to their source and dispersal (Tomadin , 1981). In the marine environment, clay suspensions are transported by gradient currents (Jerlov , 1958 ; Buljan and Zore-Armanda , 1976 ; Franco and Bregant , 1983 ; Artegiani et al., 1989) and the fine-grained size of clay minerals favours their dispersion in the Adriatic (Nelson , 1972; Brambati et al., 1973 ; Tomadin, 1975 ; Curzi and Tomadin, 1987). Its transportation consists of a series of impulses variable with time and seasons (Buljan and Zore-Armanda, 1976; Franco et al., 1982).

In the Adriatic, sediment dispersal is driven primarily by cyclonic circulation that forces sediment to accumulate parallel to the Italian coast (Correggiari et al., 2001 ; Cattaneo et al., 2003; 2007). Evidence of this dispersion is recognisable in the elongated patterns of the grain-size distribution of the sediments (Brambati et al., 1983 ). In the northern and central Adriatic, a mud belt 30-40 kilometres wide extends south eastward along the Italian coasts. South of the Middle- Adriatic Depression, on the contrary, mud spreads extensively over the entire southern Adriatic.

Limited information is available on the characteristics of sediments in the offshore study area. Most of the data available for Albanian offshore sediments has been collected during two marine surveys conducted by an Italian research institute, the CoNISMa (Consorzio Nazionale Interuniversitario per le Scienze del Mare) in 2000 and 2001 within the framework of an Interreg II Project Italy – Albania (CoNISMa, 2002). The depth at the survey stations ranged from 12 m to 1.166 m water depth. The granulometric analyses of the sediments identified 3 main sediment types, highly sandy pelitic sediments and sandy pelitic sediments. These two sediment types are typically found up to 200 m water depth. The deeper waters are dominated by pelitic sediments with a sand content of < 5%. Specific geophysical surveys undertaken in preliminary feasibility phases of the TAP Project in 2009 show that the material at the slope is close to normally consolidated clays with high carbonate content. Additional site specific surveys have been conducted to assess the sediment quality.

Further ashore the influence of the river discharges and sediment transport coming from the Adriatic coast of Albania is evident in the area, with the presence of a high presence of muddy seabeds and terrigenous sediments.

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This marine environment along the Adriatic Coast is affected by the considerable pollution of the last 30 years, both by discharge into the sea of polluted river water and by direct discharge of untreated urban and industrial wastewater, with the associated contamination of sediments as pollutants settle out of the water column. Detailed modelling is not available to assess the exact distribution of terrestrial originated pollutants on a regional basis. Specific sediment analyses are presented in Section 6.2.6.1.4 , highlighting that the area broadly consists of soft sand and pelite sediments.

6.2.5.2.11 Water Quality

Marine water quality datasets in Albania are not readily available. Previous analysis by UNEP highlights that the rivers in the region of Fier, in particular Semani River, and others to the north and south pollute the coastal environment with a combination of urban and industrial runoff. This can be seen in Figure 6.2-13.

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Figure 6.2-13 Riverine Influence on the Albanian Coastal Environment

Landfall

Source: See note in figure

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6.2.5.3 Biological Baseline

6.2.5.3.1 Nutrients and Plankton

The plankton communities in the wider offshore study area play a fundamental ecological role. Distribution of plankton is obviously influenced by the concentration of nutrients. Figure 6.2-14 shows the concentration of nitrates in the Mediterranean basin at 10 and 125 m water depths during the winter period (winter period is characterized by an increase in primary production, and consequently an increase in planktonic biomass, due to the presence of nutrient upwelling).

Figure 6.2-14 Average Winter Nitrate Concentration at 10 m and 125 m water depth (mg/l)

Source Siokou-Frangou et al. (2010)

At 125 m there is a significant change in nitrate concentration at about 36 N, where it begins a south-oriented decreasing gradient of nutrient availability. This implies that the study area, which is located north of this transition area, has a consistent supply of nutrients, which is reflected in a concentration of phytoplankton higher than that of the southeastern areas (see Figure 6.2-15).

Bohm et al., (2003 ) found that to the south, the South Adriatic Gyre and the two coastal currents on its flanks are easily recognised in monthly satellite maps monitoring chlorophyll-a. The most remarkable feature is the spring bloom in the gyre centre. In 1999, the bloom becomes evident in March – April and extends over most of the southern Adriatic. In 2000, the bloom is much weaker and is visible only along the southern boundary of the gyre in April. Blooming of plankton could impact the rest of the food chain.

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Figure 6.2-15 Chlorophyll a Monthly Mean – March and July (mg/l)

Landfall

Landfall

Source: SeaDataNet Climatologies

In general, considering the west-east oligotrophy gradient, the wider offshore study area falls in the oligotrophic region ( Siokou-Frangou et al. 2010 ).

The existing data on phyto and zoo plankton are limited. Most of the information is provided from the data collected in October 2000 and May 2001, within the framework of the Interreg II project (CoNISMa, 2002). The study focussed on specific planktonic groups, namely copepods, ostracods and coccolithophorids.

In the samples collected in October 2000, copepods were the predominant group, followed in number of individuals by Chaetognatha, Ostracoda, Appendicularia , eggs of invertebrates, Doliolida, Cladocera and other taxa. The 2001 study recorded an increase in copepod numbers.

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In terms of number of individuals, copepods were followed by the Salps, Ostracoda, Chaetognatha, Echinoderm larvae, Cladocera , eggs of invertebrates, Appendicularia and other taxa.

Although the surveys recorded a high abundance of ostracods, only 12 taxa were identified, including 8 species and 4 subspecies.

Coccolithophorids include single-celled algae, protists and phytoplankton belonging to the phylum Haptophyta. The surveys recorded differences in the absolute abundance of coccolithophorids between the upper photic zone and the lower photic zone. The decrease in the number of coccospheres per liter vertically in the water column, starting from 100 m water depth, was mainly related to the physiological characteristics of this group, most species of which typically develop their life cycles between 0 – 60 m water depth. A number of species, however, develop their life cycles in 100 – 200 m water depth, with the most abundant species being Florisphaera profunda . The cosmopolitan species Emiliania huxleyi was found to be highly predominant. Significant abundance was also recorded for species of the Syrachosphaera genera (especially S. pulchra ) and Rhabdosphaera .

6.2.5.3.2 Benthic Communities

The regional benthic environments of Albania are poorly understood, however the Southern Albanian coast has some infralittoral habitats that are of conservation interest.

The infralittoral stage is a benthic environment that is perpetually submerged and forms the interphase between littoral and sublittoral environments ( Figure 6.2-16) . The upper limit is normally characterised by the presence of the plants that cannot tolerate prolonged emersion, (e.g. Cystoseira ), while the lower limit is normally fixed as the maximum depth where it is possible for the marine vascular plants or ‘phanerogame’ (e.g. Posidonia oceanica ) to survive. In the Mediterranean Sea this limit corresponds to about 35-40 m. The infralittoral stage can be subdivided in the upper infralittoral and the lower infralittoral.

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Figure 6.2-16 Diagram of Zones within the Marine Environment

Source: See note in figure

The marine flora of Albania consists of approximately 180 species of macroalgae and 4 species of seagrasses. The enrichment of natural waters by nutrients, primarily nitrogen in marine waters and also phosphorus, has been associated with an increase in water turbidity reducing the amount of light exposure on the sea bed and this caused reduction in the macroalgae beds present in Albanian waters.

The scarcity of the Posidonia oceanica meadows along Albanian Adriatic coast seems to be linked to the effect of freshwater flows and high values of suspended materials coming down from the rivers. In what would be considered meadows they are found only along the littoral of Rodoni Cape, Porto Romano (Dürres) and Vlora bay. It has been confirmed by the field survey run at proposed Landfall location (October 2011) that no evidence of Posidonia or other seagrasses are present in the landfall area.

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Areas considered of high ecological interest due to the presence of Posidonia oceanica meadows and rare and/or endangered benthic species are present in the southern portion of Albanian coast (South of Vlore). This area is also characterised by rocky shores and cliffs and is very different to the habitats found in the study area which is characterised by soft sediments and sands.

Other communities of seagrasses are those of Cymodocea nodosa, Zostera noltii and Halophila stipulacea ( Kashta et al., 2005; 2007 ).

In the nearshore environment at depths of 6 – 14 m the most common and abundant species found in previous studies are gastropods scaphopods decapod crustaceans ; stomatopods and echinoderms .

The main biocenoses belonging to the Albanian infralittoral stage is thus the biocenosis of the terrigenous coastal mud (VTC), which extends seaward to waters below 40 - 45 m water depth. This biocenosis shows strong homogeneity of composition throughout the Mediterranean.

For deeper benthic data, based on box core samples collected along bathymetric transects spanning the length of the Mediterranean, De Rijk and coworkers (in Danovaro et al., 2010) reported a broad peak in species richness between 200 m and 1,000 m water depth, below which richness decreased to 4,000 m water depth, the maximum depth sampled. When bathymetric distributions of individual species are considered, the upper and lower depth limits are usually found to be shallower in the more oligotrophic eastern basins than in the more eutrophic western basins. Despite the differences in size fractions analyzed, when taken together, this data reveals a clear trend of decreasing species richness with depth, particularly in the South Adriatic Sea.

Specific desk top information on the benthic environment of the deeper portions of the South Adriatic comes from two marine surveys conducted by the Italian research institue, the CoNISMa in 2000 and 2001 within the framework of an Interreg II Project Italy – Albania ( CoNISMa, 200 2).

The survey stations ranged from 12 m to 1166 m water depth. In the bathyal zone (200 – 1000 m water depth) species diversity and abundance drops significantly when compared to those of the circalittoral area (40 – 200 m water depth). The upper bathyal area (200 m – 500 m water depth) shows some similarities with the lower circalittoral, with the presence of bivalve associations and pteropod muds. Most of the tanatocenosis (associations of fossils present in the sediments) are related to the biocenosis of offshore detritus (Detrito del Largo – DL) ( Pérès & Picard, 1964 ). In the lower bathyal (500 m – 1000 m water depth), starting from 500 m water depth, yellow muds appear, consisting of Globigerina and Dentalium (tusk shell molluscs). In deeper waters (700 m – 1200 m water depth) the tanatocenosis of pteropods, bivalve Abra longicallus, scaphopod Dentalium agile and the pennatulacean Funiculina quadrangularis are the most common. Foraminiferan associations are very poor in benthic forms and characterised by a predominance of shells of planktonic species.

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Molluscs in Albanian waters (including deep water assemblages) appear to be poorly diversified compared to the associations recorded off the coast of Puglia (Italy). The low species richness is thought to be attributable to the significant input of terrigenous sediments discharged by the numerous rivers of the Albanian coast. The relatively high volume of fine terrigenous sediments has affected the normal development of the benthic biocenosis, providing an advantage to pelofile species ( Panetta et al. 2003 ).

In the wider offshore study area at depths of up to 170 m depth previous studies have found the tanatocenosis of bivalve molluscs, predominated by the deep sea oyster Neopycnodonte cochlear . The presence of this bivalve tanatocenosis may be an indicator of the former presence of a rich benthic community in diversity and abundance in shallower waters, which, later on, has been covered by sediments that were discharged from the rivers. Besides the species mentioned above, other common species of macrozoobenthos found were the cnidarians Pteroides spinosum; the polychaetes Aponuphis bilineata, Glycera sp., Lumbrineris latreilli, Marphysa bellii, Melina palmata and Notomastus latericius ; decapod crustaceans Goneplax rhomboides, Alphaeus glaber, Callianassa subterranea and Upogebia deltaura.

Deep Coral

The white coral biocoenosis in the area of the Ionian Sea/Adriatic Sea interphase consists of living corals mainly represented by the framework builders Lophelia pertusa and Madrepora oculata. The solitary corals Desmophyllum cristagalli and Stenocyathus vermiformis were also obtained alive. The polychaete Eunice norvegica is another characteristic species of the biocenosis. The coral community is markedly affected by the cold and dense water masses of the Adriatic flowing into the Northern Ionian Sea ( Lacombe and Tchernia, 1972 ).

Offshore deepwater coral sites have only been found in recent years in the Western Adriatic, in the Italian continental slope. Only subfossil and fossil white coral communities have been found in the eastern Adriatic, off Croatia (Zupanovic, 1969; Bombace and Froglia, 1972; Trincardi et al., 2007 ). There are currently no known white coral reefs in the Albanian offshore environment however this may reflect a general paucity of data.

6.2.5.3.3 Fish and Crustaceans

Rare and Endangered Species

An analysis of the IUCN Red List shows that the Adriatic is home to one Endangered species, the Adriatic Salmon, and one Critically Endangered species, the Adriatic sturgeon.

The Adriatic Salmon ( Salmo obtusirostris) occurs at very limited locations in the Adriatic, with a known distribution in Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro. In all of these locations, it is being threatened by overfishing (sportfishing and for food) and hybridisation with introduced trout.

The Adriatic Sturgeon ( Acipenser naccarii ) in Albania is considered to be extinct as a wild population as the species almost totally depends upon stocking, and there is no evidence of

Page 39 of 382 Area Comp. System Disc. Doc.- Ser. Code Code Code Code Type No. Project Title: Trans Adriatic Pipeline – TAP AAL00-ERM-641-Y-TAE-1008 ESIA Albania Section 6 - Environmental, Document Title: Rev.: 03 Socioeconomic and Cultural Heritage Baseline spawning from stocked or wild individuals. (The last known natural spawning probably occurred in the early 1980s.) The few animals occasionally captured in the wild are probably of aquaculture origin and were probably released within the last few years. It was last recorded in Albania in 1997 in the Buna River.

In addition to the Adriatic Salmon and Sturgeon several species of shark have been recorded in the wider offshore study area, of which 17 belong to the IUCN Red List, as globally threatened species.

Species of Commercial Importance

The majority of the information available for fish is that provided by the two experimental trawling campaigns carried out within the National projects Group demersal Resources (GRU.ND) and the Mediterranean International trawl Survey (MED.ITS) from 1995 to 2006.

Both campaigns collected data on demersal organisms of high commercial value in the Adriatic Sea. In the 18th geographical sub area (GSA) defined as Southern Adriatic by the CGPM (Commission Générale des Pêches pour La Méditerranée), the survey focused on the following species:

• Hake ( Merluccius merluccius );

• Red mullet ( Mullus barbatus );

• Rose shrimp (Parapenaeus longirostris )

Hake is a demersal fish species found between 70 and 370 m water depth. Adults live close to the bottom during day-time and move off-bottom at night. Adults feed mainly on fish (small hakes, anchovies, pilchard, herrings, cod fishes, sardines and gadoid species) and squids. The young feed on crustaceans (especially euphausiids and amphipods).

Hake spawns In the Adriatic, European hake spawn throughout the year, however with different intensities. The spawning peaks are in the summer and winter periods (Ungaro et al., 1993).

Red mullet is a demersal species found on gravel, sand and mud seabeds of the continental shelf, with a depth range from 10-300 m water depth and up to 328 m water depth in the eastern Ionian Sea. Red mullet feed principally on small benthic crustaceans, worms and molluscs.

The rose shrimp occurs in the deeper central Adriatic and in the southern Adriatic. It inhabits predominantly muddy sediments, at depths over 130 m water depth. In the southern Adriatic (along the Italian coast) the population is most dense at depths from 200 to 400 m water depth. The species is found to be also abundant along the Albanian coast. The adult specimens feed on small fish, cephalopods and crustaceans. They also look for food in the sediment, such as polychaetes, bivalves, echinoderms and mostly foraminiferas.

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The geographical distribution of two of the highest commercial interest species, hake Merlucius merlucius and deep water rose shrimp Parapenaeus longirostris are reported in Figure 6.2-17 to Figure 6.2-22 (ADRIAMED , 2008 ) as shown below.

Figure 6.2-17 Hake ( Merluccius merluccius ) Distribution – Recruits 1

Landfall

Source: ADRIAMED (2008)

1 The term ‘recruits’ refers to the new age group of the population entering of the exploited component of the stock for the first time

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Figure 6.2-18 Hake ( Merluccius merluccius ) Distribution –Total

Landfall

Source: ADRIAMED (2008)

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Figure 6.2-19 Hake ( Merluccius merluccius) Distribution –Spawners

Landfall

Source: ADRIAMED (2008)

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Figure 6.2-20 Deep water rose shrimp ( Parapenaeus longirostris) Distribution – Total

Landfall

Source: ADRIAMED (2008)

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Figure 6.2-21 Deep water rose shrimp ( Parapenaeus longirostris) Distribution – Recruits

Landfall

Source: ADRIAMED (2008)

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Figure 6.2-22 Deep water rose shrimp ( Parapenaeus longirostris) Distribution – Adult Spawners

Landfall

Source: ADRIAMED (2008)

Pelagic fish resources are classified as small pelagic fish (i.e. sardines - Sardina pilchardus ) and large pelagic fish (i.e. Swordfish - Xiphias gladius ). The pelagic fishery in the Adriatic Sea, as well as in other major fishery areas in the world, faces the problem of large fluctuations of small pelagic fish resources, either because of fishing pressure or environmental factors that affect both recruitment and mortality rates.

The most important small pelagic fish species in the Adriatic are anchovy, sardine and sprat. (Ticina et al 2005 ) Very limited recent published literature and baseline information is currently available to characterize the small pelagic fish present in the area. Old researches carried out in the early 1960s ( Rakaj N. cited in Kapedai E., 2004 ) suggest an intensive sardine reproduction zone in front of Semani River mouth, at approximately 10-20 m depth or 4-5 km from the coastline. The more recent SARDONE project aims to estimate, through underwater acoustic surveys, stocks of small pelagics - sardines and anchovies – across the Mediterranean in order to define nursery areas. Unfortunately, results from this study are not yet available.

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It is important to note that the period of spawning depends on the species with Sardine spawning during the winter months (from October to May), whereas the gilt sardine ( Sardinella auritus ) spawns in summer (from June to September).

The most representative large pelagic in the central and southern Adriatic Sea are swordfish (Xiphias gladius ), and albacore ( Thunnus alalunga ). The areas of swordfish fishing are large and extend to the edge of Albanian territorial waters, as shown in Figure 6.2-23 .

Figure 6.2-23 Fishing area for X. gladius and T. alalunga

Landfall

Source: Marano et al. (2003)

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The outputs of the AdriaMed Working Group on demersal fisheries resources (Rome, March 2007) and the follow-up outputs regarding demersal fisheries resources (Kotor, June 2008) presented in Ungaro et al., (2008) found that there were a number of shared resources across GSA (Geographical Sub-Area), of which 18 within the study area. The Large Pelagic fishes included in the list of priority shared species across the regions proposed by the ninth session of the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean Sub Committee on Stock Assessment GFCM – SAC (FAO, 2006) were: Thunnus alalunga , Thunnus thynnus (bluefin tuna), Xiphias gladius , Isurus oxyrhincus (shortfin mako shark), Lamna nasus (Porbeagle), and the Small Pelagic fishes (European anchovy) Engraulis encrasicolus and Sardina pilchardus (Sardine).

A list of priority commercial species of the Albanian waters of the Southern Adriatic Sea has been reported by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean and ADRIAMED (Scientific Cooperation to Support Responsible Fisheries in the Adriatic Sea) (ADRIAMED, 2008). The list includes vertebrates and invertebrates, pelagics and demersals, shallow and deep water species of commercial value as well as protected and threatened species (see Table 6.2-3 ).

Table 6.2-3 Priority Species/Groups List found in the Albanian waters of the Southern Adriatic Sea (ADRIAMED, 2008) and their Conservation Status

Scientific Name English Name IUCN Red List 2010* Nephrops norvegicus Norway lobster Mullus barbatus Red mullet Parapenaeus longirostris Deepwater rose shrimp Merluccius merluccius Hake Loligo vulgaris European squid Solea spp. Sole Octopus vulgaris Octopus Penaeus kerathurus Caramote prawn Sepia officinalis Common cuttlefish Lophius spp. Angler Dentex dentex Dentex Sparidae Breams X (endangered) Aristaemorpha foliacea Giant red shrimp Dicentrarchus labrax Sea Bass X (least concern) Zeus faber John Dory Trigla lucerna Tub Gurnard Squaliformes Sharks X* Arnoglossus laterna Mediterranean scaldfish Pagellus erythrinus Common pandora Boops boops Bogue Mullus surmuletus Striped red mullet Eledone moschata Musky octopus Raijdae Rays X* Sardina pilchardus Sardine Diplodus vulgaris Two-band bream Trisopterus minutus capelanus Poor cod Sarda sarda Atlantic bonito Conger conger European conger

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Scientific Name English Name IUCN Red List 2010* Scomber spp Mackerel Squatina spp. Angel shark Scorpaena spp. Scorpionfish Engraulis encrasicolus Anchovy Uranoscopus scaber Stargazer Notes: ‘X’ indicates group/species found on International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List. ‘X*’ indicates a group on the Red List whose population status varies depending on the specific species.

None of the priority species/groups found in the Albanian waters of the southern Adriatic Sea presented in Table 6.2-3 are listed in the Barcelona Convention or the Bern Convention 1.

6.2.5.3.4 Mammals and Reptiles

Turtles

The only sea reptiles in the Adriatic Sea are sea turtles. Three turtle species have been recorded in the Adriatic Sea, namely the loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta ), the green turtle ( Chelonia mydas ) and the leatherback turtle ( Dermochelys coriacea ). While the loggerhead and green turtles nest within the Mediterranean basin, the leatherback turtle is considered a rare visitor (Lazar et al, 1998). Table 6.2-4 highlights the IUCN conservation status of the three species found within the Adriatic, it should also be noted however these sea turtles are also protected species under the Barcelona Convention (Annex II – List of endangered or threatened species).

Table 6.2-4 Conservation Status and Known Distribution of Turtle Species Present in the Adriatic Sea

Common name Scientific name Conservation Status Adriatic Distribution Loggerhead Turtle Caretta caretta Endangered Nesting Population in Albania and Greece Green Turtle Chelonia mydas Endangered Recorded juveniles Leatherback Turtle Dermochelys coriacea Critically endangered Rare visitor Source: adapted from IUCN Red List 2011

1 Barcelona Convention, 1976 - Convention for the Protection Of The Mediterranean Sea Against Pollution; Bern Convention, 1979 - Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats

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Lazar et al., 2010 discuss findings of the green turtle ( Chelonia mydas ) in Albania and Greece, and suggest the existence of an Ionian-Adriatic developmental pathway of green turtles from reproductive habitats in the eastern Mediterranean Sea towards shallow northern Adriatic, feeding habitat. This turtle was reported for the first time in Albanian waters in 2002 as confirmed by the project “Monitoring and Conservation of Important Sea Turtles Feeding Grounds in the Patok Area of Albania, 2008-2010” The nearest regionally and nationally important habitat that is used by sea turtles for foraging, as a refuge and as part of a key migratory corridor is approximately 50 km North of the landfall area.

In relation to the loggerhead turtles, the suggested distribution of during pelagic, demersal and nesting activities is shown in Figure 6.2-24. Lazar et al., (2004) suggest that the Ionian–Adriatic loggerheads form an important management sub-unit of the nesting population. It should be noted that current evidence suggests that there are not any nesting grounds for any sea turtle reported on the Albanian coastline.

Figure 6.2-24 Distribution of the loggerhead turtle Caretta carett a in the Mediterranean Sea

Landfall

Source: FAO http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5750e/y5750e0b.jpg

Migration routes, represented by numbers of juvenile captures, of the loggerhead turtle are shown in Figure 6.2-25.

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Figure 6.2-25 Juvenile loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta Migratory Routes

Landfall

Source: Margaritoulis et al., (2003) in FAO.org http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5750e/y5750e04.htm

The loggerhead turtle has been reported along the whole coast of Albania, with the highest frequency of sightings between located on the north-western coast of Albania, approximately 50 km north of the landfall area. Recent observations of population dynamic assessment, biometric measurements, tagging and digital tracking, as well as through interviewing fishermen have confirmed that the loggerhead turtle uses the Albanian waters as foraging grounds at certain times of the year. Data recorded indicate that the loggerhead turtles are present during their food migration to Adriatic Sea in most Albanian bays including the landfall area

Cetaceans

With regard to cetaceans, approximately 21 cetacean species have been recorded in the Mediterranean and Black Sea (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara, 2006). Moreover, a number of species have also been cited in the literature as being potentially present in the Adriatic and Ionian Sea;

Fin whales ( Balaenoptera physalus ) are considered extremely rare in the Adriatic and Aegean Seas, and in the Levant Basin. Risso’s dolphins ( Grampus griseus ) have been observed in the eastern Ionian Sea (Greece), around the western side of Crete and in the western Ionian Sea (Sicily); a few strandings have also been recorded in the northern Adriatic Sea. Sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus ) are considered vagrant in the Adriatic Sea. Cuvier’s beaked whales (Ziphius cavirostris ) have been described as regular inhabitants of the Hellenic Trench and the southern Adriatic Sea based on frequency of strandings.

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The conservation status of the cetacean species of the Adriatic are presented in Table 6.2-5 .

Table 6.2-5 Conservation Status of Cetacean Species in the Adriatic Sea

Common Name Scientific Name Conservation Status Distribution Bottlenose Dolphin Tursiops tursiops Least concern Northern and southern Adriatic common si ghtin gs Fin whale Balaenoptera physalus Endangered Rare sightings Risso’s Dolphin Grampus griseus Least concern Occasional visitor Sperm Whale Physeter macrocephalus Vulnerable Occasional visitor Cuvier’s beaked whale Ziphius cavirostris Least concern Frequent sightings Humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae Single sighting of a pair in 1989 Striped Dolphin Stenella coeruleoalba Least concern Southern Adriatic, limited northern Adriatic sightings Source: adapted from IUCN Red List 2011 Bottlenose dolphin ( Tursiops truncatus ) and the striped dolphin ( Stenella coeruleoalba ) are considered to be regular inhabitants of the Adriatic Sea, the Strait of Otranto and the Ionian Sea.

The distribution of both the bottlenose dolphin and striped dolphin is shown in Figure 6.2-26 and Figure 6.2-27.

Figure 6.2-26 Mediterranean Distribution of the Bottlenosed Dolphin Tursiops truncatus

Landfall

Source: ACCOBAMS (2006)

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Figure 6.2-27 Mediterranean Distribution of the Striped Dolphin Stenella coeruleoalba

Landfall

Source: ACCOBAMS (2006)

Some investigations of the presence of Common Bottlenose Dolphin ( Tursiops truncatus ) have been conducted by the INCA Institute for the Natural Conservation in Albania, during spring 2011 in Vlora bay-Karaburun and Sazani area, 50 km south of the landfall area. This survey showed that this area is important for the bottlenose dolphin, at least as feeding ground. A recent aerial survey on the Adriatic waters conducted by the Blue World Institute of Marine Research and Conservation of Croatia during spring 2010, has confirmed the importance of the southern Adriatic waters for the Striped Dolphin ( Stenella coeruleoalba ). Based on these findings, the offshore study area is considered to be used by dolphins during their feeding and breeding migrations.

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Monk Seal

The Mediterranean monk seal is one of the most threatened species in the world and according to the IUCN Red List is “Critically Endangered (CR)” (IUCN 2000, UNEP-WCMC). Its worldwide population is estimated as between 400 and 500 individuals with the main surviving groups found in the Eastern Mediterranean (Greece and Turkey), Western Mediterranean (Algeria, Morocco) and North West African Atlantic coast (Western Sahara, Madeira). According to available information on population estimates (W. Johnson, 2005) monk seals have become extinct along the Adriatic coasts of Croatia and Albania.

In summer 2004, a survey was carried out, based on interviews with local fisherman, during which the aim was to gather information on the status of the monk seal and sea turtle populations along the Ionian coastline, from the Greek border to Vlore (Dedei et al. 2005). In the report it was suggested that monk seal habitats exist along the southern Albanian coast stretching from Karaburuni and Rreza e Kanalit to the area around Butrint. Fishermen reported two monk seal sightings during the summer of 2004, one in the Rreza e Kanalit-Karaburuni peninsula and the other close to Sarande port.

Through evaluating the results from the fishermen interviews and the site surveys it can be assumed that the Ionian coastline of Albania does not have a “resident” monk seal population, and may have occasional monk seal visitors, especially along the south Albanian coast.

The sandy and muddy coast of the Adriatic included in the landfall area, makes it highly unlikely for the monks seal to visit. However, the presence of the monk seal in Croatia (an individual of the monk seal has been seen in Cres Island on 24.06.2011), shows that Otranto Strait is a communication corridor for the monk seal between Ionian and Adriatic seas.

6.2.5.3.5 Seabirds

Seabird communities of the Ionian and Adriatic coast of Albania have not been well studied. The most important area for sea birds closest to the proposed landfall area is the Karaburuni peninsula-Sazani Island, 30 km south. High rocky coasts with preserved vegetation and isolated gravel and sandy beaches in Karaburuni-Sazani area create suitable conditions for sheltering and nesting for many sea bird species in the falconiform and charadriforms orders. A short survey conducted in the Sazani-Karaburuni area by the Institute for the Natural Conservation in Albania during last spring (May, 2011) confirmed the importance of the site for sea birds, especially for Calonectris diomedea and Puffinus yelkouan.

The area is also important as a migratory corridor for birds of South Albania and generally for the aquatic birds crossing the northern Ionian Sea over the South Western Balkans, and is termed the Adriatic Flyway (which forms part of the wider African-Eurasian Flyway), one of the three main North South migration pathways the birds in Europe passes over the Balkan (see Figure 6.2-28). A list of potential seabird species in the wider offshore study area and their threat status according to IUCN is provided in the following table.

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Figure 6.2-28 African-Eurasian Flyways migration routes (Adriatic Flyway in red)

Source: http://www.euronatur.org/Adriatic-Flyway.937.0.html

About 70 aquatic bird species have been reported in the Ionian coast of Albania of which 40 are known wintering species in the area. Seven of these species are included in the IUCN Red List (see Table 6.2-6 ).

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Table 6.2-6 Conservation Status of Sea Birds Occurring or Potentially in the Study Area

Common Name Scientific Name IUCN Redlist 2011 Cory’s Shearwater Calonectris diomedea LC Yelkouan Shearwater Puffinus yelkouan NT European Storm-petrel Hydrobates pelagicus LC European Shag Phalacrocorax aristotelis LC Mediterranean Gull Larus melanocephalus LC Black-headed Gull Larus ridibundus LC Audouin’s Gull Larus audouinii NT Yellow-legged Gull Larus cachinnans LC Sandwich Tern Sterna sandvicensis LC Little Tern Sterna albifrons LC Common Tern Sterna hirundo LC Caspian Tern Sterna caspia LC Notes: Near Threatened (NT): close to qualifying or is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future. Least Concern (LC): The taxon does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable or Near Threatened. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category.

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6.2.6 Albanian Nearshore Study Area

The definition of this area is the last 5-6 km of the pipeline until reaching the landfall, approximately from a depth of less than 30 m water depth to shore.

6.2.6.1 Physical Baseline

6.2.6.1.1 Oceanography

Currents Models for the Albanian Landfall

Below are illustrated the currents data, at the surface level, 10m and 20 m water depth, in terms of yearly current rose ( Figure 6.2-29 and Figure 6.2-30 ) and seasonal current roses ( Figure 6.2-31 and Figure 6.2-32).

As indicated in the Paragraph 11.5.2.5 all available data are derived from the Medatlas and refers to the geographical coordinates LON 19° LAT 41°,30 Km North-West of the nearshore study area (please refer to Annex 9 – “ Sediment Dispersion Modelling ” for further details)

From the analysis of the surface current rose, it appears a bimodal trend; in fact the strongest and most frequent currents come from North West (NW) and from South East (SE), maximum current speed about 0.5 m/s.

The current rose at 10 m water depth shows a similar trend characterized by the strongest and most frequent currents from North East (NE) and from South West (SW). However in this case the NE sector of incoming current is narrower and turned toward North. In addition, it can be noted that the currents at 10 m water depth are significantly weaker than surface currents.

The current rose at 20 m water depth shows a trend similar to the one obtained at 10 m water depth, although the currents are weaker.

The above analysis of yearly current rose therefore shows a significant stratification in terms of current speed.

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Figure 6.2-29 Surface yearly current rose

Note: generated using My Ocean products Source: processed on the basis of the oceanographic data downloaded from MyOcean website (http://www.myocean.org/) 1

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Figure 6.2-30 10 m depth current rose (left) and 20 m water depth current rose (right)

Note: generated using My Ocean products Source: processed on the basis of the oceanographic data downloaded from MyOcean website (http://www.myocean.org/) for the point of coordinates

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Figure 6.2-31 Surface seasonal current roses

Note: generated using My Ocean products Source: processed on the basis of the oceanographic data downloaded from MyOcean website

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Figure 6.2-32 20 m depth seasonal current roses

Note: generated using My Ocean products

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Other Physical Parameters

The chemico-physical parameters measured during autumn 2011 environmental survey were temperature (°C), salinity (psu), conductivity (mS/cm), dissolved oxygen as concentration (mg/l) and pH (unit). The Sediment Dispersion Modelling report is provided in Annex 9.

The temperature profiles did not show water column stratification connected to a thermocline until the maximum measured at -15 m water depth, at station _I5 (for sampling location please refer to Figure 6.2-2 ).

The recorded temperature ranged between 23.65°C, measured at a depth of -3.5 m, and 24.6°C, measured at -1 m water depth, showing a small difference between the maximum and the minimum values. Most of the stations showed a warmer shallow water layer and a small decrease in temperature with depth. The stations _G5 and _I3 showed a water layer with a small increase in temperature at a water depth of around -2 and -4 m. This profile is expected, given the early autumn survey period when mixing of the water column takes place

The salinity trend did not show a halocline (vertical salinity gradient) in the water column. The values of the salinity ranged between 39.25 psu at -1.5 m water depth and 40.21 psu at -11 m water depth. Its maximum and minimum values showed limited variation and only the stations located far from the coast showed an increase with depth.

The dissolved oxygen as saturation showed limited variations in its values, 6.05 mg/l at a depth of -9 m at station _H3, and 7.93 mg/l at a depth of -12.5 m at station _I5. The general trend showed maximum values at a water depth ranging between 1- and - 3.5 m water depth.

The values of pH measured during the survey showed very limited variations at the different stations, ranging between 7.56 unit at a depth of -2.5 m at station _I3, and 7.83 unit at a depth of -0.7 m at station _E3.

6.2.6.1.2 Water Chemistry

The following parameters were analyzed to assess water quality: chlorophyll a, turbidity, suspended solids, aluminium, barium, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, mercury, nickel, vanadium, zinc, methylmercury, total organic carbon and total hydrocarbons.

Chlorophyll a

The chlorophyll a showed values below the instrument detection limit. Its value was set as less than 1 )g/l for all the stations. This confirmed those regional results for the wider Mediterranean as can be seen in for the same period in 2011 ( Figure 6.2-33 ).

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Figure 6.2-33 Mediterranean Chlorophyll-a levels

Landfall

Source: Myocean data accessed via http://poseidon.ogs.trieste.it/cgi-bin/opaopech/myocean?20110919CRS [28/02/2012]

Turbidity and Suspended Solids

The turbidity value was set as less than 0.2 NTU for all the stations, with the exceptions of 5 stations. Stations _F3-TOP and _G3-TOP, with values respectively of 14.6 and 4.3 NTU, stations _E5-TOP and _F5-TOP, with values respectively of 15.1 and 4.3 NTU and station _AL_REF-TOP with value of 6.6. These values reflect low turbidity of sea water and consequently a high transparency.

Table 6.2-7 Turbidity values

Station Turbidity Value (NTU) F3-TOP 14.6 G3-TOP 4.3 E5-top 15.2 F5-Top 4.3 AL_REF-TOP 6.6

The suspended solids concentration showed values normally expected in coastal waters. The values ranged between 4.8 mg/l at station _G5-MID, and 19.6 mg/l at station _H5-TOP.

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The suspended solids concentrations did not vary with depth (top, bottom and middle layer for each station) with the exception of station _F3, where the top value was lower than bottom one.

Metals

Water samples were taken and analysed in order to determine Metal concentrations as part of the water quality assessment. The detected levels for all metals except vanadium at one station (aluminium, barium, cadmium, chromium, copper, nickel, zinc, iron, lead, mercury, correspond to what would normally be expected in coastal waters of the Mediterranean Sea, or even below the instrument detection limit.

The detected vanadium concentrations showed also a normal trend for such an environment, with the exception of station_F3 (bottom layer). The value is more than ten times the average values recorded in all the other stations.This exception could be due to an anomaly in the sample storage or analyzing procedure.

Total Hydrocarbons

The total hydrocarbons concentrations showed values below the instrument detection limit. Its value was set as less than 1 )g/l for all stations, with the exceptions of 3 stations where the value of the concentration corresponded to 2 )g/l. These values correspond to what would normally be expected in coastal waters.

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6.2.6.1.3 Geology-Morphology

The 2011 environmental survey provided data on the bathymetry of the nearshore study area through the use of Side Scan Sonar (SSS) and multi-beam echo sounder. The bathymetry along the proposed pipeline route of the Albanian site (Fier) was presented as bathymetric contours and shaded relief map ( Figure 6.2-34 ).

Side scan sonar data acquired along the proposed route show medium to low backscatter that might correspond to pelitic sand to pelite deposits, as confirmed by the collected seabed samplings and laboratory tests. High-backscatter areas could correspond to boulders and/or anthropic targets and coarser-grained sediment patches. The sediment variation is transitional. The limit between pelitic sand to very sandy pelite and sandy perlite to pelite was traced using the differences in SSS (Side Scan Sonar) backscatter response. Sediments on the seabed are strongly bioturbated, these bioturbations are likely to be as a result of the Crustacea Callianassa subterranea a characteristic species of a number of the stations sampled for benthic fauna.

A sand bar was detected from KP 0.088 to KP 0.145. The sand bar shows slopes with a gradient of 2.5 (East side) and 1.5 (West side), and reaches a height of approximately 0.70 m at its crest (KP 0.115).

The seafloor dips gently from East to West with a gradient of 0.2 (0.3%), from -1.2 m water depth, at KP 0.110, to 18.4 m water depth. at KP 5.516. Between KP 1.465 and KP 1.480 the proposed pipeline route crosses a shallow channel, less than 0.5 m deep and up to 15 m wide.

Between KP 5.516 and KP 6.300, the seafloor becomes steeper, with a depth that ranges between -18.4 m. and -37.2 m water depth (gradient: 1.9 - 1.8%).

The gradient reaches its maximum value between KP 6.353 and KP 6.368 (3.8 - 6.7 %).

Along the survey corridor four breaks of slope were detected. Two small breaks of slope, 1 m high are located at KP 5.673, one at a distance of 115 m to the north of the proposed pipeline route, and the other at a distance of 163 m to the south. Another break of slope was identified at KP 5.538 at a distance of 235 m to the south and the last one crosses the route at KP 6.326.

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6.2.6.1.4 Sediment Baseline

Sediment – Physical Composition

As mentioned, side scan sonar data show medium to low backscatter that might correspond to pelitic sand to pelite deposits, as confirmed by the collected seabed samplings and laboratory tests. Most of the stations along the coast are characterized by the presence on the seabed of pelitic sand, with the exception of station _E1 that showed the presence of pelite. The rest of the stations are characterized by the presence of smaller particle size sediments, very sandy pelite, sandy pelite and pelite, with the exception of station _H1, which showed the presence of sand.

High-backscatter areas could correspond to boulders and/or anthropic targets and coarser- grained sediment patches. The sediment variation is transitional. The limit between Pelitic sand to very sandy pelite and sandy pelite to pelite was traced using the differences in SSS backscatter response.

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Figure 6.2-34 Multi Beam Echo Sounder (MBES) Data for the Survey Area

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Sediment – Chemical Composition

Contaminants can adversely impact organisms, populations, communities and ecosystems. Anthropogenic contaminants, e.g. industrial chemicals and biocides, do not occur naturally in the marine environment, and ideally their concentrations should be zero. Other pollutants, such as heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, occur naturally at background levels within the earth’s crust, however their concentrations can be dramatically increased due to releases caused by human activity

Concentrations of metals and other sediment characteristics were investigated as part of the 2011 environmental survey.

The sediment parameters analyzed during the survey can be grouped in three variables:

• Nutrients, including redox potential, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, organic matter and total organic carbon;

• Heavy metals (including aluminium, barium, cadmium, total chromium, copper, iron, lead, nickel, vanadium, zinc); and

• Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, including naphthalene, acenaphthylene, acenaphthene, fluorine, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, pyrene, benzo(a)anthracene, chrysene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, benzo(a)pyrene, indeno (1,2,3-cd) pyrene, dibenzo(a,h)anthracene, benzo(ghi)perylene, methylmercury.

The nutrient variables did not show organic enriched sediment. All the values fall in a normal range for coastal areas.

The redox potential values ranged between -256 MV and 226 MV.

The total nitrogen concentration showed values ranging between 0.007 % and 0.071 %. The stations near the coast showed lower values than the others stations.

The total phosphorus concentration showed values ranging between 159 mg/kg and 406 mg/kg. The concentrations did not show any anomaly and were homogenous. In general, the stations located near the coast showed lower values of concentration compared to the stations farther away.

The organic matter and total organic carbon concentration values showed almost the same values and the same trend. The organic matter concentration values ranged between 0.19 % and 1.29 %. The total organic carbon values ranged between 0.17 % and 1.25 %. In general, the stations located near the coast showed lower values of concentration compared to the stations farther away.

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Some small variations were detected on the sediment chemical parameters comparing the stations closer to the coast with the one farther away. These differences could be related to the different water depth and, consequently, a greater particle size in the shallower area. Metals

Metals were assessed as standard measurement considering the potential presence of metals in the region. The heavy metal concentration values encountered generally correspond to what would be normally expected in coastal sediments of this nature, with the exception of Nickel and Chromium.

In terms of variations within the sampling area, aluminium, barium, cadmium, copper, vanadium, iron and zinc showed higher concentrations in the stations located nearest to the coast (transect E, see Figure 6.2-2 ). Concentations in the next transect offshore (transect F) showed the lowest values, increasing subsequently towards offshore. The lead concentration values showed no clear geographical variation.

Chromium concentration values ranged between 175.3 mg/kg and 511.7 mg/kg. Chromium concentrations for 10 stations (H1, J1, K1, J2, K2, J3, J4, K4, J5, and D1) were higher than usual levels found in coastal sediments and above some recommended guidance limit for instance in the Italian “Manual of marine sediments handling” (“Manuale per la movimentazione di sedimenti marini” APAT-ICRAM, 2007).

Stations located near the coast (transect E, see Figure 6.2-2 ) showed lower nickel concentration values compared to the stations farther away. The values of all the surveyed stations were higher than usual levels found in coastal sediments and above some recommended guidance limit for instance in the Italian “Manual of marine sediments handling” referred in the previous paragraph.

The high concentration values of nickel and chromium could be associated with peculiar physicochemical characteristics of the nearshore study area or could be of anthropogenic nature that should be further investigated. PAH’s

The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons did not show any anomaly in the concentration compared to what would be expected in a coastal area.

The total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons concentrations ranged between 2.7 )g/kg at station _H1, and 162 )g/kg at station _G5. In general the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons concentrations located near the coast showed lower values, followed by a peak at midway stations and decreasing values at the stations farther away.

Due to the absence of abnormal trends of total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons the discussion about each component of them can be omitted.

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6.2.6.2 Biological Baseline

6.2.6.2.1 Introduction

The following section outlines the nearshore baseline environmental condition of the nearshore study area. Discussion on protected areas, habitats and species, plankton, fish communities and finally mammal and reptile communities have been discussed in the Regional/Offshore sections 6.2.4 and 6.2.5 . The following Section refers to benthic communities, information gathered by the environmental survey and drop down video survey data acquired in 2011.

6.2.6.2.2 Benthic Communities

As outlined in Section 6.2.3.2 an environmental survey was conducted on the Albanian nearshore environment to provide detail on the physico-chemical benthic conditions, physico-chemical water conditions and the benthic infaunal community. The survey stations were located across the survey area, providing data on the representative communities and parameters of the pipeline route and in the direction of the prevailing currents highlighted above.

The preliminary results of the benthic infaunal analysis for the pipeline route were analysed using standard laboratory techniques.

The macrobenthic assemblages found in the eight stations where the samples were collected showed strong heterogeneity in the number of taxa and in the number of individuals. The station with the maximum number of taxa was _F4, while the station with the minimum number of species was _K4. The maximum abundance was found at station _F4 while the minimum at station _K4.

No rare or protected species were found during the 2011 sampling campaign.

The general overview of the survey results is:

At one station (E4) there were no sea urchins (Echinodermata) recorded, at two stations (G4 and H4) Crustacea, Echinodermata and others were not detected (as shown in Figure 6.2-35 ). At most other stations Polychaeta were present with a single station (F4) being dominated by the Polychaeta family (Capitellidae) identified, Capitellidae are associated with bio-enriched habitats either from anthropogenic sources such as aquaculture or biogenic such as near seabird roosts. Please consider that the chart is made without considering the Polychaeta because their identification was limited to the family level. The Crustacea and Mollusca were the most common taxa.

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Figure 6.2-35 Number of Species of Key Phyla on the Proposed TAP Route

Source: D’Apollonia (2012)

The Polychaeta were the most abundant taxa in all the stations, with the exception of the reference or control (REF) station where Mollusca were the most abundant taxa. For this reason Polychaeta are considered in the following chart which presents the number of individuals.

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Figure 6.2-36 Number of individuals of Key Phyla found on the Proposed TAP Route

Source D’Apollonia (2012)

Information about the ecology of the species (biocenosis) and the substrata where they are usually can be found in scientific literature. In the present document the biocenosis are defined according to Peres and Picard (1964) , though allowing the definition of the biological characteristics of the stations where the samples were collected. Also, when referring to impacted habitats, it is possible to assess different degrees of environmental perturbations. The taxa that are able to give the best information about biological classification are Polychaeta, Crustacea, Mollusca and Echinodermata. Some species are not discussed due to the absence of detailed information on their ecology.

At station E4, 240 individuals belonging to 6 species were found. The species found with the maximum number of individuals was the Polychaeta Owenia fusiformis, characteristic of Well Sorted Fine Sand bioceonosis ( Bianchi et al., 1993A ). Other species found were Ampelisca gibba and Callianassa subterranea , both of which are characteristic of muddy seabeds (Bianchi et al., 1993A); Clausinella brogniartii which is characteristic of sand-mud seabeds ( Cossignani et al., 1992 ), and Phaxas adriaticus which is characteristic of sandy seabeds ( Cossignani et al., 1992 ).

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At station F4, 1160 individuals belonging to 8 species were found ( Figure 6.2-36 ). The most abundant taxa was the Polychaeta family Paraonidae and the species with the maximum number of individuals was the Mollusca Chamelea gallina , a bivalve that is characteristic of the Well Sorted Fine Sands (SFBC) biocenosis, at low water depth ( Bianchi et al., 1993A ). Other species found include: Leptochelia seavignyi and Amphiura chiajei , both of which are inhabitants of firm mud and sand seabeds ( Bianchi et al., 1993A ); Iphinoe serrata which is characteristic of muddy substrata ( Bianchi et al., 1993C ), Mactra stultorum which is characteristic of Well Sorted Fine Sands (SFBC) biocenosis ( Bianchi et al., 1993A ), and Polinices nitida, which is associated with sandy seabeds ( Bianchi et al., 1993C).

At station G4, 60 individuals belonging to 3 species ( Figure 6.2-36 ) were identified. Notable species that have not been found in other stations were: the nudibranch sea slug Philinopsis depicta , a habitat generalist in its habitat choice; Corbula gibba, a bivalve mollusc which is considered to be adapted to organically enriched seabeds (Bianchi et al., 1993B), and Nucula sulcata a bivalve mollusc that is characteristic of muddy seabeds ( Bianchi et al., 1993A ). Additionally Ophiura ophiura , an echinoderm associated with inhabiting soft seabeds ( Bianchi et al., 1993A ) and Tellina pulchella a bivalve that is characteristic of SFBC biocenosis ( Bianchi et al., 1993A ).

At station H4, 230 individuals belonging to 4 species were found ( Figure 6.2-36 ). The most abundant species was the Polychaeta Sternaspis scutata , which is characteristic of Coastal Terrigenous Muds bioceonosis (VTC) ( Bianchi et al., 1993A ).

At station I4, 140 individuals belonging to 4 taxa were found ( Figure 6.2-36 ). The most abundant species was the Polychaete worm Sternaspis scutata .

At station J4, 60 individuals belonging to 2 species were found ( Figure 6.2-36 ). The most abundant taxa was the Polychaeta family Lumbrineridae and the species found with the maximum number of individuals within this station was the Mollusca Abra prismatica, a species that is characteristic of Shelf-Edge Detritic Bottom bioceonosis (DL) ( Bianchi et al., 1993A ).

At station K4, 10 individuals belonging to a Polychaeta taxa, the Capitellidae family, were identified ( Figure 6.2-36 ).

At the Reference station (REF), 540 individuals belonging to 7 species, in addition to the Polychaetawere identified ( Figure 6.2-36 ). The most abundant species was the bivalve Chamelea gallina. As mentioned previously polychaetes occurred at all stations.

In order to assess the species and communities in the offshore deepwater seabed, a specific survey will be designed and conducted. The survey will target the pipeline route in order to assess the community and any sensitive species such as the deepwater corals reported in other areas of the Adriatic.

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6.3 Offshore Socioeconomic Environment 6.3.1 Introduction

This Section provides an overview of the socioeconomic characteristics found in the offshore section of the TAP Project in Albania. The socioeconomic study area encompasses a corridor of varied width according to the issue considered from the Albania landfall site on the Adriatic coast, through Albanian territorial waters up to the agreed median line between Italy and Albania waters at approximately 55 km distance from the coastline. Figure 6.3-1 presents a map of the offshore socioeconomic study area for the Albanian section of the TAP Project including the two main Albanian ports, Dürres and Vlore, within the area of influence of the Project.

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Figure 6.3-1 Offshore Socioeconomic Study Area (in red)

Source: ERM (2011)

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Data presented in this section has been gathered from publically available secondary sources along with primary data gathered during a field visit to the area in June 2011 including information from focus group meetings with fishermen and key informant interviews with Vlorë port officials. Additional information on primary and secondary data sources can be found in Annex 5.6, Onshore Socioeconomic and Cultural Heritage Methodology.

The offshore socioeconomic environment baseline focuses on harbours, navigation, shipping and fisheries. A detailed description of the onshore socioeconomic environment can be found in Section 6, which includes information on the settlements situated close to the landfall site and the tourism and recreational areas near the shore.

6.3.2 Harbours

There are 4 main harbours in Albania; Durrës, Vlorë, Shengjin and Saranda. Durrës is located over 55 km to the north and Vlorë 40 km to the south of the landfall site (see Figure 6.3-1 ). Saranda and Shengjin are further away.

6.3.2.1 Durrës Harbour

Durrës is the main shipping port for Albania close to the city of Durrës and 33 km west of the capital Tirana. In addition to fishing boats the port supports several other types of vessels including: transport ships, ferries and yachts. Oil tankers are diverted to the nearby port of Porto Romano. There are five ferry companies operating crossings from Durrës to Ancona, Brindisi, Trieste and Bari in Italy 7 days a week. Figure 6.3-2 below presents a photo of the Port of Durrës.

Figure 6.3-2 View of Port of Dürres Albania

Source: www.apDürres.com.al

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The port has 11 berths ranging in length from 30m-400m and has a depth of between 7 m-11 m deep. Durrës has an average of 2,700 vessels entering and exiting the port a year. The port has the capacity to handle 3 million tons of cargo annually and currently manages 85% of Albania’s export and import trade. In 2010 Durrës received 1,601,321 tons of cargo, 66,000 TEU 1 container volume and 1,162,321 ferry passengers.

There are several World War II shipwrecks and ordinance are located close to the port entrance, which makes the use of tugs to enter the port compulsory. Durrës port also has a specific recommended course for ships approaching the port, which is needed to avoid underwater obstacles.

The port of Durrës is administrated by the Port Durrës Authority, which is responsible for all port related activities, i.e. cargo handling, maintenance nautical and port infrastructure and superstructure, equipment and buildings and carries out loading and discharging operations together with the associated storage and receiving of goods to and from road and rail. The port is currently being undergoing maintenance and upgrade work, which commenced in 2011.

6.3.2.2 Vlorë Port

Vlorë is the second largest shipping port in Albania supporting cargo ships, transport ships, oil cargo and fishing vessels. The port has a maximum depth of 7.6 m and with sufficient mooring length for project vessels.

Two companies usually operate passenger ferries from the Port of Vlorë travelling to Bari and Brindisi in Italy. However, the Mayor of Vlorë has cancelled contracts with one of the ferry companies, as it has not met the required safety regulations. At this time ferries are not operating out of the Port of Vlorë.

Construction of a new container terminal at the port in Vlorë began in 2009, however, it is unclear when the new terminal will be operational.

6.3.3 Marine Traffic

The Adriatic Sea is a busy navigation area that concentrates high number of North South routes where merchant ships, takers (oil, gas, chemical), ferries, large cruises, fishing vessels, war ships and other recreational ships coexist. Figure 6.3-3 presents the traffic routes that have been established in the area showing the main longitudinal route, the east longitudinal route (along the Croatian islands), the West longitudinal route (along Italian coast), and the transversal routes (including the one between Dürres and Vlorë Ports in Albania and Brindisi in Italy). The Port Authority in the main Albanian ports is a legal entity which manages port operations and marine

1 TEU stands for twenty-foot equivalent unit, which is an inexact unit of cargo capacity often used to describe the capacity of container ships and container terminals and based on the volume of a 20-foot-long (6.1 m) intermodal container.

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Figure 6.3-3 shows marine traffic flows in the Adriatic based on a study conducted in September 2008 by experts in Faculty of Maritime Studies in the University of Rijeka, Croatia. The results of the study show how the marine traffic in the Albanian section of the pipeline is minor compared to the main west longitudinal route along Italian coast or the transversal routes in the north.

Figure 6.3-3 Marine Traffic Monitored in 2008 (pipeline in red)

Landfall

Source: Maritime Transport and Possible Accidents in the Adriatic Sea, Damir Zec, Ph.D et al (2009)

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The lower incidence of marine traffic on the Albanian side has been also confirmed by the assessment of ship traffic density conducted as part of Offshore Pipeline Risk Analysis commissioned by TAP in 2010. The results of the assessment of ship traffic crossing the pipeline are shown in Figure 6.3-4 below. The Figure presents the ship traffic density plot in relation to the pipeline route. The colour ranging from yellow to red to black is used to indicate the ship traffic density for the given Automatic Identification System (AIS) data 1. It is clear that the area around Dürres is darker due to a larger number of observations in the area.

Figure 6.3-4 Ship Traffic Density Plot (pipeline route in red) (ships/day)

Landfall

Source: TAP (2011)

1 In order to estimate the volume and particulars of ship traffic crossing the pipeline data from various sources were considered by TAP: (a) Automatic Identification System (AIS) data was used to obtain a qualitative information on where the ship crossed the pipeline, and (b) The specific numbers of ships crossing the pipeline were obtained from the report on the maritime traffic flow in the Adriatic Sea, /25/, and information of ship arrivals to ports in the Adriatic Sea.

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6.3.3.1 Ferry Traffic

The ferry traffic crossing the pipeline is mainly governed by the ferry routes between Italy and Greece. One ferry route between Italy and Albania has been identified. The routes operated by six different companies are typically departing from Venice, Bari or Brindisi in Italy and arriving in Igoumenitsa, Corfu, Patra, Cephaloniam in Greece or Vlorë in Albania. Table 6.3-1 presents the different routes belonging to each company and the together with the annual number of crossings.

Table 6.3-1 Ferry Routes Crossing the Pipeline

Ferry company URL From/to From/to Ferries Annual no. crossing Anek Lines http://www.anek.gr Venice Igoumenitas, Sophocoles, 416 Corfu, Patras Lefka Orl Ancona Igoumenitsa, Olympic 716 Patras Champion, Hellenic spirit Superfast ferries http://www.superfast.com/ Ancona Igoumenitsa, Superfast I, V, 1040 Patras VI, XI, XII Bari Igoumenitsa, Superfast I, V, 728 Corfu, Patras VI, XI, XII Minoan Lines http://www.minoan.gr Venice Igoumenitsa, Ikarus Palace, 352 Corfu, Patras Zeus Palace Ancona Igoumenitsa, Olympia Palace, 616 Patras Europa Palace Agoudimo ns http://agoudimos- Bari Igoumenitsa, Ionian King 728 Lines lines.com Patras Bari Cephalonita Ionian King 728 Brindisi Corfu, Ionian Sky 624 Igoumenitsa Brindisi Vlorë Kapetan 624 alexandros Endeavor Lines http://www.endeavor- Brindisi Patras Elli T, Erotokritos 298 lines.com T, Ionian Queen Brindisi Igoumenitsa Elli T, Erotokritos 377 T, Ionian Queen Brindisi Corfu Elli T, Erotokritos 64 T, Ionian Queen Brindisi Cepgalonia Elli T, Erotokritos 81 T, Ionian Queen Ventouris Lines http://www.ventouris.gr Bari Corfu, Polaris, Sea 490 Igoumenitsa Trade Source: TAP (2011)

According to the offshore risk assessment undertaken by TAP, it is estimated that approximately 7,900 times a year a passenger ferry will cross the pipeline. Regarding characteristics of these ferries it was concluded that most of the ferries have a passenger capacity of more than 1,000 with the median of the passenger capacities being 1,400.

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6.3.4 Fishing

6.3.4.1 National Overview

Fishing in Albania is primarily composed by marine fisheries, although lagoon and inland fishing does take place on a limited scale. During recent years aquaculture is being increasingly promoted with particular focus on carp fingerlings and fish for general consumption.

Marine fishing at a national level is undertaken throughout the Albania’s 470 km coastline with fishing boats based out of 4 main ports: Durrës, Vlorë, Shengjin and Saranda. The marine fishery production trebled from 1971 to 1987 (mainly due to small pelagics). From then the total marine production decreased in 1997 to half of 1971 figures. From 1998 to 2003 the total landings has fluctuated and from then has slowly increased. It should be noted that over the years a drastic change in species composition of landings has taken place due to change in the target species of the fishery.

As reported by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), Albania’s domestic fisheries production in 2006 was approximately 7,699 tonnes, of which 5.729 were from sea capture and 1,970 from aquaculture. Fishery imports in 2006 totalled about 16,347 (1,000 USD) while exports was 23,914 (1,000 USD) with a net balance of 7,567 (1,000 USD).

Since 2000 the FAO have worked with the Fisheries Directorate of the Government of Albania to reorganise and develop a fisheries information system and establishing a national fisheries statistical system. The aim of this is to monitor fishing activity and promote sustainable fishing. The Directorate of Fisheries of the Ministry of Agriculture and Food is the central institution responsible for implementing the fisheries laws and regulations. Within the Directorate of Fisheries there are the Fisheries Inspectorate and the Resources Management Sector.

6.3.4.1.1 Structure and Types of Fisheries

The main types of fishing activity found in the Albanian coast include trawling and to a lesser extent purse seiners both fishing from the main ports. Small vessel artisanal fishing is also found along the coast. The composition of the catch landed by the Albanian fleet is rather mixed, as in any other Mediterranean fishing areas. Depending on the gear which is used on board, catches are composed mainly by demersal species such as European hake, mullet, white prawns, shrimps, squid, octopus and cuttlefish. Hake, red mullet and deep rose shrimp account for more than 50% of the total catch (Hake 27%, deep sea shrimp 20%, red mullet 10%, cephalopods (octopus, squid) 10%).

Trawling is the main fisheries in Albania. The trawlers operating in Albanian waters vary by physical dimensions, engine power and construction material. They fish from minimum allowable depth (30 ms) to 800 ms depth, depending on power of vessel. Mostly within 200 ms depth, due to obsolescence of the equipment and high cost of fuel. Profitability is low compared to viable fishing fleets elsewhere in the Mediterranean due to obsolesce of the vessels and fishing equipment.

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Landings by trawlers increased from 25% in 1990/1991 to 80-90% of the total production in the period from 1992 to 2003 1. The average annual marine production by fishing method from that period is presented in Figure 6.3-5.

Figure 6.3-5 Average Marine Production by Fishing Method for the Period 1992-2003

Source: Coastal and Marine Fisheries Management Plan, Albanian Fishery Development Project (AFDP) (2004)

Purse seiners were more prevalent during the communist time, when they targeted small pelagics (sardines and to a lesser extent anchovies). These almost disappeared in the 1990s, generally been converted into trawlers. The very few survivors (six vessels in total, 4 from Vlorë up to 2004) changed species target to hake and horse mackerel. This is the reason why purse seiners have, if they have not already ceased fishing altogether. Although it is of marginal importance its importance is growing. National Fisheries Management Plans consider purse seiner fisheries to have a high growth potential targeting back small pelagics.

In addition to trawling, artisanal fishing is also found in Albanian coastal waters. Artisanal fisheries are labour intensive although require less expensive capital equipment than for example long-liners and trammel nets, gill netters, entangling netters. The boats are fairly small (length: from 4 –8 m) and are operated as traditional vessel owner or family type concern with a crew of 1 to 2. These boats fish in shallower waters, mostly within the continental shelf (up to 30 m), exploiting under-sized fish and other marine organisms, which fetch a lower price than larger fish, cephalopods and crustaceans.

1 Albanian Fishery Policies Directorate, AdriaMed & MedFisis (2006) An Overview of the Albanian Fishing Fleet and Landing and Effort Dynamics. Found at www.faoadriamed.org/pdf/publications/OP-18.pdf

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The geographical distribution of the national product is highly concentrated in the port of Dürres, where the fleet production is estimated to be equivalent to 38% of the total Albanian landings followed by the port of Vlorë accounting for 24% of the total. The national fishing fleet is active throughout the year with a slight increase in catches in May out of all ports except Saranda, which has peak catches in October, as a result of the different types of vessels and catches targeted from the port of Saranda. During an FAO study in 2004 a total 125 species and 5 species groups were identified: 90 in Durrës, 59 in Vlorë, 55 in Shengjin and 36 in Saranda. However, the most common species of fish caught in Albanian waters is European hake (Merluccius merluccius), which is caught using trawlers and represents 28% of total catches. Other common fish found are deepwater rose shrimp (Parapenaeus longirostris ), Red mullet (Mullus barbatus ), European pilchard ( Sardina pilchardus ), Groupers ( Epinephelus spp ) and Common dentex ( Dentex dentex )1. Table 6.3-2 presents the overview of landing by species in the main Albanian ports in 2003.

Table 6.3-2 Landing by Species (kg) in the Various Ports in 2003

Species Scientific name Dürres Saranda Shengjin Vlorë Total % Deep-sea shrimp Aristaeomorpha + Aristeus 21,215 0 20 921 22,156 1.46 Scaldback Arnoglossus rueppelli 24,673 0 0 4,811 29,484 1.95 Bogue Boops boops 64,152 10,117 926 8,659 83,854 5.54 Squid Loligo spp 21,036 1,567 2,961 6,747 32,311 2.13 Anglerfish Lophius piscatorius 17,041 0 1,162 7,201 25,404 1.68 Hake Merluccius merluccius 217,986 41,966 35,692 88,617 384,261 25.37 Red mullet Mullus barbatus 83,015 8,411 12,018 37,407 140,851 9.30 Octopus Octopus spp 51,281 3,574 2,645 3,422 60,922 4.02 Common octopus Octopus vulgaris 39,007 4,324 16,887 15,674 75,892 5.01 Caramote prawn Penaeus Kerathurus 80,278 19,991 15,075 63,013 178,357 11.78 Sardine Sardina pilchardus 36,796 13,222 311 19,969 70,298 4.64 Sardinella Sardinnella officinali s 0 156 206 53,983 54,345 3.59 Cuttlefish Sepia officinalis 30,136 72 3,873 8,568 42,649 2.82 Sole Solea nasuta 27,435 0 4,760 5,682 37,877 2.50 Spicarel Spicara flexuosa 2,589 20,560 12,552 20,436 56,137 3.71 Horse mackerel Trachurus trachurus 26,460 27,263 50 12,529 66,302 2.21 Total 743,100 151,223 109,138 357,639 1,361,100 87,70 Source: Coastal and Marine Fisheries Management Plan, Albanian Fishery Development Project (AFDP) (2004)

6.3.4.1.2 Fleet and Fishermen

The most important characteristic of the Albanian fleet relies in the vessels’ high degree of obsolescence, although improving, and growing: from 2004 to 2011, fleet almost doubled, although could be due to improvement of the statistics and registering efficiency, instead of growth itself. An analysis of the cost structure shows that fuel costs curtail profits. Fuel cost in fact accounts for 68% of total intermediate consumption. It is considered that the Albanian fleet is fishing below capacity. Large-scale repairs required would tip the vessels into loss-making rather than profit. Profitability is low compared to viable fishing fleets elsewhere in the Mediterranean.

1 Albanian Fishery Policies Directorate, AdriaMed & MedFisis (2006) An Overview of the Albanian Fishing Fleet and Landing and Effort Dynamics.

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The landing is sold through wholesalers who distribute the produce on domestic and foreign markets, since there is no public wholesale fish auction able to concentrate the production. Best prices are received for whole fish and the most important markets are Greece and Italy. Spain is important for hake. Prices are increasing and the market is today stable around international values. The most popular fish are sea bass, sea bream, carp, mullet, codfish and eel.

In this regard the main aim of the Fisheries Management Programs implemented by the fisheries authorities are a sound resource management policy granting for the sustainability of stocks and the realisation of new fish markets together with the development of outlets having ice machines, plastic boxes, refrigerated transports, available to fishermen co-operatives and their associations. In addition, the renewal of the fleet combined with training and financial credit.

According to recently statistics published by the Fisheries Directorate at the Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Water Administration the fishing fleet in 2011 was composed by a total of 324 vessels distributed in 5 ports ( see Table 6.3-3 and Figure 6.3-6 ).

Table 6.3-3 Distribution of Vessel by Port

Port Number % Dürres Dürres 133 41.0% Shengjin/Shengji 45 13.9% Saranda/Saranda 29 9.0% Vlorë/ Vlorë 115 35.5% Lushnje-Fier/Lushnje-Fier 2 0.6% Source: National Statistics Summary, Fisheries Directorate (Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Water Administration) (2011)

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Figure 6.3-6 Distribution of Vessels by Port

Source: National Statistics Summary, Fisheries Directorate (Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Water Administration) (2011)

According to 2004 data, the majority of vessels operating from Durrës are trawlers, with a small number of entangling and gillnetters. Trawlers also operate from Vlorë and Shengjin and only Saranda operates solely using entangling and gillnetters. On average the boats operating out of Durrës are the largest (19 m), followed by Shengjin (18 m), Vlorë (15 m), and Saranda (11 m) 1.

The total number of fishers in the marine sector recorded in the 2000 census was 706 persons, divided between those working on vessels smaller than 12 m length (119) and those working on vessels larger than 12 m in length (587) 2. Key informant interviews with the Vlorë Port Authority found that there are approximately 150 boats working from the port (100 small boats and 50 big boats) and that all of the people engaged in fishing from the port are professional fishermen and fish all year round, although the type and amount of catch varies. Two private organisations operate next to the port and all the fish is sold to here from which it is then sold. The catch is sold all over Albania in addition to being exported to Italy and Greece. Fishermen reported that the main issue they face is the lack of investment or assistance by the state.

The majority (approximately 70%) of the fishermen fishing from Vlorë are Çam, which is a group of ethnic Albanians previously living in Greece, however forced to return to Albania in 1944. Albanian officials in Vlorë estimate that there are approximately 25,000 Çam living in the Vlorë area.

1 Albanian Fishery Policies Directorate, AdriaMed & MedFisis (2006) An Overview of the Albanian Fishing Fleet and Landing and Effort Dynamics. Found at www.faoadriamed.org/pdf/publications/OP-18.pdf 2 Coastal and Marine Fisheries Management Plan, Albanian Fishery Development Project (AFDP), 2004

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6.3.4.1.3 Fishing in the Study Area

There are no landing sites or coastal communities in the vicinity of the landfall area and therefore fishing in the study area is composed by very small scale artisanal fisheries and trawling, which occurs at 30 m water depth and approximately 6.5 km from the coast (to the mid line with Italian waters).

At a local level, small-scale artisanal fishing in rivers and along the shore is conducted by residents in the settlements of Sheq I Marinas, Seman and Kavaklli, in the commune of Topojë (Fier District). Figure 6.3-7 below shows the local fishing communities in Dermenas and Topoje communes. The nearest landing site is the port of Vlorë located more than 40 km south of the landfall site. No other permanent or temporary landing sites are located north of the pipeline route.

Figure 6.3-7 Local fishing communities

Source: ERM (2011)

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Fishing is primarily conducted as an additional livelihood activity for households in the study area, rather than as the main economic activity. A focus group was held with a group of fishermen living in Kavaklli in Topojë commune (see Annex 7 Stakeholder Engagement Data ) who reported that there are 25 families belonging to these settlements who own small boats and fish along the shore close to the mouth of the Semani River (see Figure 6.3-7 ). Those that do not own a boat fish in the mouth of the Semani River using nets. Teams of two take it in turns over a 24 hr period to throw nets into the river along a 4 km stretch of the river.

The families that own boats fish throughout the year depending on the weather, whereas the river shore fishermen only fish in the summer months. The fishermen reported that people do not travel from outside the area to fish in the landfall area, to Semani or the landfall site to fish, however, villages along the coast to the north and south of the landfall site fish the water that is close to their village. Fishing is much localised around the beaches near the respective villages.

Fish is sold door to door and fishermen travel around on motorbikes to different villages selling the fish. During focus group meetings fishermen stated that fish is popular and it is always possible to sell the catch. Fishermen would like to catch more fish, although the fishing techniques used is time consuming and only yield small catches

Large-scale fishing vessels which come from either Vlorë or Dürres ports, or elsewhere in Italy and potentially from other countries beyond the 20 km territorial waters, practice bottom trawling in the study area. These typically travel anywhere from 6.5 km to 65 km off the coast to fish. Bottom trawling is a diversified fishing method which uses numerous types of gear designs, sizes, rigging and operational methods to catch fish. See Figure 6.3-8 . The study area is not considered a rich fishing ground compared to other areas along the Albanian coast however activity still exists.

Figure 6.3-8 Bottom Otter Trawling – Single Trawl Rigging

Source: Valdemarsen, Jørgensen, and Engås (2007)

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6.3.5 Cultural Heritage

Linking the western Balkans and the East with Western Europe, Albanian waters were busy with shipping since ancient and mediaeval times. The likelihood of archaeological findings of those ages is higher in areas close to the coast than in offshore areas, since, when possible, ships stayed near the shore to maintain visual contact with land.

Given the available information on neighbouring regions specially Vlore south of the immediate area of influence, the presence of marine archaeological remains of the Greek, Roman and Illiryan periods, as well as remains of the 1 st and 2 nd world wars can not be discarded. During 2008 and 2009, in the first archaeological survey of Albania's seabed a research ship carrying U.S. and Albanian experts has investigated the waters off southern Albania, using scanning equipment and submersible robots. The latest expedition has revealed traces of four sunken Greek ships dating from the sixth to the third centuries BC, while another 3 suspected sites have still to be verified. All these sites have been found on the Karaburun-Vlore area, approximately 50 km South of the offshore pipeline route.

In terms of the probability of marine archaeological finding on the pipeline route and surroundings, there are several influencing factors. One is the recent coastal recession in the area, which determines that a number of kilometres of current seabed (approximately 5) have been continental land in historical times, thus preventing the appearance of marine wrecks or remains in that segment.

This situation has been confirmed by the specific geophysical survey undertaken in the nearshore pipeline corridor (October 2011) down to the -30 m water depth, and 6 km offshore. This survey, which included Side Scan Sonar and magnetometer, has not revealed traces or signs of wrecks, materials or other marine cultural heritage. Additional offshore survey for the pipeline will be conducted in any case and these will be designed in a manner that will allow thorough analysis of the cultural heritage resource in the deeper offshore waters.

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6.3.6 Marine Ammunition / Unexploded Ordnances (UXO)

Different periods in the recent history of Southern Adriatic Sea were characterized by intensive military activities. During WWII, many areas were heavily bombed. Frequently, during military operations, useless and obsolete ammunitions, explosives and war materials have been dumped at sea.

Information regarding areas impacted by dumping actions is not always available, as there is no legal obligation on EC Member States or non-EC Mediterranean States to provide it. Between 2006 and 2008 the marine pollution assessment and control component of the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP), produced a report based on consultation of national military and civilian archives, nautical charts, observations of sailors, interviews with fishermen and nautical institution’s documentation. The results of this survey, identify different types of dumping areas, shipwrecks and firing practice and exercise areas. Based on this survey the presence of these areas in the Albanian coast and offshore area is reported in Figure 6.3-9.

Figure 6.3-9 Location of Potential Unexploded Ordinance Dumping Areas

Landfall

Source Extracted from UNEP (DEPI)/MED WG. 334/Inf. 9

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This Figure 6.3-9 , which shows most of the Albanian Territorial waters and beyond, as potential UXO Dumping areas, come from Nautical Charts and Sailors notices, and are very expansive, in order to protect marine traffic. There is a notable lack of information on specific areas of potential UXO dumping during the communist period, ranging almost 50 years.

A systematic survey (UXO Survey) and clearance operation will be conducted before the commencement of any operations in order to acquire ordnance data underwater. A wider geophysical survey and geotechnical investigation will ensure that contractors not only avoid potential UXO, but that they also avoid archeology, wrecks and other seabed obstructions.

6.4 Onshore Physical Environment

6.4.1 Climate and Ambient Air Quality

6.4.1.1 Overview

Climate varies considerably along the TAP route in Albania as the study area comprises of the following climate zones: Southeast Mediterranean Mountainous zone, Southern Mediterranean pre-mountain zone, Central Mediterranean hilly zone and Central Valley zone. The effect of various climate zones results in precipitation, temperature, and other climate conditions changing along the pipeline route.

This section should also be read in conjunction with Annex 6.1.1.

6.4.1.2 Climate

Long-term meteorological data from the Institute of Hydrometeorology of Albania (IHMA) have been extracted and processed from the period of 1951 to 1990. Unfortunately, after 1990 Albanian data is not complete or reliable due to political and historical changes in the country during this period.

Figure 6.4-1 presents the Meteorological Stations that are located near the study area, and from which meteorological data relevant for the project has been used.

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Figure 6.4-1 Relevant Meteorological Stations near the Study Area

Source: ERM (2012)

6.4.1.2.1 Eastern Section

The upper part of the Eastern Section of the pipeline is included in the Southern Mediterranean Pre-mountain climate sub-zone, and the remainder of the Eastern Section is included in the Southeast Mediterranean mountain climate sub-zone. The Eastern Section starts at the upper part of the Devolli River and ends at the upper part of the Dunaveci River basin, to the Southwest.

Temperature

Using the series of IHMA data from 1951 to 1990, Annex 6.1 – Section 6.1.1 presents the main parameters of air temperature from the Eastern Section. Figure 6.4-2 presents the average distribution of air temperature.

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According to this data, the Eastern Section is located in the coldest zone of Albania, where there is a significant continental influence. The average annual temperature in Korca is 10.5 °C, with the average temperature in July around 20° C and in January around 0.5 °C. The absolute maximum temperatures are approximately 38-39 ºC in Korca, Bilisht and Sheqeras (IHMA, 1951- 1990). These temperatures are the result of the penetration of hot tropical air masses and the closed character of the valleys within the study area. Sheqeras temperatures appear to be relatively low, with an average August temperature of 18.8 °C and an average January temperature of 0 °C. The absolute minimum temperature recorded in Albania was -26.8 °C (IHMA, 1951-1990). Korca and Bilisht also have records of very low minimum temperatures in comparison with other areas of Albania due to the penetration of cold air masses. As with the high summer temperatures, the closed shape of the valleys and the local presence of high mountains push the winter temperature down.

Figure 6.4-2 Distribution of Air Temperature (1951 - 1990)

T grad C Monthly air temperature, TAP Eastern section

25

20

Korçë 15 Bilisht Sheqeras Dardhë

10

5

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

-5 Months

Source: Institute of Hydrometeorology of Albania (IHMA)

Precipitation

Using the series of IHMA data from 1951 to 1990, Annex 6.1 – Section 6.1.1 presents the main parameters of precipitation for the Eastern Section. Figure 6.4-3 presents the monthly precipitation distribution throughout the year.

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Figure 6.4-3 Monthly Precipitation (1951 - 1990)

R mm Monthly precipitation, TAP Eastern section

160

140 Dardhë

120 Miras

Korçë 100 Bilisht 80 Sheqeras

60

40

20

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Months

Source: Institute of Hydrometeorology of Albania (IHMA)

According to this data, the Eastern Section features low precipitation in comparison with the rest of Albania. There is also an irregular geographical distribution of annual precipitation.The proximity of mountains in Korca and Maliq results in precipitation in these areas that is approximately 150 mm higher than that recorded in Sheqeras. Precipitation in summer, the driest season, represents only 12.5% of annual rainfall, the result of a continental influence on the climate. The highest annual precipitation recorded is 1,030 mm (IHMA, 1951-1990), while the lowest annual precipitation recorded is 638 mm (IHMA, 1951-1990). Annual snowfall is common and generally occurs from November through to the third week of March, and even in some cases until April. The Eastern Section of the pipeline is located in one of the Albanian regions that has a greater amount of snow, especially the Northern part.

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6.4.1.2.2 Central Eastern Section

The Central Eastern Section of the pipeline is characterised by the Southern Pre-mountain Mediterranean climate and partially by Southern Mountain climate. The climate regime in the Central Eastern Section is very similar to the one in the Eastern Section, although it is warmer overall due to the geomorphology related to the Osumi River Valley.

Meteorological stations in the Central Eastern Section (Vithkuq, Shtylle and Voskopoja) are located at a relatively high altitude (approximately 1,200 m.a.s.l).

Temperature

Using the series of IHMA data from 1951 to 1990, Annex 6.1 - Section 6.1.1 presents the main parameters of air temperature from the Central Eastern Section. Figure 6.4-4 presents the distribution of air temperature throughout the year.

Figure 6.4-4 Distribution of Air Temperature (1951-1990)

T grad C Monthly air temperature, TAP Central eastern section

25

20

Voskopoje 15 Shtylle Vithkuq Potom

10

5

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

-5 Months

Source: Institute of Hydrometeorology of Albania (IHMA)

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According to this data, the minimum average temperature recorded in the Central Eastern Section is -2.3 °C in Shtylle (January), and the maximum average temperature is 21 °C in Potom (July). The extreme air temperature in this section varies from an absolute minimum of -25.6 °C in Voskopoje to -24.5 °C in Shtylle, while the absolute maximum air temperature reaches 36.2° C at Potom (IHMA, 1951-1990).

Precipitation

Using the series of IHMA data from 1951 to 1990, Annex 6.1 – Section 6.1.1 presents the main parameters of precipitation for the Central Eastern Section. Figure 6.4-5 includes the monthly precipitation distribution throughout the year.

Figure 6.4-5 Monthly Precipitation (1951-1990)

R mm Monthly precipitation, TAP Central-eastern section

200

180

160 Voskopoje 140 Vithkuq Shtylle 120 Potom

100

80

60

40

20

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Months

Source: Institute of Hydrometeorology of Albania (IHMA)

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According to this data, the total annual precipitation varies from 1,000 to 2,000 mm in this section, which means it is almost considered a Mediterranean climate, with the highest precipitation during the so called cold (wet) period (October through May), representing around 85% of annual rainfall. The yearly distribution of precipitation (see Figure 6.4-5 ) is almost a “U” form, which is typically Mediterranean. The highest annual precipitation occurs in Shtylle with 1,231 mm, and the lowest annual precipitation occurs in Voskopoja with 1,026 mm (IHMA, 1951- 1990). Snow is also recorded in this section, although at lower values than previously described for the Eastern Section. Snow is recorded on rare occasions in autumn, with an average of 0.1 and 0.4 days in October and December, respectively. Records gradually reach a maximum of 1.3 and 4.1 days in the January - February period, followed by further rare events in March and April, with an average of 0.1 and 0.4 days. The annual average number of days with snow is 16.2. The annual average number of days with layers of snow is 25, and the thickest layer of snow registered in this zone was 109 cm (IHMA, 1951-1990).

6.4.1.2.3 Central Western Section

The Central Western Section of the pipeline route follows the Osumi River Valley, which is downstream from the town of Çorovoda. The pipeline route intersects with the Osumi River and some of its tributaries several times within the valley. There are 4 long-term meteorological stations within this section of the pipeline route, with observation data on precipitation and air temperature at 3 out of the 4 sites. According to the climate classification of the Albanian territory, this section is included in the Southern Mediterranean Field sub-zone, which is characterised by extreme, wet winters and hot, almost dry summers.

Temperature

Using the series of IHMA data from 1951 to 1990, Annex 6.1 – Section 6.1.1 presents the main parameters of air temperature for the Central Western Section. Figure 6.4-6 presents the distribution of air temperature throughout the year.

According to this data, the average air temperature varies from 6.0 °C in the winter (January) to 23.7 °C in the summer (August), and overall average temperature varies from 13.7 °C to 15.0 °C annually. This data clearly reflects the Mediterranean climate characteristics of this section. Temperature extremes vary from a maximum of 43.2 °C to a minimum of -13.5 °C (IHMA, 1951- 1990).

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Figure 6.4-6 Distribution of Air Temperature (1951-1990)

T grad C Monthly air temperature, TAP Central western section

25

20

Çorovode Nishove 15 Berat

10

5

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Months

Source: Institute of Hydrometeorology of Albania (IHMA)

Precipitation

Using the series of IHMA data from 1951 to 1990, Annex 6.1 – Section 6.1.1 presents the main parameters of precipitation for the Central Western Section. Figure 6.4-7 presents the monthly temperature distribution throughout the year.

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Figure 6.4-7 Monthly Precipitation (1951-1990)

R mm Monthly precipitation, TAP Central-western section 200

180

160 Nishove 140 Çorovode Berat 120 Terpan

100

80

60

40

20

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Months

Source: Institute of Hydrometeorology of Albania (IHMA)

According to this data, in the Central Western Section annual precipitation totals approximately 1,000 mm, similar to rainfall recorded in the Central Eastern Section. Differences in precipitation values observed in Terpani and Nishove meteorological stations can be explained by their geographic location. Nishove meteorological station is located in the Western-most area of the section. Precipitation is more common in the Eastern-most area where the Terpan meteorological station is located. Snow is a rare phenomenon within this section, especially downstream of Poliçan Town. When snowfall occurs, it occurs over a limited number of days and it does not stick.

6.4.1.2.4 Western Section

The pipeline route enters the Albanian Western Plain in the Western Section, where the terrain is flat, and climate conditions do not vary markedly. From a climate perspective the Western Section is in the Central Field Mediterranean zone, which is characterised by mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers. The Adriatic Sea plays an important role in the climate conditions existing in this section.

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Temperature

Using the series of IHMA data from 1951 to 1990, Annex 6.1 – Section 6.1.1 presents the main parameters of air temperature from Western Section. Figure 6.4-8 presents the distribution of air temperature throughout the year.

Figure 6.4-8 Distribution of Air Temperature (1951-1990)

T grad C Monthly air temperature, TAP West section

25

20

Roskovec Fier 15

10

5

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Months

Source: Institute of Hydrometeorology of Albania (IHMA)

According to this data, the average air temperature in the Western Section is over 15 °C, with an average minimum temperature of 7.2 °C in January and an average maximum temperature of 23.9 °C in July. The minimum absolute temperature observed in this section was -13 °C, and the maximum absolute temperature was 42.5 °C (IHMA, 1951-1990).

Precipitation

Using the series of IHMA data from 1951 to 1990, Annex 6.1 – Section 6.1.1 presents the main parameters of precipitation from the Western Section . Figure 6.4-9 includes the monthly precipitation distribution throughout the year.

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Figure 6.4-9 Monthly Precipitation (1951-1990)

R mm Monthly precipitation, TAP Western section 180

160

140

120

100 Roskovec Fier 80

60

40

20

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Months

Source: Institute of Hydrometeorology of Albania (IHMA)

According to this data, precipitation in the Western Section consists mainly of rain, as winter snow is an extremely rare occurance. Annual precipitation in this section is less than 1,000 mm in total.

6.4.1.3 Wind

Wind description is based on data collected from the Meteosim-truewind webpage (http://windtrends.meteosimtruewind.com). Figure 6.4-10 includes the wind speed map for 2010.

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Figure 6.4-10 Wind Speed in Southeast Europe (2010)

Source: Ihttp://windtrends.meteosimtruewind.com

Wind speeds from 2006 to 2009 are included in Figure 6.4-11 .

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Figure 6.4-11 Wind Speed in Southeast Europe (2006-2009)

Source: http://windtrends.meteosimtruewind.com

According to these maps, wind speeds along the TAP route in Albania have consistently been between 5 and 8 m/s during the last 5 years. Figure 6.4-12 shows some anomalies in wind speed, which are defined as follows:

• Anomaly (m/s): absolute mean wind speed deviation in the selected period in regards to the whole period available average (1997-2007);

• Anomaly (%): percentage mean wind speed deviation in the selected period with regard to the available average for the entire period (1997-2007).

Generally anomalies are not significant in Albania, (approximately 0-6% and approximately 0-0.3 m/s), so the wind speeds given above can be considered average wind speeds along the TAP route.

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Figure 6.4-12 Wind Anomalies in m/s and in % (2010)

Source: http://windtrends.meteosimtruewind.com

Table 6.4-1 includes frequency (f) and speed (s) of wind in different directions in the climatic stations of the IHMA located in Shequeras and Fier, which are considered representative of the areas in which the CS02 and CS03 compressor stations will be located. Figure 6.4-13 depicts the wind rose for the Shequeras and Fier stations.

Table 6.4-1 Wind directions at Shequeras and Fier

Calm N NE E SE S SW W NW Station % f s f s f s f s f s f s f s f s

Sheqeras 10.4 14.9 3.4 5.3 2.8 28.9 4.7 8.2 3.9 4.8 4.1 2.6 2.6 6 3.3 18.9 3.7 (CS02) Fier 22.6 5.2 3.0 6.3 3.0 14.8 2.1 18.6 2.4 4.6 3.6 7.1 5.6 7.1 4.3 13.5 4.1 (CS03)

Source: Institute of Hydrometeorology of Albania (IHMA)

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Figure 6.4-13 Wind rose for Shequeras and Fier

Source: Institute of Hydrometeorology of Albania (IHMA)

According to this data, NW and E winds are predominant around CS02, while NW, E and SE winds are predominant around CS03.

Average wind speeds registered at these two weather stations are between 2.1 and 5.6 m/s, within the ranges shown in the wind maps ( Figure 6.4-10 and Figure 6.4-11 ). The wind rose values should not be compared with Figure 6.4-12, since this figure shows the wind anomalies (wind variability) and not the average wind speeds.

6.4.1.4 Ambient Air Quality

Existing air quality conditions along the pipeline route have been identified using the European Environmental Agency (EEA) Air quality Database (AirBase). AirBase data is publicly available from the official EEA AirBase website (http://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/air/airbase).

Data available from the EEA AirBase website includes interpolated maps of atmospheric macro pollutants over Europe.

Figure 6.4-14 presents NO x average background concentrations and Figure 6.4-15 presents SO 2 average background concentrations, both for 2005.

3 The NO x annual average concentration is estimated to be 10-20 )g/m in both compressor station locations (CS02 and CS03). SO 2 annual average concentrations are estimated to be 5-10 )g/m3 in the area where compressor station CS02 will be located, and 0 5 )g/m 3 in the area where compressor station CS03 will be located.

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There are no existing stations in Albania, so the above 2 maps are derived from modelled output of the European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP).

Figure 6.4-14 NO x Annual Average Background Concentration

CS-03 CS-02

Source: EEA Interpolation dataset (2005)

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Figure 6.4-15 SO 2 Annual Average Background Concentration

CS-03 CS-02

Source: EEA Interpolation dataset (2005)

In order to confirm ambient air quality data modelled by the EMEP in Albania, air sample measurements have been collected at the proposed compressor station locations (CS02 A and CS03) and from sensitive receptor sites located in their vicinity. A total of 6 air samples have been collected in a total of 5 air sampling locations. Figure 6.4-16 presents the location of air sampling locations.

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Figure 6.4-16 Location of Air Sampling Points

Source: Field Survey (June to September 2011), ERM (2011)

Table 6.4-2 includes analytical results obtained from air samples.

Table 6.4-2 Air Sampling Results (ppm)

Passive diffusion Tube dragger samples Air sampling point Section sample

NO x SO 2 HC CO NO x SO 2 1 Compressor station 2 (CS02 A) Eastern 0 0 0 - < 0.4 3.3 2 Trestenik Eastern 0 0 0 - n.a. n.a. 3 Gjokalli Western 0 0 0 - n.a. n.a. 4 Sheq-marinas Western 0 0 0 - n.a. n.a. 5 Compressor station 3 -Option 6 (CS03) Western 0 0 0 0 n.a. n.a.

Source: Field Survey (June to September 2011), ERM (2011)

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Dräger tube samples were collected in the 5 locations indicated in Figure 6.4-16 and were analyzed directly in the field. No chemical compound was detected in these samples. A passive diffusion sample was additionally collected in CS02 A, as a duplicate sample for quality control purposes. This sample was analyzed by the Passam Laboratory. Complete analytical results are presented in Annex 6.1 – Section 6.1.1.2.

According to this data, no concentration of analyzed chemicals was detected. There is a direct relationship between this result and the characteristics of the areas in which the air samples were collected, as these are rural areas without significant sources of air pollution. The same relationship may be noticed between data modelled from the EEA Interpolation dataset: low levels of expected NO x and SO 2 concentrations, directly related to the absence of air pollution sources in these rural areas.

3 Only 3.3 µg/m of SO 2 were detected in the passive diffusion sample collected at CS02 A. 3 Despite that, this SO 2 concentration is still well below the 20 µg/m established by EU Directive 1999/30/CE as the reference value for an annual average for ecosystems. The concentration of 3 3 3.3 µg/m of SO 2 is low in comparison to the warning level of 500 µg/m established by the 1999/30/CE EU Directive.

6.4.1.5 Key Findings and Conclusions

In general terms, the entire study area is located in a Mediterranean climate unit, with the main difference detected among the 4 sections being that lower temperatures and higher precipitation during winter are expected in the Eastern and Central Eastern Sections as a result of their mountainous characteristics.

Only meteorological data from 1951 to 1990 are available, so potential changes in the climate in the study area during the last 20 years have not been described.

Regarding wind conditions, winds of 5 to 8 m/s are expected to be the “normal conditions”, with a low level of deviation along the TAP route in Albania.

Regarding air quality conditions, in the absence of public data in Albania, data modelled from the EEA Interpolation dataset were used and 6 air samples were collected and analyzed. All the analytical results are below the corresponding analytical method detection limit or far below the background level for ecosystems established by the E.U, in line with the low levels of NO x and

SO 2 established by the EEA Interpolation dataset.

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6.4.1.6 Limitations

After 1990 long-term meteorological data is not complete and reliable, as previously outlined. Because of this, only data from the series between 1951 and 1990 have been extracted and processed as part of this report. Furthermore, no information has been found on air quality monitoring stations in Albania, therefore only modelled data from the EEA Interpolation dataset were used.

6.4.2 Acoustic Environment

Key noise definitions are included in Table 5.1-2 of Annex 5.

6.4.2.1 Acoustic Environment along the Pipeline Route

Along the pipeline route in Albania the noise environment varies substantially as it extends through residential, agricultural, and undeveloped areas. The majority of the potential receptors are villages which can be considered sensitive.

In order to provide an accurate description on the noise conditions for these sensitive receptors, villages located within 2 km of the corridors area of influence have been selected, in addition to compressor station locations.

To be able to compare noise measurements with international standards, noise level guidelines from the International Finance Corporation (IFC, 2007) have been used and are included in Table 6.4-3.

Table 6.4-3 Noise Level Guidelines

IFC World Bank Group Period Industrial and Commercial Residential, Institutional and Educational Day-time (07:00 -22:00) 70 dBA 55 dBA Night-time (22:00 - 07:00) 70 dBA 45 dBA

Source: IFC (2007)

According to noise level guidelines and noise receptors, a baseline is to be established for residential, institutional, and educational receptors.

During the months of June 2011 and September 2011 existing noise conditions were measured. Table 6.4-4 includes a summary of noise measurements and Annex 6.1 – Section 6.1.2 includes the noise datasheets that were collected during the fieldwork.

Figure 6.4-17 indicates the location of noise measurement points along the pipeline.

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Table 6.4-4 Summary of Noise Measurements

Noise Location Section Approximate Measuring duration LAeq t [dB] measurement distance to the [min] location pipeline [m] 1 CS02- Eastern 50 11:00 30.5 Alternative 2 Trestenik Eastern 300 10:00 30.8 3 Corovode Central 150 11:00 62.3 Western 4 Guri i bardhë Central 200 10:00 55.5 Western 5 Uznovë Central 50 13:00 40.9 Western 6 Hoxhaj Central 50 15:00 45.5 Western 7 Gjokalli Western 1700 10:00 52.5 8 Sheq-marinas Western 1100 9:00 57.2 9 Semani Western 300 6:00 56.1

Source: Field Survey (June to September 2011), ERM (2011). (No villages were monitored in the Central Eastern Section as those presented are considered to be under similar noise conditions than Eastern Section locations.)

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Figure 6.4-17 Location of Noise Measurements

Source: ERM (2011)

The key noise sources identified during the June and September 2011 fieldwork included the following:

• Vehicle movement on roads and pathways;

• Human working activities in agricultural areas; and

• Farm animals.

Additional noise measurements were taken at all noise measurement locations (with the exception of locations 1 and 2) in order to better characterise the sources summarised in Table 6.4-5.

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Table 6.4-5 Noise Sources Identified

Noise measurement location Location Noise source LAeq 1``[dB] 3 Corovode Background 58.8 Claxon 61.3 Truck 69.1 4 Guri i bardhë Background 45 Sheep 62.7 People 63.6 Dogs 46.1 5 Uznovë Background 37 Roosters 46.5 Birds 42.2 Roosters 41.3 7 Gjokalli Background 38.2 Wind 44.1 Dog 39 8 Sheq-marinas Birds 51.4 Ducks 51.9 Roosters 51.8 Birds 58 Cars 57.9 9 Semani Background 36.1 Dogs 45.1 Cows 50.6 Roosters 46.1 Birds 43.3 Birds 55.9

Source: ERM (2011)

Generally, background levels were measured at or around 35 - 45 dBA. This low level is due to the characteristics of the study area which are largely rural areas where noise sources are not intense. The increase from the background level to the average level is due to the noise sources listed above.

The lowest levels were detected in the Eastern Section (measures around 30 dBA).

Characteristics of the Central Eastern Section are similar to those described for the Eastern Section, which are rural areas where noise sources are not intense. Although noise measurements were not taken in the Central Eastern Section, it is assumed that noise measurements from the Eastern Section would also be representative for the Central Eastern Section.

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Noise levels in the Central Western Section are higher than the Eastern Section (from approximately 40 dBA to approximately 62 dBA) due to the greater level of development in this section. While both sections are dominated by agricultural activity, the Central Western Section is not as remote, therefore particular mechanisation of farming has occurred. Higher noise levels are associated with the movement of machinery along the roads and pathways and the higher number of cars. Noise measurement in Corovode city indicates even higher noise levels in comparison to the rest of the section. Here, noise measurements were taken on the Corovode Eastern Bridge over the Osumi River where the central market is located. Noise levels were higher as a result of greater human activity and the presence of the river (62.3 dBA).

Finally, in the Western Section noise levels were recorded at the highest average levels along the pipeline route (approximately from 52 dBA to 57 dBA) within Albania. As with the other sections, it is an agricultural area with a slightly higher level of mechanisation (mainly because it is a flatter area, which enables more mechanised agricultural practices and because the area is closer to larger cities and ports where machinery can be imported). More detailed descriptions regarding mechanisation levels in agricultural lands are included in Section 6.4.6.

It should be noted that all noise measurements were taken during daylight hours. A general decrease in potential noise sources could be expected during the night, meaning noise levels will be similar to measured background levels (35 - 45 dBA). Noise levels measured as shown in Table 6.4-4 would be representative for daytime noise levels.

6.4.2.1.1 Key Findings and Conclusions

In general terms, there is a low level of daily noise along the pipeline route (30 to 55 dBA). These values are below noise level guidelines established by the IFC (see Table 6.4-3 ) for daytime in residential areas, so noise quality can be considered high throughout the whole study area. Sensitivity can also be considered high in residential areas and in the vicinity of populated areas.

6.4.2.2 Acoustic Environment at CS03

This section is intended to describe the spatial-planning and the status of the acoustic environment in the area surrounding the CS03 site. This section should be read in conjunction with the noise data sheets provided in Annex 6.1 – Section 6.1.2.2.

CS03 is located in the Fier Region, in an area characterised by a uniformly flat landscape with the absence of significant woodland or scrub cover. The land use is almost completely dominated by crops, which present as a characteristic patchwork of rectangular fields. Small roads, including dirt roads, link settlements in the area.

In addition to the future noise sources related to the Project, the main noise emissions within the study area derives from farming and agricultural activities; the road traffic is negligible, as no significant noteworthy infrastructure is present in the area.

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In the area surrounding the CS03, there are few isolated houses, mainly with stables, approximately 900 m from the CS; the nearest settlement is Sheq-marinas, located at 1500 m from southern CS boundary. The sensitive receptors that may be affected by the Project have been identified previously by a desktop analysis of the local cartography or satellite images and then chosen by means of site visit to verify the state of the building and the presence of inhabitants. The identified potential sensitive receptors are reported in Table 6.4-6 and Figure 6.4-18.

Table 6.4-6 Noise Monitoring Sites at CS03

ID Receptors X coordinate Y coordinate Minimum distance UTM 34 N [m] UTM 34 N [m] from the CS03 [m] CS03-3 Isolated house 370848.47 4515360.41 1150

CS03-5 House in Sheq-marinas village 368318.78 4515360.41 1570

CS03-8 New House behind the cemetery 369282.06 4515663.81 900

Source: Noise Field Survey (February 2012), ERM (2012)

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Figure 6.4-18 Noise Monitoring Sites at CS03

Source: Noise Field Survey (February 2012), ERM (2012)

In order to describe the acoustic environment of the study area, a noise survey was performed in February 2012 at the receptors reported in Table 6.4-6 . Medium and long term measurements during day and night time have been carried out to characterize the actual acoustic environment and consequently to be able to compare the background noise level with the future potential noise impact produced by the CS operation (in activity continuously both day and night time). Table 6.4-7 reports the noise pressure levels monitored in correspondence of each receptor and the time of measurement. The receptor’s ID is consistent with the numbering used in Figure 6.4-18.

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Table 6.4-7 Noise Pressure Levels at Receptors near CS03

Receptor Measurement Hours Monitored Noise Pressure IFC Noise Limits time Levels [ dB(A)] Leq [dB(A)] From To Day time Night time Day Night (07:00-22:00) (22:00-07:00) CS03-3 12 hours 10:00 22:00 42.0 - 55 45

CS03-5 12 hours 08:00 20:00 53.0 - 55 45

4 hours 22:00 02:00 - 47.4 55 45

CS03-8 New 12 hours 08:00 20:00 37.5 - 55 45

6 hours 00:00 06:00 - 31.2 55 45

Source: Noise Field Survey (February 2012), ERM (2012)

The main noise sources identified in the study area during field work were animals and human activities, principally in the proximity of Sheq-marinas village (receptors CS03-5). Table 6.4-8 highlights the main noise sources identified during each noise measurement by the acoustic technician in correspondence of each receptor. Table 6.4-8 Noise Sources Identified During Noise Measurement at CS03

Receptor Measurement Main Noise Sources Period CS03-3 Day time animals (dogs, chickens)

CS03-5 Day time agricultural activities, animals (dogs, chickens, goats), village life

Night time animals (dogs, chickens, goats), village life

CS03-8 New Day time Sporadic agricultural activities, wind

Night time -

Source: Noise Field Survey (February 2012), ERM (2012)

Albanian Directive n.8 dated 27/11/2007 “ Noise limits in the design environments ” defines limits for residential areas (in detail, for areas “ outside the house ”) affected by operation activities. However, as reported in Table 6.4-7 , the noise measurements have been compared with the more stringent, noise level guidelines from the International Finance Corporation (IFC, 2007) defined for residential, institutional, and educational receptors.

The noise levels monitored at receptors are influenced by the characteristics and the land use of the analyzed area:

• at receptors CS03-3, located in an isolated area where noise sources are not intense, the noise level monitored during the day time is 42 dB(A) and mainly related to the presence of farming activities;

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• at receptors CS03-5, located in Sheq-marinas village, the noise levels vary from 47.4 dB(A) during night time to 53 dB(A) during day time. These higher noise levels have been caused by the human activities that characterise the village life;

• at receptors CS03-8 New, located in the proximity of a cemetery however sufficiently distant from the village, the noise levels vary from 31.2 dB(A) during night time to 37.5 dB(A) during day time and the main noise sources are farming and agricultural activities.

Considering the noise limits established under IFC for the study area and reported in Table 6.4-7, all the background noise levels monitored during the field survey are in compliance with noise guidelines for day time (noise limit equal to 55 dB(A)). The background noise level monitored at receptor CS03-5 exceeds the noise limit for night time (noise limit equal to 45 dB(A)), whereas receptors CS03-3 and CS03-8 New are in compliance with IFC standards also for night time.

6.4.2.2.1 Key Findings and Conclusions for CS03

In general terms, the acoustic environment in the CS03 area is characterised by low noise levels, so noise quality can be considered high throughout the whole study area. Sensitivity can also be considered high in residential areas and in the vicinity of populated areas.

6.4.2.3 Acoustic Environment at CS02

This section is intended to describe the spatial-planning and the status of the acoustic environment in the area surrounding the CS02 site. This section should be read in conjunction with the noise data sheets provided in Annex 6.1 – Section 6.1.2.3.

The CS02 is located in the Korca Region, in an area characterised by an undulating and hilly terrain at elevations of approximately 900 m located between two major mountain ranges. The land cover comprises principally agriculture and grassland and smaller tracts of woodland are dispersed throughout. Roads, where present, are unsurfaced tracks and settlements and dwellings are sparse, thus conferring a remote character to this area.

In addition to the future noise sources related to the project, the main noise emissions within the study area derive from farming and agricultural activities; the road traffic is negligible, as no significant noteworthy infrastructure affects the area.

In the area surrounding the CS02, the nearest settlements are Vishocicë and Trestenik. These are located approximately 1,300 m north-west and 1,400 m east from the CS02 fenceline, respectively. Approximately 900 m from the west side of the CS a place of pilgrimage, a Bektashi Mausoleum has been identified. The sensitive receptors that may be affected by the Project were identified through a desktop analysis of the local cartography and satellite imagery. A site visit was performed during May 2012 to verify the state of the buildings and the presence of inhabitants. The potential sensitive receptors identified are provided in Table 6.4-9 and Figure 6.4-19.

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Table 6.4-9 Noise Monitoring Sites at CS02

X coordinate Y coordinate Minimum distance ID Receptors UTM 34 N [m] UTM 34 N [m] from the CS02 [m] CS02-1 House in Vishocicë Village 499752.32 4493573.36 920

CS02-2 Bektashi Mausoleum 498441.54 4492439.97 1250

CS02-4 House in Trestenik Village 501330.86 4491606.86 1150

Source: Noise Field Survey (May 2012), ERM (2012)

Figure 6.4-19 Noise Monitoring Sites at CS02

Source: Noise Field Survey (May 2012), ERM (2012)

In order to describe the acoustic climate of the study area, a noise survey was performed on 4 th and 5 th May 2012 at the receptors reported in Table 6.4-9 . Short and long term measurements during day and night time have been carried out to characterize the current acoustic climate and consequently to be able to compare the background noise level with the future potential noise impact produced by the CS operation (in activity continuously both day and night time). The short and long measurements took place on the same day.

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The following Table reports the noise pressure levels monitored at each receptor and the time of measurement; the receptor’s ID is consistent with the numbering used in Figure 6.4-19 . For the long measurement, the LAeq, 1h is reported for all measured hours and provided in Annex 6.1 – Section 6.1.2.3.

Table 6.4-10 Noise Pressure Levels at Receptors near CS02

Monitored Noise Pressure IFC Noise Limits Hours Levels [ dB(A)] Leq [dB(A)] Measurement Receptor Day Night time From To Day time Night time (07:00-22:00) (22:00-07:00) 14 hours 18:00 08:00 54.2 55 45 (Global) 5 hours 18:00 22:00 CS02-1 57.5 - 55 45 (Day time) 07:00 08:00 9 hours 22:00 07:00 - 49.8 55 45 (Night time) CS02-2 1 hour 08:30 09:30 36.8 - 55 45

CS02-4 1 hour 18:30 19:30 40.9 - 55 45

Source: Noise Field Survey (May 2012), ERM (2012)

The main noise sources identified in the study area during field work were animals and human activities, principally in the proximity of Vishocicë village (receptors CS02-1). Table 6.4-11 highlights the main noise sources identified during each noise measurement by the acoustic technician in correspondence of each receptor.

Table 6.4-11 Noise Sources Identified During Noise Measurement at CS02

Receptor Measurement Period Main Noise Sources

CS02-1 Day and Night time voices, animals (dogs, birds)

CS02-2 Day time animals (birds), vehicle on the road (horse traps)

CS02-4 Day time animals (dogs, cows), wind, vehicle on the road (horse traps)

Source: Noise Field Survey (May 2012), ERM (2012)

Albanian Directive n.8 dated 27/11/2007 “ Noise limits in the design environments ” defines limits for residential areas (in detail, for areas “ outside the house ”) affected by operation activities. However, as reported in Table 6.4-10 , the noise measurements have been compared with the more stringent, noise level guidelines from the International Finance Corporation (IFC, 2007) defined for residential, institutional, and educational receptors.

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The noise levels monitored at receptors are influenced by the characteristics and land use of the analyzed area:

• Receptor CS02-1 - located in Vishocicë Village, the monitored noise levels were higher than IFC standards for both day time and night time. This is a consequence of the noise emissions produced by the village life as can be detected analyzing the LAeq,1 h values reported in Annex 6.1 – Section 6.1.2, which show how the higher noise levels have been monitored during evening (from 18:00 to 21:00) and morning (from 06:00 to 08:00). The assessment of the project impact significance at this receptor should be performed taking into account the high background noise levels monitored. Figure 6.4-20 indicates the noise level trend during the measurement time, highlighting the above;

Figure 6.4-20 Monitored Noise Levels at Receptor CS02-1

Source: Noise Field Survey (May 2012), ERM (2012)

• Receptor CS02-2 - located in a remote area near a Bektashi Mausoleum, the noise level during day time is 36.8 dB(A); no significant noise sources were identified during the measurement; and

• Receptor CS02-4 - located on the outer fringes of Trestenik Village, the monitored noise level is 40.9 dB(A) and the main source of noise is farming activities.

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Considering the noise limits established by IFC for the study area and those provided in Table 6.4-10 , the background noise levels monitored during the field survey are in compliance with noise guidelines for day time (noise limit equal to 55 dB(A)) at receptors CS02-2 and CS02-4. However, the IFC standards are exceeded at receptor CS02-1.

6.4.2.3.1 Key Findings and Conclusions for CS02

In general terms, the acoustic environment in the CS02 area is characterised by low noise levels, with higher values occurring in close proximity to the villages. Although the monitored background noise levels at receptor CS02-1 exceeds IFC standards, considering the absence of significant noise sources the noise quality can be evaluated high throughout the whole surveyed area. Sensitivity can also be considered high in residential areas and in the vicinity of populated areas. 6.4.2.4 Limitations

The August 2012 base case route runs approximately 100 m distance from Potom village, between Kp 86.6 and 86.8. Additional noise measurement field surveys were not carried out at this location and if completed these would have enabled a more specific noise environment characterization in this area. Nevertheless, as described in Section 6.4.2.1 it is noted that this area has similar characteristics to those areas surveyed in Eastern Section, since both sections are characterized by being rural areas where noise sources are not intense.

6.4.3 Surface Water

6.4.3.1 Introduction

This section describes the watercourses that are crossed by the pipeline route of TAP in Albania, these include:

• Hydrographic and morphometric characteristics; and

• Hydrological parameters related to water quality, such as average discharge, annual specific discharge, and maximum discharge with different return periods.

This section should be read in conjunction with Annex 4.1 and Annex 6.1 – Section 6.1.3.

The pipeline route of the TAP in Albania affects the Semani River catchment. This river is one of the biggest rivers in Albania, with a catchment area of 5,649 km 2 and is located in Central and South-eastern Albania. It originates in South-eastern Albania, on the border with Greece, and ends in the Adriatic Sea, within the Fier district. It is composed of 2 main tributaries: the Devolli River and the Osumi River, which have catchments of 3,130 km 2 and 2,150 km 2, respectively. The Devolli River crosses the pipeline route in its upper part, within the Bilisht district, and in the upper part of the Dunaveci River, which is a tributary of the Devolli River. The Osumi River is the watercourse most affected by the pipeline route and is crossed a number of times in the upper, central, and lower parts of its course. The Semani River itself is crossed twice by the pipeline route in the Roskovec and the Rreth Libofshe areas.

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In order to establish baseline levels for surface water quality, water and sediment samples have been collected at some of the pipeline intersections with rivers, torrents, and irrigation channels.

6.4.3.2 River Hydro-Morphology

Along the pipeline route, river hydro-morphology may be affected where rivers are crossed and also through changes to catchments and flows. The following sections provide detail on river hydro-morphology for each pipeline route section, including:

• Hydrologic conditions observed during the field survey, for those analysis points visited. Figure 6.4-21 shows the location of these hydrologic analysis points;

• Data from hydrologic stations: hydrologic data (for the period 1951 to 1990) from the Institute of Hydrometeorology of Albania (IHMA) have been extracted and processed. After 1990 Albanian data is not complete or reliable due to political and historical changes in the country during this period. Figure 6.4-21 shows the location of these hydrologic stations.

• Classification of watercourse, according to the CCM River and Catchment Database (European Commission´s Joint Research Centre): This database represents the first comprehensive database of river networks and catchment boundaries for the European continent. The following categories of watercourses have been considered:

o River 1: represents the main rivers with riverine habitats of ecological importance or ecological potential; o River 2: represents a tributary of the main rivers, which are still sizable rivers with riverine habitats of ecological importance or ecological potential; o River 3: represents smaller streams which are tributaries of Rivers 2. They have permanent waters riverine habitats of ecological importance or ecological potential; and o Channels, providing services like irrigation and water supply, which may be dry during certain periods of the year due to human activities.

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Figure 6.4-21 Hydrologic Stations and Hydrologic Analysis Points

Source: ERM (2011)

6.4.3.2.1 Eastern Section

The Eastern Section is considered the poorest area in terms of water resources in Albania. This is due to climate characteristics, which show the area to have the lowest precipitation. Main catchments present within the Eastern Section are those of the Devolli and the Dunaveci Rivers, with catchment areas of 172 and 15 km 2, respectively; runoff of 2.96 and 0.3 m 3/s, respectively, and specific discharge of 17.2 and 20.0 l/s.km 2, respectively (IHMA. 1951-1990). Table 6.4-12 describes Hydrologic Analysis points from the Eastern Section.

6.4.3.2.2 Central Eastern Section

The Central Eastern Section affects only the upper part of the Osumi River. One hydrological station (Osumi River at Leshnja) and 3 meteorological stations (Vithkuq, Shtylle and Potom) function in this section. The main catchment present within this section is the Osumi River. Table 6.4-13 describes Hydrologic Analysis points from this section.

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6.4.3.2.3 Central Western Section

The Central Western Section includes the middle and the lower part of the Osumi River. There are 4 hydrological stations functioning in this section: 3 along the main watercourse at Çorovode, Bogove, and Ura Vajgurore, and 1 at the tributary of Vokopola Torrent, near Poliçan City. At the beginning of this section, the Osumi River is an important watercourse with a catchment area of 972 km 2 and a length of 87.5 km. At this point the flow rate is approximately 14.6 m 3/s (IHMA, 1951-1990). The other 2 main catchments present within the Central Western Section are the Vokopola and Vertopi Torrents, with catchment areas of 149 and 46.8 km 2, respectively, runoff of 2.5 and 0.75 m 3/s, respectively, and specific discharge of 17 and 16 l/s.km 2, respectively (IHMA. 1951-1990). Figure 6.4-14 describes Hydrologic Analysis points from the Central Western Section.

6.4.3.2.4 Western Section

In the Western Section, the Semani River has embankments on both sides to protect the area from flooding. From a hydrographical point of view the Gjanica River is an important tributary. It joins the Semani River near Fier City. Both of which are the main catchments present within the Western Section, with catchment areas of 5,649 and 234 km 2, respectively, runoff of 95 and 4.02 m 3/s, respectively, and specific discharge of 16.8 and 17.1 l/s.km 2, respectively. (IHMA. 1951-1990). There are 2 hydrological stations in this section: 1 in the Semani River at Ura Mbrostarit (near Fier), and 1 in the Gjanica River at Fier. The pipeline route in this section intersects the Semani River catchment area at 2 locations.

Table 6.4-15 presents Hydrologic Analysis points from the Central Western Section.

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Table 6.4-12 Hydrologic Analysis Points within the Eastern Section

Hydrologic Location Classification of Characteristics Analysis Point Watercourse H1 Trestenik Kp 2.0. Very small Channel Tributary of Kalieve Stream. Two small springs existing in its catchment area are used as drinking water for Trestenik Village residents. Stream creek located near Additional waters from an irrigation reservoir flow into this watercourse. Trestenik Village H2 Devolli River Kp 8.3. Located 1 km River 1 “Devolli Field” is an important agricultural area. Length of 33 km at the hydrologic analysis point. Well developed stands of trees planted on before Bilisht town both sides of the river to mitigate the impact of flooding. Regular river bed with a width of 20 to 30 m and 1.5 m banks. Average flow rate is 2.96 m 3/s. H3 Stropani Stream Kp 12.9. Located East Channel Tributary of the Devolli River. Catchment area of 19.6 km 2 and length of 9.6 km at the hydrologic analysis point. Stream Stropani waters are Babani village used mainly for irrigation, communal and hygiene purposes in Babani, Stropani, and Eçmenik villages, mainly. The river bed is narrow however its banks are relatively high on both sides with well developed riparian vegetation (trees, shrubs, etc.). It is around 20 m wide, with a depth of 6 to 8 m. This stream is almost dry during the summer due to water taken up for agriculture. Average flow rate is 0.4 m 3/s. H4 Ventroku Kp 16.6 Channel Built in 1976. It originates in the Small Prespa Lake. Irrigation purpose for Devolli Field and Korca Field. In 2002 the irrigation system of Small Irrigation Prespa Lake was decommissioned, so the network of irrigation channels remains dry and unused. Channel H5 Dvorani Stream Kp 45.5 Channel Tributary of the Dunaveci River. Catchment area of 35 km 2 and a length of 12.2 km at the hydrologic analysis point, which is located (Not visited) 800 m it joins the Dunaveci River. Dvorani Stream waters are used for irrigation purposes. H6 Kamenice Kp 47.0 Channel Tributary of the Dunaveci River. Catchment area of 23.8 km 2 and a length of 11.2 km at the hydrologic analysis point, which is located 1.2 km Stream (Not before it joins the Dunaveci River. Kamenica Stream waters are used for irrigation purposes. The river bed is cemented in the hydrologic visited) analysis point. H7 Stershoit Kp 50.4 Channel Tributary of the Dunaveci River. Catchment area of 6.5 km 2 and a length of 7 km at the hydrologic analysis point, which is located 400 m Stream (Not before it joins the Dunaveci River. visited) H8 Dunaveci River Kp 51.4. Located 1.7 River 2 Tributary of the Devolli River. Catchment area of 374 km 2. Hydrologic analysis point is located in the upper course of the river. Catchment area km Northwest Floqi at the hydrologic analysis point is 15.3 km 2 and a length of 4.84 km at the hydrologic analysis point. Regular river bed, with a width of 3 m and village 2 m high banks. The flow is stable in this sector. Average flow rate is 14 l/s.km 2.

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Table 6.4-13 Hydrologic Analysis Points within the Central Eastern Section

Hydrologic Location Classification of Characteristics Analysis Point Watercourse H9 Osumi River Kp 57.3. Located 2.5 km River 1 Catchment area of 54 km 2, runoff of 1.55 m 3/s, and specific discharge of 29 l/s.km 2 (IHMA). Length of 17.4 km at the hydrologic downstream from Leshnja analysis point, which is located on the upper course of the Osumi River. There are springs existing in the Vithkuq and Shtylla areas. village River profile is shallow, with a normal 4-m wide river bed and a maximum width recorded between 10 to 15 m. H10 Osumi River Kp 68.0. Located 2.6 km River 3 Catchment area of 10.1 km 2, runoff of 0.35 m 3/s, and specific discharge of 35 l/s.km 2 (IHMA). Length of 4.26 km at the hydrologic (Not visited) south Shtylla village. analysis point, which is located at an elevation of 1450 m. Average flow rate is 0.35-0.4 m 3/s.

Table 6.4-14 Hydrologic Analysis Points within the Central Western Section

Hydrologic Location Classification of Characteristics Analysis Point Watercourse H11 Osumi River Kp 103.4. Located 1.2 km River 1 Catchment area of 971.8 km 2 at the hydrologic analysis point. The river profile has a trapezoid shape, with a normal river bed width of upstream Çorovoda city 40 - 50 m. The East bank is natural, rocky, and 20 m high, while the left bank is only 2 - 3 m high. The flow in this sector is regularly torrential, as the crossing point is downstream of some mountainous stretches. The mean altitude of the catchment area at this intersection point is 1,100 m. The river bed is composed of coarse gravel and stones (up to 30 - 40 cm thick). Average flow rate is 14.6 m 3/s. H12 Osumi River Kp 107.0. Located 2.57 km River 1 Catchment area of 1,120 km 2 and length of 90.6 km at the hydrologic analysis point. The river bed becomes wider (more than 100 m) (Not visited) downstream Çorovoda city at this location. Average flow rate is 20 m 3/s. H13 Osumi River Kp 110.2. Located 5.65 km River 1 Catchment area of 1,130 km 2 at the hydrologic analysis point. downstream from Çorovoda city H14 Vokopola Kp 123.2 River 1 Tributary of the Osumi River. Catchment area of 146 km 2 and length of 28.2 km at the hydrologic analysis point, which is located Torrent (Not 0.9 km before it joins the Osumi River. The mean altitude of the catchment area at this intersection point is 564 m. There are some visited) important springs in the catchment area. The river is regular, with a width of 10 to 15 m. Both banks are steep and hilly at this location. Average flow rate is 2.5 m 3/s. H15 Osumi River Kp 130.6 River 1 Catchment area of 1,441.8 km 2 and length of 117.5 km at the hydrologic analysis point, which is located 2.83 km before it joins the Vertopi Torrent. The mean altitude of the catchment area at this intersection point is 1,010 m. The river bed becomes wider (120 to 150 m). Average flow rate is 22.5 m 3/s. H16 Vertopi Torrent Kp 132.4 River 1 Tributary of the Osumi River. Catchment area of 46.8 km 2 and length of 13 km at the hydrologic analysis point, which is located at 0.40 km before it joins the Osumi River. The mean altitude of the catchment area at this intersection point is 984 m. The river profile is trapezoidal and regular, with a width of 10 to 15 m. The banks on both sides are 1.5 m high. Average flow rate is 1.31 m 3/s.

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Hydrologic Location Classification of Characteristics Analysis Point Watercourse H17 Osumi River Kp 134.3 and 135.6 River 1 Catchment area of 1,550.8 km 2 and length of 124 km at the hydrologic analysis point, which is located at Fush Peshtan. The Osumi River enters a plain area in this sector. The river profile in this sector is very regular with a width of around 150 m. Both banks are steep and hilly, and the river bed material is composed mainly of stones (10 to 40 cm), with silt, clay, sand, and gravel. Average flow rate is 23.2 m 3/s. H18 Vodica Torrent Kp 139.6 River 2 Tributary of the Osumi River. Catchment area of 63 km 2 and a length of 17 km at the hydrologic analysis point, which is located 1.66 km before it joins the Osumi River. The mean altitude of the catchment area at this intersection point is 636.5 m. Average flow rate is 0.9-1 m 3/s. H19 Osumi River Kp 156.4. Located near Otllak River 1 Catchment area of 1,939.5 km 2 and a length of 146.7 km at the hydrologic analysis point, which is located near Lapardha. The Osumi River flows within a plain area. The river profile in this sector is very regular, with a width of around 150 m. The banks of both sides are steep and hilly. The river bed material is composed mainly of silt, clay, sand, and a small percentage of gravel. The flow in this sector is steady, and turbidity (solid material in suspension) is high. Average flow rate is 23.2 m 3/s.

Table 6.4-15 Hydrologic Analysis Points within the Western Section

Hydrologic Location Classification of Characteristics Analysis Point Watercourse H20 Semani River Kp 180.1. Located near River 1 Catchment area of 5,380 km 2 and a length of 239 km at the hydrologic analysis point, 37 km after the Devolli and Osumi Rivers join Jagodina (origin of the Semani river). The river is approximately 100 m wide in the hydrologic analysis point. The Semani River is controlled by embankments built to avoid floods affecting adjacent field areas. Average flow rate is 90 m 3/s. H21 Semani River Kp 192.4. Located near Rreth River 1 Catchment area of 5,625 km 2 and a length of 258 km at the hydrologic analysis point, after the Gjanica River joins the Semani River. Libofshe Semani River is controlled by embankments built to avoid floods affecting adjacent field areas. Its banks are relatively high on both sides and riparian vegetation is present. The river profile in this sector is very regular and trapezoidal. The river width is approximately 70 to 80 m. The river bed material is mainly clay and sand. The flow is steady. Semani River waters are charged with significant amounts of solid materials in suspension (high turbidity). Average flow rate is 95 m 3/s. H22 Semani Field Kp 206.5 Channel This channel is the main artery that collects all the waters of the field area, and is located within reclaimed land close to the Adriatic Drainage coast. Water within this channel is brackish and supports species associated with estuarine systems. Channel

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6.4.3.3 Water Quality

As described in Section 6.4.3.1, the pipeline route of the TAP in Albania intersects a considerable number of watercourses. Water quality sampling for water and sediment was undertaken in the most important sections of those watercourses that will be crossed by the pipeline.

Water quality may be affected where watercourses are crossed and by changes to watersheds and flows. Figure 6.4-22 shows the location of water sampling points along the TAP route in Albania. More detailed maps are also provided in Annex 4.1.

Figure 6.4-22 represents the specific water sampling points whilst the detailed maps in Annex 4.1 represent the field survey locations (see also Table 6.4-17 , Table 6.4-19 and Table 6.4-22 for sampling point description and findings).

Figure 6.4-22 Location of Water Sampling Points

Source: ERM (2011)

Table 6.4-16 includes reference values and classification criteria used for evaluating analytical results from water samples collected.

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Table 6.4-16 Reference Values and Classification Criteria for Surface Water Samples

Parameters Reference values Sources Classification NIVA, 1997 (*) Classification UNECE (**) Temperature 10-21.5 Salmonid waters 2006/44 - - (ºC) 10-28 Cyprinid waters EEC pH 6-9 2006/44 >6.5 (I) / 6.0-6.5 (II) / 5.5-6.0 - EEC (III) / 5.0-5.5 (IV) <5 (V) Conductivity - - - - D.O. (mg/l) > 9 Salmonid waterrs - >9 (I) / 6.4-9 (II) / 4-6.4 (III) / >7 (I) / 7-6 (II) / 6-4 (III) / 4-3 > 7 Cyprinid waters 2-4 (IV) / <2 (V) (IV) / <3 (V) Turbidity (NTU - - <0.5 (I) / 0.5-1 (II) / 1-2 (III) / - / FTU) 2-5 (IV) / >5 (V) BOD5 (mg/l 0 3 Salmonid waters 2006/44 - <3 (I) / 3-5 (II) / 5-9 (III) / 9- O2) 0 6 Cyprinid waters EEC 15 (IV) / >15 (V) COD (mg/l O2) - - <2.5 (I) / 2.5-3.5 (II) / 3.5-6.5 <3 (I) / 3-10 (II) / 10-20 (III) / (III) / 6.5-15 (IV) / > 15 (V) 20-30 (IV) / > 30 (V) TDS (mg/l) - - - - TSS 0 25 Salmodid and 2006/44 <1.5 (I) / 1.5-3 (II) / 3-5 (III) / Cyprinind waters EEC 5-10 (IV) / > 10 (V) N-NO3 ( )g/l) - - - <5 (I) / 5-25 (II) / 25-50 (III) / 50-80 (IV) / > 80 (V) Ptotal ( )g/l) < 200 Salmonid waters 2006/44 <7 (I) / 7-11 (II) / 11-20 (III) / - < 400 Cyprinid waters EEC 20-50 (IV) / > 50 (V) N-NH4 ( )g/l) 0 1000 2006/44 - <100 (I) / 100-500 (II) / 500- EEC 2000 (III) / 2000-8000 (IV) / > 8000 (V) TOC ( )g/l) - - <2.5 (I) / 2.5-3.5 (II) / 3.5-6.5 - (III) / 6.5-15 (IV) / > 15 (V) Total HCs *** 2006/44 - - ()g/l) EEC SF cfu/100 ml 100 76/160 - - EEC Notes: (*) Category I: Very good / Category II: Good / Category III: Fair / Category IV: Bad / Category V: Very bad. (**) Category I: Constant near saturation of oxygen content. Insignificant presence of oxygen demanding substances from the point of view of aquatic life. Clear, oligotrophic water with, at most, a very slight, occasional anthropogenic pollution with organic matter. Low nutrient content, provides spawning grounds for salmonids. Category II: The oxygen saturation of water is good. Oxygen demanding substances do not normally disturb oxygen saturation. Slightly polluted, mesotrophic water receiving small discharges of organic matter. The loadings may lead to slightly increased primary productivity. Category III: Oxygen deficiencies may occur in the hypolimnion. The presence of oxygen-demanding substances risks sometimes considerable negative impacts on aquatic life through the reduction of oxygen content. Moderately eutrophic water receiving considerable amounts of discharges of organic matter and nutrients. The level of primary production is considerable, and some changes in community structure, including fish species, can be observed. Category IV: Oversaturation of oxygen deficiency occurs in the epilimnion, and oxygen deficiencies are frequent in the hypolimnion, possibly due to chronic problems with the presence of oxygen–demanding substances. Strongly eutrophic, polluted water, receiving discharges of organic matter, nutrients, and harmful substances. Algal blooms are common. Increased decomposition of organic matter together with stratification of water bodies may entail anaerobic conditions and fish kills. Mass occurrences of more tolerant species; populations of fish and benthic organisms are affected. Category V: Acute problems occur in oxygen regime, i.e. oversaturation or oxygen deficiency in the epilimnion, and oxygen deficiency leading to anaerobic conditions in the hypolimnion. The high level of oxygen-demanding substances may equally cause acute oxygen deficiencies. Extensive polluted, hypertrophic water. Decomposers dominate over producers. Fish or benthic species do not occur permanently. (***) No film visible on the surface of the water and no odour. Petroleum hydrocarbons must not be present in water in such quantities that they form a visible film on the surface of the water or form coatings on the beds of water-courses and lakes

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6.4.3.3.1 Eastern Section

Four watercourses intersected by the pipeline were defined as sampling points where water samples should be collected, both in upstream and downstream locations, in relation to the pipeline crossing point.

A low flow field survey was undertaken in August 2011, during warm and dry conditions. These climate conditions are reflected in the minimum flow of water bodies identified during the sampling event. The identified sampling points within this section are detailed in Table 6.4-17.

Table 6.4-17 Water Sampling Points in the Eastern Section

Watercourse Location Samples Trestenik Creek Kp 2.0. Area of Trestenik CTr/u CTr/d Devolli River Kp 8.3. Area of Bilisht RDe/u RDe/d Stropani Torrent Kp 12.9. Area of Stropan (Babani) TSt/u TSt/d Irrigation Channel Kp 16.6. Area of Vranishte (Pilur) - Legend: XX/u: sampling point located upstream from the pipeline. and watercourse crossing point XX/d: sampling point located downstream from the pipeline and watercourse crossing point -: samples were not collected due to absence of flow in irrigation channel (dry)

The common characteristic of sampling points in the Eastern Section is the tight river bed and a low flow rate, which, in the case of the irrigation channel, was negligible (the channel was dry).

Complete analytical certificates from the laboratory and a summary of analytical results of water samples collected in the sampling points in the Eastern Section are included in Annex 6.1 – Section 6.1.3 . A description of the main analytical results is included in Table 6.4-18.

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Table 6.4-18 Description of Analytical Results (Low Flow)

Parameters Description Temperature All temperature values are within the limits established for salmonid and cyprinid waters (EU Directive 2006/44). pH All pH values are within the limits established by EU Directive 2006/44. pH values are classified as category I, according to NIVA classification. Conductivity Conductivity values are from 436 to 507 )S/cm Dissolved All DO values are below the limits established for salmonid waters (EU Directive 2006/44), except Oxygen (DO) sample CTr/u that is within the limit established for cyprinid waters (EU Directive 2006/44). According to the NIVA classification all samples are classified as category III; except samples CTr/u and RDe/d that are classified as category II. According to the UNECE classification all samples are classified as category III, except samples CTr/d and RDe/d that are classified as category II, and CTr/u that are classified as category I. Turbidity According to the NIVA classification all samples are classified as category V, except sample TSt/u that is classified as category IV BOD5, All samples are within the limits established for cyprinid waters (EU Directive 2006/44), except samples CTr/u and TSt/u that are also within the limits established for salmonid waters (EU Directive 2006/44). According to the UNECE classification all samples are classified as category II, except samples CTr/u and TSt/u that are classified as category I. COD According to the UNECE classification all samples are classified as category III, except samples CTr/u and TSt/u that are classified as category II. According to the NIVA classification samples RDe/u, TSt/u and TSt/d are classified as category III, while samples RDe/d, CTr/u and CTr/d are classified as category IV. TDS TDS values are from 219 to 253 mg/l. TSS All samples are above the limits established for cyprinid and salmonid waters (EU Directive 2006/44), except samples RDe/u and TSt/u that are within the limits established for cyprinid waters. According to the NIVA classification all samples are classified as category V, except sample TSt/u that is classified as category IV. N-NO3 According to the UNECE classification all samples are classified as category V, except samples TSt/u and TSt/d that are classified as category IV. P total All samples are within the limits established for salmonid waters (EU Directive 2006/44), except sample TSt/u that is within the limits established for cyprinid waters (EU Directive 2006/44). According to the NIVA classification samples CTr/u, RDe/d and RDe/u are classified as category IV, while samples CTr/d, TSt/d and TSt/u are classified as category V. N-NH4 All samples are within the limits established for salmonid and cyprinid waters (EU Directive 2006/44). According to the UNECE classification all samples are classified as category I, except sample TSt/u that is classified as category II. TOC According to the NIVA classification all samples are classified as category V. Total HCs All samples are within the limits established by the EU Directive 2006/44. SF cfu/100ml All samples are above the limit established by the EU Directive 76/160, except sample TSt/d that is within this limit.

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6.4.3.3.2 Central Eastern and Central Western Sections

Two sampling points were selected in the Central Eastern Section, while a total of 5 sampling points were selected in Central Western Section.

Two field surveys were undertaken for the Central Eastern and the Central Western Sections: one during low flow in June 2011, and one during high flow in November 2011. An additional field survey for the Central Eastern Section took place in July 2012 (low flow period) to cover the crossings of the Staravecke River system due to engineering modifications to the routing of the pipeline. Samples RS/u and RS/d were therefore collected only during low flow period.

The pipeline route in the Central Eastern and the Central Western Sections crosses 10 surface watercourses. Seven crossings are located on the Osumi River, from Kp 57.3, down to Leshnja village up to Kp 156.4, near Lapardha village. The other 3 crossings are the Vokopola, Vertopi, and Vodica Torrents. Table 6.4-19 identifies the sampling points within this section:

Table 6.4-19 Water Sampling Points in the Central Eastern and the Central Western Sections

Watercourse Location Samples Osumi River Kp 57.3. Area of Vidhkuq. Central Eastern Section RO/u RO/d Staravecke River Kp 85.1 Area of Potom. Central Eastern Section RS/u RS/ Osumi River Kp 103.4. Area of Corovode. Central Western Section RO1/u RO1/d Vokopola Torrent Kp 123.2. Area of Bogove(Ustie). Central Western Section TVo/u* TVo/d* Vertopi Torrent Kp 132.4. Area of Polican. Central Western Section TVr/u TVr/d Osumi River Kp 135.6. Area of Fushe (Peshtan). Central Western Section RO2/u RO2/d Osumi River Kp 156.4. Area of Otllak. Central Western Section RO3/u RO3/d Legend: XX/u – XX/d: sampling point located upstream – downstream from the pipeline and watercourse crossing point Note: * TVo/u and TVo/d were resampled in August 2011 (low flow) because samples collected in June 2011 (during a period of high flow) could not be analysed due to unforeseen laboratory issues.

Complete analytical certificates from the laboratory and a summary of the analytical results of water samples collected at the sampling points in the Central Eastern and Central Western Sections are included in Annex 6.1 – Section 6.1.3. Details regarding the main analytical results are included in Table 6.4-20 and Table 6.4-21.

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Table 6.4-20 Description of Analytical Results (High Flow)

Parameters Description

Temperature All temperature values are within the limits established for salmonid waters (EU Directive 2006/44), except sample TVr/d that is within the limits established for cyprinid waters (EU Directive 2006/44). pH All pH values are within the limits established by the EU Directive 2006/44. pH values are classified as category I, according to the NIVA classification. Conductivity Conductivity values are from 376 to 445 )S/cm. Dissolved All DO values are within the limits established for cyprinid waters (EU Directive 2006/44), except Oxygen samples RO3/u and RO3/d, which are below these limits. According to the NIVA classification all (DO) samples would be classified as category II. According to the UNECE classification all samples would be classified as category I, except samples RO3/u and RO3/d that would be classified as category II. Turbidity According to the NIVA classification all samples are classified as category V, except samples RO/u and RO/d which are classified as category III, and sample RO1/d which is classified as category IV. BOD5 All samples are within the limits established for salmonid and cyprinid waters (EU Directive 2006/44). According to the UNECE classification all samples are classified as category I. COD According to the UNECE classification sample RO3/d is classified as category I, samples RO/u, RO/d, TVr/u and TVr/d are classified as category II, sample RO2/u is classified as category III, sample RO2/d is classified as category IV and samples RO1/u, RO1/d and RO3/u are classified as category V. According to the NIVA classification sample RO3/d is classified as category I, samples RO/u, RO/d and TVr/d are classified as category III, sample TVr/u is classified as category IV, and samples RO2/u, RO2/d, RO1/u, RO1/d and RO3/u are classified as category V. TDS TDS values are from 110 to 296 mg/l. TSS All samples are above the limits established for cyprinid and salmonid waters (EU Directive 2006/44), except samples RO/u, RO/d, RO1/u and RO1/d that are within these limits. According to the NIVA classification all samples are classified as category V, except samples RO/u and RO/d that are classified as category II. High levels of TSS could be consequence of precipitation (rains) before collecting the water samples. N-NO3 According to the UNECE classification all samples are classified as category V. High levels of nitrates in Torrent Vertopi could be explained by runoff from agricultural and livestock facilities. Higher values of N-NO3 could be explained by urban discharge and agricultural runoff. P total All samples are within the limits established for salmonid and cyprinids waters (EU Directive 2006/44). According to the NIVA classification all samples are classified as category IV, except samples RO1/u and RO2/u that are classified as category V. N-NH4, All samples are within the limits established for salmonid and cyprinid waters (EU Directive 2006/44). According to the UNECE classification all samples are classified as category I. Higher values of N-NH4 could be related to urban wastewater discharges. TOC According to the NIVA classification all samples are classified as category V. Total HCs All samples are within limits established by EU Directive 2006/44. SF All samples are above the limit established by EU Directive 76/160, except samples TVr/u and Tvr/d cfu/100ml that are within these limits. High values detected could be related to the sewage discharge from residential areas into the Osumi River and its tributaries. There are no urban wastewater treatment facilities in the residential areas along the river from Corovode to the joining of the Osumi and the Devolli Rivers. The sewage discharged into the river could be creating a potential source of bacterial contamination. In Leshnje Village, which is close to water sampling point RO, urban waste was found within the river bed.

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Table 6.4-21 Description of Analytical Results (Low Flow)

Parameters Description Temperature Samples RO2/u, RO2/d, RO3/u and RO3/d are within the limits established for salmonid and cyprinid waters (EU Directive 2006/44). Samples TVo/u, TVo/d, RSt/u and RSt/d are within the limits established for cyprinid waters. The rest of the samples are below these limits. pH All pH values are within the limits established by the EU Directive 2006/44. pH values are classified as category I, according to the NIVA classification. Conductivity Conductivity values are from 304 to 380 )S/cm. Dissolved All DO values are within the limits established for cyprinid waters (EU Directive 2006/44), except Oxygen samples RO/u, RO/d, TVr/u, RO3/u and RO3/d, that are within the limits established for cyprinid and (DO) salmonid waters (EU Directive 2006/44). According to the NIVA classification samples RO/u, RO/d, TVr/u, RO3/u and RO3/d are classified as category I, and the rest of the samples are classified as category II. According to the UNECE classification all samples are classified as category I. No data available for samples RSt/u and RSt/d. Turbidity According to the NIVA classification all samples are classified as category V except samples RS/u and RS/d that are classified as II.. BOD5 All samples are within the limits established for salmonid and cyprinid waters (EU Directive 2006/44). According to the UNECE classification all samples are classified as category I. Increase of BOD5 levels along the Osumi River may be result of sewage discharges and wastewater from urban areas. COD According to the UNECE classification all samples are classified as category I, except samples RO3/u, RS/u and RS/d that are classified as category II, and samples TVo/d and TVo/u that are classified as category III. According to the NIVA classification all samples are classified as category I, except samples RSt/u and RSt/d classified as category III and RO3/u, TVo/d and TVo/u that are classified as category IV. TDS TDS values are from 186 to 435 mg/l. TSS All samples are within the limits established for cyprinid and salmonid waters (EU Directive 2006/44), except samples TVo/u, TVo/d and TVr/d. According to the NIVA classification all samples are classified as category IV, except samples RO1/u, RO1/d, TVo/u, TVo/d, TVr/u, TVr/d and RO3/u that are classified as category V and RSt/u and RSt/d which are category II. High levels of TSS detected in Torrent Vokopola can be explained by the fact that the samples were collected after some precipitation. N-NO3 According to the UNECE classification all samples are classified as category V. P total All samples are within the limits established for salmonid and cyprinids waters except RSt/d which is within limits for cyprinid waters and RSt/d which exceeds the limits (EU Directive 2006/44). According to the NIVA classification all samples are classified as category IV, except samples RO1/d and RO2/u that are classified as category II, samples RO1/u and RO3/d that are classified as category III, and samples TVo/u, TVo/d, RS/u and RS/d that are classified as category V. N-NH4 All samples are within the limits established for salmonid and cyprinid waters (EU Directive 2006/44). According to the UNECE classification all samples are classified as category I. No data available for samples RS/u and RS/d. TOC According to the NIVA classification all samples are classified as category V. Total HCs All samples are within the limits established by EU Directive 2006/44.

SF All samples are within the limits established by EU Directive 76/160, except samples RO/u, RO/d, cfu/100ml RO2/u, RO3/u and RO3/d that are above these limits. These high levels detected may be explained by urban and sewage wastes dumped in river.

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6.4.3.3.3 Western Section

The pipeline route in the Western Section crosses two surface water features, the Semani River near Libofshe Commune (1 km south), and a Drainage Channel located Southeast of the Semani River, near to its delta on the Adriatic Sea (Tropoja area). Water samples were collected during July 2012 for the Semani River near the Vjosa – Levan – Fier irrigation channel and in a Drainage Channel. Table 6.4-22 identifies sampling points within this section.

Table 6.4-22 Water Sampling Points in the Western Section

Watercourse Location Samples

Semani River Kp 192.4. Area of Libofshe (Rreth Libofshe) RS1/u RS1/d Drainage channel Kp 206.5. Area of Tropoja DC Legend: XX/u – XX/d: sampling point located upstream – downstream from the pipeline and watercourse crossing point

Complete analytical certificates from laboratory and a summary of the results of water samples collected in the sampling points in the Western Section are included in Annex 6.1 – Section 6.1.3. Details regarding the main analytical results are included in Table 6.4-23 and Table 6.4-24.

Table 6.4-23 Description of Analytical Results (High Flow)

Parameters Description

Temperature All samples are within the limits established for salmonid and cyprinid waters (EU Directive 2006/44). pH All pH values are within limits established by the EU Directive 2006/44. pH values are classified as category I, according to the NIVA classification. Conductivity Conductivity values are from 426 to 1,397 )S/cm. Dissolved All DO values are within the limits established for cyprinid and salmonid waters (EU Directive Oxygen (DO) 2006/44). According to the NIVA and the UNECE classifications all samples are classified as category II. Turbidity According to the NIVA classification all samples are classified as category V, except DC sample that is classified as category IV. BOD5 All samples are within the limits established for salmonid and cyprinid waters (EU Directive 2006/44), except sample RS1/u that is within the limit established for cyprinid samples. According to the UNECE classification all samples would be classified as category I, except sample RS1/u that is classified as category III. COD According to the UNECE classification sample RS1/u is classified as category II, sample RS1/d is classified as category IV and sample DC is classified as category V. According to the NIVA classification RS1/u is classified as category IV and samples RS1/d and DC are classified as category V. Higher values of COD could be explained by an increase in contamination levels due to urban and industrial wastewater discharge in the area of Fier. TDS TDS values are from 274 to 8,350 mg/l. High content of TDS in the DC sample may be explained by the high content of salt existing in the surrounding lands. TSS DC sample is within the limits established for cyprinid and salmonid waters (EU Directive 2006/44). Samples RS1/u and RS1/d are above these limits. According to the NIVA classification all samples are classified as category V. N-NO3 According to the UNECE classification all samples are classified as category V. P total All samples are within the limits established for salmonid and cyprinids waters (EU Directive 2006/44). According to the NIVA classification all samples are classified as category V.

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Parameters Description

N-NH4 All samples are within the limits established for salmonid and cyprinid waters (EU Directive 2006/44). According to the UNECE classification all samples are classified as category I. TOC According to the NIVA classification all samples are classified as category V. High levels of TOC detected in DC sample could be result of organic matter decomposing in the channel from the reeds on both banks. Total HCs All samples are within limits established by the EU Directive 2006/44. Despite that, visible spots of hydrocarbons were observed on the water, coming from the Gjanica River, that is contaminated from industrial petroleum activities in Ballsh and Fier. SF cfu/100ml All samples are above limits established by EU Directive 76/160. These high levels detected can be explained as sewage discharge into the river from residential areas and from urban wastes.

Table 6.4-24 Description of Analytical Results (Low Flow)

Parameters Description

Temperature All samples are within the limits established for salmonid and cyprinid waters (EU Directive 2006/44). pH All pH values are within the limits established by the EU Directive 2006/44 76/160. pH values are classified as category I, according to the NIVA classification. Conductivity Conductivity values are from 536 to 1,397 )S/cm. Dissolved All DO values are within the limits established for cyprinid and salmonid waters (EU Directive Oxygen (DO) 2006/44), except sample DC that is below these limits. According to the NIVA classification all samples are classified as category II. According to the UNECE classification RS1/u and RS1/d samples are classified as category I, and DC sample is classified as category II. The low level of DO detected in DC sample can be explained by the high salinity of the water, due to a intercommunication between the channel and the sea, as well as a high salinity of the lands draining the channel. Turbidity According to the NIVA classification all samples are classified as category V. The Semani River is characterized by high levels of turbidity, as a result of solid materials with high clay content from the Devolli and the Osumi Rivers, and from erosion of banks along the Semani River, which are mainly of clay nature. BOD5 All samples are within the limits established for salmonid and cyprinid waters (EU Directive 2006/44), except sample DC that is within the limit established for cyprinid samples (EU Directive 2006/44). According to the UNECE classification all samples are classified as category I, except sample DC that is classified as category II. COD According to the UNECE classification all samples are classified as category II, except sample DC that is classified as category IV. According to the NIVA classification all samples are classified as category III, except sample DC that is classified as category V. TDS TDS values are from 454 to 11,900 mg/l. TSS All samples are above the limits established for cyprinid and salmonid waters (EU Directive 2006/44). According to the NIVA classification all samples are classified as category V. As explained for turbidity, high levels of TSS are explained by high clay content from the Devolli and the Osumi Rivers going to the Semani River, and from bank erosion along the Semani River, mainly of clay nature. N-NO3 According to the UNECE classification all samples are classified as category V. P total All samples are within the limits established for salmonid and cyprinids waters (EU Directive 2006/44). According to the NIVA classification all samples are classified as category V, except sample RS1/u that is classified as category IV. N-NH4 All samples are within the limits established for salmonid and cyprinid waters (EU Directive 2006/44), except sample DC that is above this limit. According to the UNECE classification sample RS1/u is classified as category I, sample RS1/d is classified as category II and sample DC is classified as category III. TOC According to the NIVA classification all samples are classified as category V.

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Parameters Description

Total HCs All samples are within the limits established by EU Directive 2006/44. SF cfu/100ml All samples are above the limits established by EU Directive 76/160, except sample DC that is within this limits. High levels detected in the Semani River are related with sewage discharges from residential areas.

Source: Laboratory results of Field Surveys, ERM (2011)

6.4.3.3.4 Key Findings and Conclusions

Key findings and conclusions from the low flow and high flow sampling events are provided below:

• pH and DO levels detected in the Osumi River and the Vertopi Torrent were within the limits allowed by EU Directive 2006/44 EEC in both high and low flow seasons;

• BOD5 levels detected are below reference limits of EU Directive 2006/44 EEC. A progressive BOD5 increase downstream along the Osumi River has been observed, as a result of wastewater discharge;

• Total phosphorus concentrations detected are within the limits of EU Directive 2006/44 EEC;

• Ammonium nitrogen has a slight progressive downstream increase along the Osumi River, however it remains at the minimum level defined by EU Directive 2006/44 EEC throughout the water flow. Regarding ammonium nitrogen levels in the Semani River, despite that there is an increase in levels detected in the low flow season in comparison with values detected in high flow season, water quality remains within the limits for cyprinid waters;

• Nitrates levels generally increase progressively downstream along the Osumi River;

• There is a slight increase of TOC levels downstream along the Osumi River that is caused by increased concentrations of organic matter in a reduced volume of river water in a constant discharge of wastewater from urban and economic activities; and

• Total Hydrocarbons Compounds have been detected in very low concentrations, in most cases below the laboratory detection limit.

In summary, the Osumi River (together with 2 of its tributaries sampled: the Vokopola and the Vertopi Torrents) and the Semani River meet the general criteria defined by EU Directive 2006/44 EEC for quality of water supporting fish life in salmonid and cyprinid waters. Based on the requirements of the Water Framework Directive waters, these 2 rivers can be classified as good statutes.

Regarding watercourses from the Eastern Section and the Staravecke River in Central Eastern Section, which were only sampled in low flow season, general physical/chemical indicators for all samples are below the reference values considered, with the exception of the Stropani Torrent

(sample TSt/u), where the values found for DO, NO 3, and NH 4, were above the established limits.

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Human activities upstream of the crossing point between pipeline and the Stropani Torrent could be the source for those high values. The impact is stronger in the upstream location than in the downstream location. The Staravecke River presents values for PO 3 above limits in the upstream location. Referring to Water Framework Directive (WFD) Annex V, chemical water quality of watercourses sampled in the Western Section may be considered as good quality.

6.4.3.4 Sediment Quality

Along the pipeline route sediment quality may be affected where rivers are crossed or where the pipeline route may cause changes to watersheds and flows. Sampling points where evidence of potential contamination could be detected were identified for sediment sampling. Table 6.4-25 presents the identified sampling points.

Table 6.4-25 Sediment Sampling Points

Watercourse Section Location Samples 1 Osumi River Central Western Kp 103.9. Area of Corovode RO1 2 Osumi River Central Western Kp 156.9. Area of Otllak RO3 3 Semani River Western Kp 192.4. Area of Libofshe (Rrethlibofshe) RS1 4 Drainage Channel Western Kp 206.5. Area of Tropoja DC`

Source: ERM (2011)

Figure 6.4-23 presents the location of sediment sampling points along the TAP route in Albania.

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Figure 6.4-23 Sediment Samples Location

Source: ERM (2011)

Sediment sample RO1 was collected in the Osumi River upper course, near Corovode city. In this location there is absence of urban or industrial areas further upstream.

Sediment sample RO3 was collected in the Osumi River, downstream from Otllak area, upon the Osumi River has flown through the towns of Corovode, Polican, Berat, and some other villages, which discharge their untreated urban wastewater, agricultural, and livestock runoffs into the river.

Sediment sample RS1 was collected in the Semani River. This river is heavily affected by human activity, not only because it collects urban discharge from the city of Fier, because it also collects industrial pollutants from Fier, Ballsh and Patos, including water from the Gjanice River (tributary of the Semani River), which also collects industrial pollutants from other areas.

Sediment sample DC was collected in a water body apparently not affected by urban or industrial wastewater and where the only potential source of pollution is agricultural runoff (an activity which is limited because of the relatively high salinity of the adjacent land).

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Complete laboratory certificates, a summary of the analytical results, reference values and classification criteria used for evaluating the analytical results for the sediment samples are presented in Table 6.4-26.

Table 6.4-26 Reference Values and Classification Criteria for Sediment Samples

Parameters Reference value Classification NIVA, 1997 (mg/kg) (*) WDNR OMEE (ug/g or ppm) (mg/kg) Lowest Severe Level 1 Effect Level Effect Level Concern (LEL) (SEL) (TEC) AOX (Absorbable Organic Halogens) - - - - N total - 550 4800 - P total - 600 2000 - TOC - 1 % 10 % - Sb 2 - - - As 9.8 6 33 <5 (I) / 5-25 (II) / 25-100 (III) / 100- 200 (IV) / >200 (V) Be - - - - Cd 0.99 0.6 10 <0.5 (I) / 0.5-2.5 (II) / 2.5-10 III) / 10-20 (IV) / >20 (V) Co - - - - Total Cr 43 26 110 - Cr VI - - - - Hg 0.18 0.2 2 <0.15 (I) / 0.15-0.6 (II) / 0.6-1.5 (III) / 1.5-3 (IV) / >3 (V) Ni 23 16 75 <50 (I) / 50-250 (II) / 250-1000 (III) / 1000-3000 (IV) / >3000 (V) Pb 36 31 250 <50 (I) / 50-250 (II) / 250-1000 (III) / 1000-3000 (IV) / >3000 (V) Cu 32 16 110 <30 (I) / 30-150 (II) / 150-600 (III) / 600-1800 (IV) / >1800 (V) Se - - - - Sn - - - - Ta - - - - Va - - - - Zn 120 120 820 <150 (I) / 150-750 (II) / 750-3000 (III) / 3000-9000 (IV) / >9000 (V) Heavy hydrocarbons (C12-C40) - 1500 mg/kg (0.15%) - Light hydrocarbons (

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Table 6.4-27 presents a description of the main analytical results. As a summary, heavy metal contents and the presence of organic compounds in river sediments are generally lower than the corresponding reference values for freshwater sediments.

Table 6.4-27 Description of Analytical Results

Parameters Description

AOX All samples are below laboratory detection limits N total All samples are below laboratory detection limits, and below OMEE reference values (LEL and SEL) P total All samples are below OMEE reference values (LEL and SEL) TOC All samples are below OMEE reference values (LEL and SEL) Sb All samples are below WDNR reference value As All samples are below WDNR and OMEE (LEL and SEL) reference values. According to NIVA all samples are classified as category I, except sample DC that is classified as category II Be Be values are from 0.13 to 0.292 mg/kg Cd All samples are below WDNR and OMEE (LEL and SEL) reference values. According to NIVA all samples are classified as category I Co Co values are from 10 to 20.9 mg/kg Total Cr All samples are above WDNR and OMEE (LEL and SEL) reference values, except sample RO3 that is below SEL reference value of OMEE. Relatively high values of Cr detected could be associated to natural levels Cr VI Cr VI values are from 0.044 to 0.156 mg/kg Hg All samples are below WDNR and OMEE (LEL and SEL) reference values, except sample RS1 that is above WDNR. According to NIVA all samples are classified as category II, except sample RO3 that is classified as category I Ni All samples are above WDNR and OMEE (LEL and SEL) reference values. According to NIVA all samples are classified as category II, except samples RS1 and DC that are classified as category III. Relatively high values of Ni detected could be associated to natural levels Pb All samples are below WDNR and OMEE (LEL and SEL) reference values. According to NIVA all samples are classified as category I Cu All samples are below WDNR and OMEE (LEL and SEL) reference values. According to NIVA all samples are classified as category I Se All samples are below laboratory detection limit, except sample RS1 (0.175 mg/kg) Sn Sn values are from 1.84 to 3.15 mg/kg Ta Ta values are from 0.0454 to 0.155 mg/kg Va Va values are from 22.1 to 50.9 mg/kg Zn All samples are below WDNR and OMEE (LEL and SEL) reference values. According to NIVA all samples are classified as category I Heavy HCs All samples are below OMEE reference value (C12-C40) Light HCs All samples are below OMEE reference value (

Source: Theolab (2011)

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Additionally, two of the sediment samples (RO1 and RO3) were used for doing a grain size analysis.

Table 6.4-28 presents a summary of the corresponding results. Complete analytical certificates from the laboratory are included in Annex 6.1 – Section 6.1.3.2.

Table 6.4-28 Summary of Granulometric Results

Samples Gravel (%) Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%) Sediment definition (*) RO1 7.71 60.32 29.81 2.16 Silty sand RO3 47.68 14.43 3.84 34.05 Clayey gravel Notes: (*) Definition of sediment according to the Unified Soil Classification System. ASTM Units: % of dry weight

6.4.3.5 Key Findings and Conclusions

The hydrology of the Eastern Section is characterised by the presence of the Devolli River, which is surrounded by a network of channels used mainly for irrigation purposes which are related to strong agricultural activity in the area. Taking into account water quality criteria, watercourses in the Eastern Section are considered to have high quality conditions, and consequently a high level of sensitivity. Details are included below:

• Devolli River (River 1) is critical to the maintenance of the structure and quality of surrounding soils; it supports important flora and fauna and plays a regional regulating role in the hydrologic cycle.

• All the streams considered as channels (Channel) are important in providing services such as irrigation for agricultural fields, or even potable water supply (e.g.Trestenik Creek).

Medium quality conditions and a medium level of sensitivity are assigned to the Dunaveci River (River 2). Its importance is lower in comparison with the Devolli River. In general terms and in comparison with WFD, chemical water quality conditions in the Eastern Section are considered of good quality. Consistently no evidence of contamination in sediments was observed during the field survey, and no sediment samples were collected in the Eastern Section.

The Central Eastern Section is characterised by housing the upper course of the Osumi River, generally considered River 1, although the first kilometres of the river may be considered River 2 or 3. The Osumi River is considered critical for the maintenance of the structure and quality of surrounding soils, supporting important flora and fauna and playing a regional regulating role in the hydrological cycle. It has high quality conditions and a high level of sensitivity. In general terms, and in comparison with WFD, the chemical water quality in the Central Eastern Section is considered good, which confirms the high quality conditions and the high level of sensitivity described above. As a result of the general good water quality conditions, no evidence of contamination in sediments was observed during the field survey, and no sediment samples were collected in this section. Additionally the Staravecke River is located in the Central Eastern

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Section; categorised as River 2 with water of a medium quality and at least a medium level of sensitivity.

The Central Western Section is characterised by housing the middle course of the Osumi River, including some of its tributaries, such as the Vokopola, Vertopi and Vodica Torrents. Only the Vodica Torrent is considered River 2, while the Osumi River and the Vokopola and Vertopi Torrents are considered as River 1. The Osumi River and the Vertopi and Vokopola Torrents may be considered critical to the maintenance of the structure and quality of surrounding soils. They support important flora and fauna, and play a regional regulating role in the hydrological cycle. The Osumi River along the Central Western Section has high quality conditions, and a high level of sensitivity. However, the Vodica River, being River 2, should be considered as having medium quality conditions, and at least a medium level of sensitivity.

There is a decrease in water quality conditions in the Central Western Section from the Osumi River upstream location to the same river downstream location near main residential areas mainly due to organic pollution from the sewage discharge of these residential areas (Corovode, Berat, etc.). The quality of the Osumi River in the Central Western Section may be classified as good to moderate according to the WFD, with medium quality conditions and medium sensitivity.

The Vokopola Torrent, although it can be classified as good according to the NIVA classification, has a bacteriological content above the limits established by EU Directive 76/160 EEC. Consequently, taking into account the water quality criteria, it may be considered to have medium quality conditions and a medium level of sensitivity.

The Vertopi Torrent may be classified as of medium quality and a medium sensitivity level, because its nitrate N contents are above the reference levels established by EU Directive 2006/44 EEC.

Two sediment samples were collected from the Osumi River in the Central Western Section. A slightly polluted classification related to the concentrations detected for Cr and Ni could be related to natural geological formations.

The Western Section is characterized by the presence of the Semani River, considered River 1, and a drainage channel from the Semani field irrigation (channel). An increase in contamination levels from urban discharges and industrial wastewaters has been noted during recent years, including visible spots of hydrocarbon film in the water. As a result of this, and according to the water quality criteria, both the Semani River and the Semani field drainage channel may be described as of low quality level, associated with poor flora and fauna, lack of services provided to the local community, and absence of role in terms of amenity or recreational use.

Two sediment samples were collected from the Semani River and from the drainage channel. Some concentrations of Cr and Ni were detected, however they could be related to natural geological formations.

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6.4.3.6 Limitations

In order to detect changes in water quality during the year, two surveys were organized on the same river locations: one in the high flow season, and the other in the low flow season.

• Central Eastern, Central Western and Western Sections: samples collected in June 2011 correspond to the high flow season. In fact, during the June field sampling event, the water of the Vertopi Torrent, and the Osumi and Semani Rivers contained high quantities of total suspended solids (TSS) because of the precipitation event the day before samples were collected. Samples collected in November 2011 correspond to the low flow season. Sampling of the Staravecke River was undertaken in July 2012 (low flow) as a result of a local reroute of the pipeline (Potom Route – refer to Section 2.3.2.3. ).

• Eastern Section: due to a rerouting of this section of the pipeline (Korca Loop – refer to Section 2.3.2.3. ), sampling was performed in September 2011. Samples collected correspond to the low flow season. Samples corresponding to the high flow season were not collected due to scheduling reasons, and the rerouting issue.

No historical data of water quality of rivers or torrents intersected by the pipeline route in Albania are available.

River flows in Albania are characterized by large oscillations of flow, between high and low flow seasons (typical Mediterranean regime). In many villages, drinking water is not available continuously through the day: drinking water is supplied to residential areas periodically (average of 3 times a day in the morning, afternoon and evening). For this reason, wastewater discharges to rivers do not occur continuously along the day, however take place at the same time of the day in which water is available. In this context, relevant oscillations (both seasonal and daily) in the water quality of rivers may be expected and should be taken into consideration when interpreting analytical results.

Regarding sediment samples, analytical results from the collected sediment samples show that heavy metal and organic compound concentrations are below the corresponding reference values. 6.4.4 Groundwater 6.4.4.1 Overview

Groundwater in Albania is present in different lithologies, and is exploited through wells located mainly in the plains and valleys, or from springs found mostly in hills or mountain areas. This section should be read in conjunction with Annex 6.1 – Section 6.1.4.

The hydrogeological map of Albania is shown in Figure 6.4-24 .

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Figure 6.4-24 Hydrogeological map of Albania

Berat Fier

Korca

Pipeline route Corovode

Source: based on Xhomo et al. (2002) Legend

Porous Aquifers. Highly Productive Aquifers (Coarse Quaternary Alluvium)

Porous Aquifers. Low Productive Aquifers (Fine Quaternary Alluvium)

Karstified Higly Productive Aquifer (Limestones, Dolomites)

Moderate Productive Fissured Aquifer (Sandstones, Conglomerates, Clays)

Locally Productive Aquifers (Intrusive Rocks)

Practically Non-Aquiferous Rocks (Flysch, Karst Flysck Rocks)

Practically Non Aquiferous Rocks (Karst Flysck Rocks)

The basic element responsible for the water-bearing capacity of the permeable materials is the hydraulic response given as a result the following classifications (materials in brackets correspond to the lithology for each aquifer type in the case of Albania).

I. Porous aquifers:

Highly productive aquifers (coarse Quaternary alluvium)

Low productive aquifers (fine alluvium)

II. Karstifed and fissured aquifers:

Highly productive karst aquifers (limestone, and to a lesser extent dolomites)

Moderately productive fissured aquifers (sandstones, conglomerates, clays)

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III. Locally or low productive aquifers:

a. Locally productive aquifers (intrusive rocks)

Practically non-aquiferous rocks (flysch, karst flysch)

A detailed description of each aquifer type is included in Annex 6.1 – Section 6.1.4.

6.4.4.2 Groundwater Description

6.4.4.2.1 Eastern Section

The Eastern Section is mainly characterized by porous Quaternary aquifers. From Kp 0 to approximately Kp 26 low production aquifers are found. Thereafter high production aquifers lie beneath the pipeline route.

The main water bearing gravel layers of the Devolli River aquifer (porous low productive aquifer) are located below Quaternary deposits.

A spring, located approximately 300 - 400 m South of the Central axis of the TAP route (Kp 4), is used to supply the village of Trestenik with potable quality water, although some turbidity is present in quality samples 1. Between Kp 6 and Kp 8, there are Quaternary clayey-silty deposits over the water bearing gravel layers of the Devolli River aquifer, and consequently there may be groundwater present. The thickness of the clayey-silty deposits is unknown.

Between Kp 13 and 15 there is an increase in the thickness of the Quaternary clayey-silty-sandy deposits from 6 to 10 m. Between Kp 15 and 26 there is a continuous increase in the Quaternary thickness, which is above 10 m. Despite that, there is a water spring spotted in the foothills present in the area, close to the central axis of the TAP route.

There is an aquifer of regional importance covering most of the Plain of Korca. Wells in this area have medium specific capacity (a few litres per second/day) and water quality is generally considered good, although iron, nitrites, and nitrates have been detected in groundwater. This is likely due to the extensive agricultural activity in the region. Water from this aquifer is used to supply drinking water to the city of Korca. Within Mujalli Village municipal area (Kp 46) there are parcels of cultivated land along the rivers, so water wells, drilled down a few meters, are used for irrigation purposes as the water is unsuitable for human consumption. There are also wells near Petove village, located approximately 2 km Southeast of Mujalli Village near the edge of Libofsha Hills. These wells were drilled before the 1960s, and they are around 120 m deep.

According to the urban planner for the Commune of Drenovë and the Director of Water and Sewerage of the city of Korca:

• The only populated area not yet connected to the piped system is Ravonik;

1 Information provided by Trestenik Head of Village

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• Residents of the commune also dig wells for irrigation purposes;

• The aquifer is mainly located 150 m in the Turan area. There are 7 different groundwater levels within this aquifer (it is a multilayer aquifer). Water quality is high, as it drains directly from the surrounding mountains. The area surrounding the aquifer is protected as this is a vital drinking water supply source for the region. Water is piped using 200 mm pipes that are 20 km in total length and are buried 2.5 m below the ground level. In order to avoid groundwater contamination it is illegal to use the land for industrial purposes; and

• Other nearby populated areas as Pojan, Qënder and Plase are planning to build water pipelines to supply water.

Groundwater is unlikely to occur within the rest of the study area in the Eastern Section due to the presence of low permeability Burdigalian deposits or quasi impermeable colluvium deposits.

6.4.4.2.2 Central Eastern Section

According to the hydrogeological map shown in Figure 6.4-24 only 2 aquiferous semi productive units are expected to be found within the Central Eastern Section. From Floq River Bridge to Kp 58, close to the village of Leshjne, the Intrusive rocks locally productive aquifer is expected to be found. From there to Kp 70 there is a karstified highly productive aquifer, from Kp70 to 72 there is a locally productive intrusive rock aquifer and beyond Kp 72 practically non aquiferous rocks are present along the pipeline route.

Groundwater is not so abundant along the Central Eastern Section, and generally reaches the surface in the form of springs, at the contact between limestone and flysch formations. An example of this is the popular Satka Spring, close to Vithkuq, which occurs at the contact surface between the limestone of the lower Cretaceous and the flysch deposits. A spring was also found in the Forest of Lirza close to Kp 81.3.

The presence of a crystalline/impermeable basement of volcanic rocks in the area under the pipeline route from Kp 52 to 55 suggests potential groundwater as it is probable that these rock will be acting as an impermeable layer. It is suggested that further geological studies be made in this area to evaluate the potential presence of groundwater along the pipeline route.

Two additional groundwater sources have been identified within this section:

• From the Floq Bridge to the Gjanci reservoir there are 2 water springs, at the contact surface between ultrabasic formations and Quaternary colluvium deposits; and

• From the Gjanci reservoir to the Osumi River, villages are supplied with potable water from natural springs.

6.4.4.2.3 Central Western Section

Groundwater is only expected at a few points along the pipeline route within this section, due to the local karst geology.

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A few kilometres downstream from Fushe-Peshtan, at Uznova Village, there are wells which supply potable water to the city of Berat and its industrial area. Irrigation wells are also located in the area. At the town of Ura Vajgurore, further downstream, there are more wells which supply potable water to the town.

Further hydrogeological studies would be needed to verify if the segment of the river bed from Otllak to Ura Vajgurore is a recharge area of the Osumi River Quaternary gravel aquifer.

6.4.4.2.4 Western Section

The pipeline route along the Western Section goes through the low productive aquifers of the Quaternary calcareous silt deposits of the Preadriatic Basin.

Groundwater is expected from the Rrogozhina Member, within the sandy and conglomeratic formation of the Middle Pliocene. For example, in the municipal areas of the Lower-Suk and Upper-Suk Villages there are 2 hydrogeological wells that supply potable water. The depth of both are approximately 280 m.

Within the Mujalli Village municipal area there are parcels of cultivated land along the rivers and water wells drilled down a few meters, which are used for irrigation purposes. There are also wells near the Petove village, located approximately 2 km Southeast of the Mujalli Village near the edge of the Libofsha Hills. These wells were drilled before the 1960s, and are approximately 120 m deep.

Semani Village, which is located near the seashore, is supplied with potable water from wells drilled at the Pojan Hills. Groundwater from these wells is probably related to the Rrogozhina Member, although it could also be related to the lower Vjosa River complex (Quaternary gravels). 6.4.4.3 Groundwater Sampling

In order to evaluate groundwater quality, a total of 3 groundwater samples were collected in those available wells detected along the TAP route. Groundwater sampling locations are included in Figure 6.4-25, more detailed maps are provided in Annex 4.1 . Annex 6.1 – Section 6.1.4 includes the analytical certificates from Theolab S.p.A and a summary of groundwater analysis results. Table 6.4-29 gives a brief description of the sampling points and their location along the route.

Table 6.4-29 Summary of Samples Collected

Sample Kp Sample description WP115 165.2 The well is located in area of quarries, which are dug from limestones WP116 165.1 The well is located in area of quarries, which are dug from limestones WP158 38.2 The well is located in the proximity of Korca, in a flat terrain called Korca Lowland, In Turani Village area alluvial deposits are composed of silty-clayey layers alternated by waterbearing gravel layers. The Quaternary gravel aquifer of Korca is used for supplying the city of Korca with potable water.

Source: Field Survey (June – September 2011), ERM (2011)

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Water depths found at the sampling locations (between 1.5 and 8 m below ground level) are not considered representative due to the presence of water extraction pumps. Figure 6.4-25 Groundwater Sample Locations

Source: ERM (2011)

Due to the topic of groundwater quality standard being absent within Albanian legislation, the analytical results were compared to the Dutch Standards (DS). The DS provide absolute concentrations of various groundwater contaminants. These standards, although not legally binding in Albania, are the reference values most commonly used by consultants and regulators across Europe. The DS were established based on criteria of toxicity to humans and ecotoxicity (risk to the environment), and are based on the background levels (natural concentrations found in the environment) inventoried in a study of the subsurface in the Netherlands.

There are two main Dutch standards:

• Dutch Target Value (DTV): for substances found naturally in the environment, target values correspond to background levels. Contamination is considered to exist when values exceed target values; and

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• Dutch Intervention Value (DIV): concentrations exceeding the intervention values are considered to represent serious environmental contamination, requiring completion of a quantitative risk analysis in order to prioritize potential corrective measures.

Analytical results from soil samples provided by Theolab S.p.A. laboratory have been compared specifically with the corresponding DIVs.

When detected chemicals were not included in the DS, the analytical results were compared to the USEPA 1 Region 9 Preliminary Remediation Goals (PRG) for tap water. The PRGs serve as calculated reference values for unacceptable risk to human health. These values are derived from standard equations that combine exposure hypotheses and toxicological information from the USEPA. Concentrations exceeding the PRG do not automatically imply that the site is contaminated, although it means that a more detailed investigation of potential risks should be undertaken. Additionally, analytical results for total coliforms were compared with Annex I of European Union Directive 98/83, or the Drinking Water Directive (DWD).

According to the analytical results, the following descriptions may be made:

• Anions: phosphate concentrations were not detected above the laboratory detection limit in any sample. In the case of chlorides, nitrates and sulphates, although they were detected above the laboratory detection limits, all results are below the corresponding DIV. Nitrate concentrations could be explained by the presence of agriculture lands where fertilizer use is expected. The presence of sulphates and chlorides could be related to natural geological conditions in the area;

• Metals: metal concentrations detected were below the corresponding reference values and thus may relate to natural concentrations existing in the subsoil. The only exception is manganese concentrations in sample WP116, which slightly exceeded the regional screening level of the USEPA. This concentration could be associated with some fertilizers that contain manganese, as well as with natural concentrations of manganese in the subsoil;

• Hydrocarbons, including total oil substances, animal and vegetable oils and fats, and total petroleum hydrocarbons: all the analytical results show concentrations below the laboratory detection limit;

• PAHs have been detected below laboratory detection limits in all groundwater samples analysed;

• Total coliforms: coliform concentrations were detected in the groundwater samples. The highest concentration was found in well WP115. This could be due to the fact that the well is surrounded by farms and farm animals. Coliform concentrations were lower in the other 2 wells, and are probably related to poor urban waste management or bad maintenance of the sewage drainage system;

1 USEPA Region 9 Preliminary Remedial Goals (PRGs) for direct contact exposure pathways. June 2011.

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• BOD5 was not detected above the laboratory detection limit in the 3 groundwater samples;

• COD levels were similar in samples WP116 and WP158 and somewhat higher in sample WP115. Construction characteristics of the well and the presence of farm animals could be a possible reason for this. Similarly, TOC levels were detected in similar concentrations in samples WP116 and WP158, while levels in sample WP115 were higher; and

• Total dissolved solids results were very similar in all the samples. Suspended particulate matter concentrations, on the other hand, were low in samples WP116 and WP158 and higher in sample WP115 as a result of well construction characteristics.

In summary, the analysis results indicate that sampled groundwater may not be considered potable water due to the presence of coliforms, however it may be considered appropriate for irrigation purposes. 6.4.4.4 Key Findings and Conclusions

A detailed level of knowledge regarding groundwater conditions in Albania does not exist, although groundwater has a great importance as the only source of drinking water.

Three main aquifers can be described along the pipeline route:

• Plain of Korca aquifer, located at approximately 150 m deep. It supplies drinking water for the City of Korca;

• Osumi Valley aquifer. It supplies drinking water for the City of Berat;

• Rrogozhina Member, in the Western Section, with aquifer depths ranging from 120 to 280 m. It is also used to supply drinking water.

According to the water quality criteria, the quality of these aquifers is medium to low due to the presence of coliforms. Sensitivity is high because, although coliforms are present, groundwater is used for drinking by the people of surrounding areas.

Albanian Water Law No. 8093 1 should provide a centralized inventory of water resources in terms of quality and quantity, according to the rules of the National Water Council, however only a “Pre- feasibility Study on Water Resources in South Albania” has been completed to date. Therefore, further studies in high sensitivity aquiferous zones should be conducted.

1 Albanian Water Law No. 80931, dated 21.03.1996 “On water reserves” as amended by Law No.8375 dated 15.07.1998; Law No. 8605, dated 20.04.2000; Law No. 8736, dated 01.02.2001; Law No. 9837, dated 03.12.2007; Law No. 10137, dated 11.05.2009 “On Some Changes in Legislation in Force for Licenses, Permits and Authorizations in the Republic of Albania” and Law No. 10448, dated 14.07.2011“On Environmental Permits”; (WRL),

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6.4.5 Geology and Geomorphology 6.4.5.1 Introduction

This section should be read in conjunction with the detailed description of geomorphological and geological features provided in Annex 6 – Section 6.1.5.

Although Albania is a relatively small country, there is a significant number of geological formations represented in its territory. Albania lies entirely within the Dinarides sector of the Alpine Orogenic Belt, which has a southeast to northwest orientation. The geological structure constituting Albania is called in general terms “the Albanides” (PEZA, 1967).

The continental crust in Albania comprises a Palaeozoic basement, magmatic rock of the Mesozoic age, and thick layers of Cenozoic sedimentary rock. The northern and eastern portions of the Alpine Orogenic Belt in Albania consist of ophiolite layers. Albania’s ophiolites represent oceanic crust that “flowed” onto and over the adjacent continental crust upon the collision of Mediterranean plates in the “obduction phase” of the Alpine Orogeny, during the Late Jurassic - Early Cretaceous.

The northeast portion of the belt within Albania contains metallic minerals, such as chromium, copper, zinc, nickel, gold and platinum group metals. The southwest portion of the belt contains oil sands and gas.

Geology and geomorphology have been described in detail along the entire pipeline route of TAP in Albania. More detailed information is included in Annex 6.1 – Section 6.1.5, where a description for field survey points and field work datasheets are included. The following sections describe the geology and geomorphology of each of the 4 sections along the pipeline route . Figure 6.4-26 and Figure 6.4-27 include the tectonic-stratigraphic and the seismotectonic maps of Albania.

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Figure 6.4-26 Tectonic-Stratigraphic map of Albania (1:200.000)

Pi peline route

Source: Xhomo et al. (2002)

Legend: U Kr 1 Preadriatic Depression 2 Zona tomorri

U Mk 2 Inner Depression Albano-Thessalian 1 Mirdite Zone (Hajmeli)

J Mk 3 Berati Zone 4 Mirdite Zone (Hajmeli)

J2 N Kurveleshi Zone Medium Jurassic Ophiolite

Kr-Cr 2 Krasta Cukali Zone

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Figure 6.4-27 Seismotectonic Map of Albania (1:500.000)

Pi peline route

Source: Aliaj Sh. et al. (2000) Legend:

6.4.5.2 Eastern Section

6.4.5.2.1 Overview

As shown in Figure 6.4-26 the region from the national border with Greece (Kp 0) to Floqi Bridge (Kp 51.2) is part of the inner depression unit. The Korca and Devolli Depressions are parts of the Moker-Thesaly Depression, which is located to the west of Mali i Thate (Dry Mountain) Horst. The Moker-Thesaly Depression represents a long, narrow intramountainous strip filled with marine molassic deposits of the Palaeogene and Neogene periods. Figure 6.4-26 shows that this depression has a southeast to northwest direction and is 80 km long by 10 - 25 km wide. There are three main units in this depression, the Devolli, Korca and Gore-Mokra synclines. The Eastern Section lies in part of the first two synclines. From Trestenik Village (Kp 4.0) to Cangonji Gorge (Kp 22.6), the pipeline route traverses the Devolli Syncline, while from Cangonji Gorge to Floqi Bridge (Kp 51.2) it traverses the Korca Syncline.

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The Korca and Devolli Depressions are both represented by grabens and their eastern and western margins are formed mainly by normal tectonic faults.

The Eastern Section is traversed by a number of active tectonic faults of the Pre-Pliocene and Post-Pliocene epochs. The pipeline route crosses these faults near Trestenik Village (Kp 4.0), and to the west of Zemblak Village (Kp 24.6). The pipeline route also comes close to these faults at the segment near Floqi Bridge. Figure 6.4-28 and Figure 6.4-29 include a geological map of the Eastern Section and a tectonic sketch of the Korca Graben. Figure 6.4-28 Geological Map of Eastern Section

Pipeline route

1’

1

Source: Xhomo et al. (2002) Legend Qh - Holocene. Quaternary, Alluvium deposits Pg22 - Middle Eocene: Flysch deposits. in Devolli and Korca lowlands; alluvium- Mainly marls, clays, silts, sands, sandstones marshy deposits in Maliqi Lowland conglomerates Qp - Pleistocene. Alluvial deposits: silts, N31h - Lower Pliocene. (“Helmesi” unit). sands, gravels Clays, silts, sandstones N11a - Burdigalian: Mainly silts and rare - J – Lutetian molasse deposits transgresive sandstones. overlie ultramafic rocks N11b - Burdigalian: Mainly marls, silts and Cr1 –Lower Cretaceous Limestones rare sandstones

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Figure 6.4-29 Tectonic Sketch of Korca Graben 1-1’

Source: Geology of Albania (2000)

6.4.5.2.2 Stratigraphy

The pipeline runs through the Korca and Devolli Depressions. These are filled with Quaternary alluvium-colluvium deposits (Qh-Qp) with Pliocene-Burdigalian deposits underneath (N11a N11b N2. pp22). There are also some marshy deposits North of the Korca Depression and near the Dunaveci River.

The basement of the zone consists of transgressive molasse deposits over ultramafic rock that makes up one of the ophiolite units in Eastern Albania ( J).

6.4.5.2.3 Geomorphology

The Devolli Depression, traversed by the Devolli River, generally has a northern direction and runs through the middle of the region’s lowlands. The Devolli Depression is enclosed by Ultrabasic mountain ranges to the east and to the west. The depression is part of the Albanian- Thessalian intermontane basin. Both depressions converge close to the village of Cangoj, Kp 22 aprox.

The Korca Depression is traversed by the Dunaveci River within the study area. To the east and to the west this depression is confined by mountainous relief, with low slopes. The average height above sea level within the Korca Basin varies from 820 m at the Maliq Area, to 950 m at the area near Morava Mountain. To the north and to the east of this valley the high mountain blocks of Mali i Thate Mountain, (which reaches 2,000-2,300 m.a.s.l) and of Morava Mountain, (which reaches 1,800 m.a.s.l) are present.

Both depressions are shown in Figure 6.4-30 .

Page 156 of 382 Area Comp. System Disc. Doc.- Ser. Code Code Code Code Type No. Project Title: Trans Adriatic Pipeline – TAP AAL00-ERM-641-Y-TAE-1008 ESIA Albania Section 6 - Environmental, Document Title: Rev.: 03 Socioeconomic and Cultural Heritage Baseline

Figure 6.4-30 Depressions of the Western Zone

Ohrid & Pres pa Lakes

Korca De pression

Pi peline route Korca City Devolli Depression

Produced by ERM based on Google Earth imagery (2012)

6.4.5.2.4 Mineral Resources

Mineral resources along the Eastern Section are scarce, although some evidence of mineral extraction was recorded at the following locations: extraction of gravel from Devolli River Bed at Kp 8.6; limestone quarry at Pulaha Village, located on the left side of the Dunaveci River, close to Floqi Bridge, at Kp 50 to 51.

6.4.5.2.5 Excavability

In the Eastern Section excavability of soils is considered Class 1 (easy excavation) due to the presence of loose deposits. Only at Kp 4 - 5 and Kp 22 - 22.6 excavability is considered as Class 2 (excavation with heavy machinery) due to the presence of cemented conglomerates.

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6.4.5.3 Central Eastern Section

6.4.5.3.1 Overview

This segment of the pipeline route lies from Kp 51.2 to 97. The pipeline route traverses the geological formations of the Mirdita and Krasta-Cukali tectono-stratigraphic units, including the Mirdita Ophiolitic subzone and the Krasta-Cukali-Krasta subzone, respectively. The first is represented mainly by ultrabasic and karstified limestone (Lower Cretaceous) formations, while the second is represented mainly by limestone and clayey-marly flysch deposits. The relief is steep and represented by high mountain chains, oriented southeast to northwest. There are narrow valleys between the mountains. The mountain base and the narrow valleys are covered by flysch deposits that present olistolites from Jurassic limestone.

From the tectonic standpoint, the pipeline route crosses only one active tectonic fault. This fault was created during or after the Pliocene period, and lies in a southwest-northeast direction, west of Rrungaja Mountain. Figure 6.4-31 presents a geological map of the Central Eastern Section: Figure 6.4-31 Geological Map of Central Eastern Section

Pipeline route

Source: Xhomo et al. (2002)

Legend Cr2 –Lower Cretaceous Limestones Cr1 –Lower Cretaceous Limestones

Qp - Pleistocene. Alluvial deposits: silts, sands, J3 – Upper Jurassic. Ophiolithic Breccia. gravels Tuffogenic Sandstones

Pg22 - Middle Eocene: Flysch deposits. Mainly J1/ J2 –Middle Jurassic. Norite, marls, clays, silts, sands, sandstones Gabrodiorite, Amphibolic Gabbro. Gabbro conglomerates Diabase

Qh - Holocene. Quaternary, Alluvium deposits T3-J1 - Upper Triasic- Lower Jurassic. in Devolli and Korca lowlands; alluvium-marshy Megalodonte Limestones, Stromatholite deposits in Maliqi Lowland Limestones,Limestones/Dolomite interbedding

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6.4.5.3.2 Stratigraphy

Near the Floqi Bridge the pipeline route traverses loose alluvium and colluvium Quaternary deposits. There is evidence of coarse grained sediments brought about by erosion of the hills to the south, east and west. Pebbles and gravels on the bottom of the Dunaveci River bed are of ultrabasic and carbonated composition. Beyond the Floqi Bridge the pipeline route runs through fossil limestone of the Upper Triassic-Lower Jurassic periods. After crossing the Ujebardhe- Lubonje road, the pipeline route traverses thin layers of loose Quaternary colluvium deposits that overlie compact ultrabasic formations of the Upper Jurassic period. The same situation can be described beyond the Gjanci reservoir. At Kp 52.7 the pipeline route traverses the Osumi River bed, filled with loose Quaternary alluvium-colluvium deposit composed of coarse gravels and pebbles, while the river banks are composed of fine sediments among which there are ultrabasic boulders. The Osumi River valley is composed of ultrabasic formations which belong to the ophiolitic sub-zone of the Mirdita tectono-stratigraphic unit. To the west of the river there are geological outcropping formations composed by units of the Middle Jurassic period, while on the east side outcrops on the surface include geological formations of the Upper Jurassic period. The base of the mountains and the valleys from Kp 52.7 to 94 are covered by flysch, and sometimes by alluvium-colluvium deposits, which partly cover the Rrungaja River valley. From Kp 72 to 82 lie the upper and western part of the Panariti valley, composed of flysch deposits.

6.4.5.3.3 Geomorphology

Near the Floqi Bridge the pipeline route traverses the flat terrain along the Southern edge of Korca Lowland. Beyond the Floqi Bridge (Kp 51.2) the pipeline route traverses steep terrain and a plateau-like formation until it reaches the Gjanci reservoir. After crossing the Ujebardhe- Lubonje road, the pipeline route crosses flat terrain similar to the Floqi Bridge segment that continues up to the west of Leshnja Stream, which is bordered on the east and west by high relief oriented in a southeast-northwest direction. The Osumi River valley here is narrow and bordered by high relief in a southeast-northwest orientation. From Kp 52.7 to Kp 94 the relief is very steep and consists of mountain chains and narrow valleys. To the south and west of this segment, between Kp 72.0 and 82.0, lies the upper part of the Panariti valley.

6.4.5.3.4 Mineral Resources

Along the southern part of the pipeline route (Kp 51.3), there are three limestone quarries. These quarries are used for limestone extraction and lime production. In addition, the copper mine of Rehova is located close to the Osumi River valley, approximately to the south of Kp 53.5.

6.4.5.3.5 Excavability

Excavability is considered Class 1 through the clayey-marly flysch of the Krasta subzone (K-C-k) and alluvium-colluvium deposits, and Class 3 through the compacted limestone and ultrabasic formations.

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6.4.5.4 Central Western Section

6.4.5.4.1 Overview

The Central Western Section of the pipeline route traverses, from east to west, the geological formations of the Krasta-Cukali, Krasta and Ionian tectonic-stratigraphic units. The relief is steep and represented by high mountain chains, oriented in a southeast-northwest direction. There are narrow valleys between the mountains that are composed of flysch deposits. The Krasta-Cukali zone is represented by the Krasta subzone, and composed of clayey-marly flysch deposits and the limestone of the Ostrovica Mountain. The Krasta zone is represented by the Tomorri subzone, composed of flysh deposits and limestone of the Tomorri mountain belt. The Ionian zone is represented by flysch deposits, and limestone of Berati and Kurveleshi belts.

There is only one active tectonic fault along this section of the pipeline route. This fault was created during or after the Pliocene and lies to the west of the city of Ura Vajgurore (Kp 164.4) in a southeast-northwest direction. This fault is shown in purple in Figure 6.4-32, a geological map of the Central Western Section.

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Figure 6.4-32 Geological Map of Central Western Section

Pipeline route

Source: Xhomo et al (2002)

Legend Qh - Holocene. Quaternary, Alluvium deposits Qp-h - Pleistocene-Holocene. Alluvial- in Devolli and Korca lowlands; alluvium- proluvial deposits: proluviale: sands, gravels marshy deposits in Maliqi Lowland Pg22 - Middle Eocene: Flysch deposits. Pg32 - Middle Eocene: Flysch deposits. Mainly Mainly marls, clays, silts, sands, sandstones marls, clays, limestons conglomerates N22rr Upper Pliocene (“Rrogozhina” unit). N31h - Lower Pliocene. (“Helmesi” unit). Sandstones and conglomerates. Clays, silts, sandstones Pg12 - Middle Eocene: Flysch deposits. Mainly Pg1 - Lower Eocene: Intercalations of marls, clays, silts, sands, sandstones organodetritic limestones with chert conglomerates intercolations

Cr1 –Lower Cretaceous Limestones Cr2 –Lower Cretaceous Limestones Pg23 - Middle Eocene: Flysch deposits. Mainly Pg33 - Middle Eocene: Flysch deposits. marls, clays, silts, sands, sandstones Mainly marls, clays, silts, sandstones conglomerates conglomerates

Pg13 - Middle Eocene: Flysch deposits. Mainly compacted sands and sandstones conglomerates

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6.4.5.4.2 Stratigraphy

At Kp 95, the pipeline route crosses compacted sandstones and conglomerates of the Middle Eocene flysch deposits. From Kp 110 to Kp 131., flysch deposits of the Middle Eocene are composed in this sector mainly of clays and silts, with rare layers of sandstones. The pipeline then crosses the Vokopola River (Kp 131) to Uznovë village (Kp 145), and crosses mainly alluvial Quaternary deposits. Then the pipeline runs again into the Middle Eocene units from kp 140 to 149 and exits those units close to the village of Laprdha.

The pipeline runs again into the Quaternary deposits of Vokopola River from Kp 154 to 157. Then, until Kp 162, the pipeline once more crosses Eocene formations and approximately 400 m of Cretaceous limestone. After crossing the Eocene formations, the pipeline lies again over Quaternary formations until Kp 166, close to the village of Poshjne, where the route crosses the previous Eocene formations until Kp 168. From there it runs into the Upper Pliocene Units of Rrogozhina and Helmesi, mainly sandstones, clays and conglomerates. The Central Western Section ends at Kp 173, where the lithological contact between Pliocene / Quaternary deposits is found.

6.4.5.4.3 Geomorphology

The pipeline passes along canyon formations crossing the Osumi River. This river has multiple small channels, and several alluvial terraces are found along the stream. The terraces expand as the canyon grows wider. The best examples of wide alluvial terraces are found from Kp 136 to 145, close to the village of Uznovë.

6.4.5.4.4 Mineral Resources

At Kp 136 gravel is extracted from the riverbed for construction purposes. Carbonated boulders and pebbles located upstream of the Vodia bridge are used for lime production. Several limestone quarries are located west of Ura Vajgurore (Kp 162-166).

6.4.5.4.5 Excavability

Excavability of soil is heterogeneous in the Central Western Section. Excavation is generally of low difficulty due to the presence of Class 1 Quaternary and flysch deposits. Excavation with heavy machinery, Class 2, may be necessary in flysch deposits richer in sandstone layers (Kp 131.4, 149.5, 156 and 157), while blasting works, Class 3, may be necessary in hard rock (Kp 110.3 -112.8), compacted sandstone and conglomerates (Kp 130) and in sandstone layers that are thick and form packages (Kp 149.8).

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6.4.5.5 Western Section

6.4.5.5.1 Overview

The Western Section is located in the Albanian Sedimentary Basin, which extends widely into the Adriatic Sea. The Albanian Sedimentary Basin represents a foredeep depression filled with Miocene and Pliocene molasses, and covered by Quaternary deposit, which are represented by different genetic types: marine deposits with a thickness of up to 200 m in the Adriatic littoral areas, lagoons and coastal marsh deposits, and alluvial deposits and clayey earth. In the accumulation coast the width of the sandy belt reaches up to 5 km. The flat shelf sinks gradually up to a depth of 100 m.

Figure 6.4-33 shows a geological map of the Western Section. The pipeline route traverses the geological formations of the Albanian West Plain (Preadriatic Depression). The Western Section of the pipeline route traverses only 1 active tectonic fault, which was created during or after the Pliocene, and lies close to the city of Fier in a South-North direction.

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Figure 6.4-33 Geological Map of Western Section

Pi pe lin e r oute

Source: Xhomo et al. 2002 Legend Qh -Holocene. Marine deposits: Mainly sands Qph - Pleistocene-Holocene. Alluvial-

and sub sands proluvial deposits: proluviale: sands, gravels Qh -Holocene. Marshy deposits: clays, silts, Qp - Pleistocene. Alluvial deposits: silts,

sands, organic matter sands, gravels Qh - Holocene. Marshy-alluvial deposits: N22rr - Upper Pliocene (“Rrogozhina” unit).

clays, silts, sands, gravels, organic matter Sandstones and conglomerates Qh - Holocene. Alluvial deposits: silts, sands, N21h - Lower Pliocene. (“Helmesi” unit). gravels Clays, silts, sandstones

6.4.5.5.2 Geomorphology

The main geomorphological formations in this sector are the ones related with to the coast / delta systems. The sector is a typical marsh flood plain where evidences of the old Semani river channels and abandoned meanders are found. The zone includes the Semani Delta, in the North of the onshore-offshore junction. This delta is half river/wave, according to the Galloway classification 1. Figure 6.4-34 shows the old Semani River channels and lagoons.

1 http://www.pnas.org/content/104/43/16804.full

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Figure 6.4-34 Geomorphologic Map Western Section

CURRENT RIVER CHANNEL

LAGOONS

OLD RIVER CHANNELS

Produced by ERM based on Google Earth imagery (2012)

6.4.5.5.3 Stratigraphy

The upper part of the geological section of this study area is represented by Pliocene and Quaternary deposits.

The Pliocene deposits were placed transgressively upon the older deposits. The deposits of the upper part of the Pliocene (“Rrogozhina” unit) are outcropped on the surface to the east of the study area, on the hilly part (Rreth Libofsha village territory), while in the flat area they are covered by Quaternary deposits. Lithologically, this Pliocene formation is divided into the Helmesi and Rrogozhina units. The Helmesi unit consists of massive clays, while the Rrogozhina unit consists of sandstones and conglomerates.

The Quaternary deposits are represented by alluvium, colluvium and marshy deposits, composed by clays, subclays, silts, sands, subsands and gravels.

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6.4.5.5.4 Mineral Resources

No mineral resources have been detected in the Western Section.

6.4.5.5.5 Excavability

In the Western Section excavation works would be Class 1 (of low resistance) as a result of the presence of Quaternary clayey-sandy deposits and loose marine sand and/or mushy deposits of the former swamps.

6.4.5.6 Key Findings and Conclusions

The Eastern Section is characterized by being part of an inner depression unit. There are 3 main units in this depression: Devolli, Korca and Gore-Mokra synclines.

The Central Eastern Section is characterized by high mountain chains (Ostrovica mountains), oriented southeast-northwest and north-south, including narrow valleys between the mountains, both mountain feet and narrow valleys are covered with flysch deposits.

The Central Western Section is characterized by the presence of mountanious and hilly areas along the Osumi River valley, with presence of flysch deposits.

The Western Section is characterized by flat terrain consisting of alluvial deposits.

In general terms, geology and geomorphological sensitivity can be considered low, according to the project description, in which excavation is indicated to reach a maximum depth of 3 m; therefore, impacts to geology and geomorphology are not expected.

6.4.6 Soil Quality

This section should be read in conjunction with the detailed maps provided in Annex 4.1 and soil quality data provided in Annex 6 – Section 6.1.6.

Figure 6.4-35 shows field survey locations.

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Figure 6.4-35 Field Survey Locations

Source: ERM (2011)

Soil quality has been described based on information obtained from field surveys undertaken along the TAP route in Albania. A total of 46 locations were surveyed along the pipeline route, 15 of which soil samples were collected in order to determine soil type. Table 6.4-30 includes the list of agricultural use of land locations at the pipeline route. Detailed information about soil types and their properties is included in Annex 6.1 – Section 6.1.6.

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Table 6.4-30 Surveys for Agricultural Use of Land Locations

Surveys Location Section Sampling Soil quality location category LU_SQ_046 Kp 1.0. Area of Trestenik Eastern X IV LU_SQ_047 Kp 5.0. Area of Vicocice Eastern III LU_SQ_048 Kp 10.2. West of Bilisht Eastern III LU_SQ_049 Kp 16.4. Area of Down Pilur Eastern X IV LU_SQ_050 Kp 24.0. Area of Zemblak Eastern II LU_SQ_051 Kp 29.1. Road to Terove Eastern X II LU_SQ_052 Kp 38.0. Crossing Dunavec. Road to Voskopoje Eastern II LU_SQ_053 Kp 45.0. Area of Polene Eastern X III LU_SQ_054 Kp 51.0. Area of Floq Eastern III LU_SQ_009 Kp 51.5. Area of Kamenice-Floq Central Eastern X III LU_SQ_010 Kp 52.0. Area of Kamenice-Floq Central Eastern VI LU_SQ_011 Kp 54.0. Area of Vithkuq Central Eastern VI LU_SQ_012 Kp 55.2. Area of Vithkuq Central Eastern VI LU_SQ_013 Kp 56.8. Area of West Gjanci basin Central Eastern X IV LU_SQ_014 Kp 57.4. Area of Leshnje Central Eastern X II LU_SQ_015 Kp 102. Area of Cerenisht Central Western VI LU_SQ_016 Kp 108.1. Area of Arizaj Central Western V LU_SQ_017 Kp 113.4. Area of Terepele Central Western IV LU_SQ_018 Kp 112.9. Area of Therepel-Buzuk Central Western IV LU_SQ_019 Kp 123. Area of Ustije Central Western V LU_SQ_020 Kp 124. Area of Zgerbonje Central Western V LU_SQ_021 Kp 130. Area of Cepan Central Western III LU_SQ_022 Kp 132.5. Area of Vertopi Central Western X III LU_SQ_023 Kp 137. Area of Hoxhaj Central Western II LU_SQ_024 Kp 141. Area of Bregas Central Western III LU_SQ_025 Kp 145. Area of Uznove Central Western X V LU_SQ_026 Kp 156.7. Area of Veterik Central Western III LU_SQ_027 Kp 150.5. Area of Ullinjas Central Western X IV LU_SQ_028 Kp 153.4. Area of Otllak-outskirts Central Western III LU_SQ_029 Kp 165.2. Area of Poshnje Central Western X III LU_SQ_030 Kp 168.5. Area of Pobrat basin Central Western IV LU_SQ_031 Kp 176. Area of Strume 2 km N Central Western II LU_SQ_032 Kp 179.2. Area of Suk i Poshtem Central Western II LU_SQ_041 Kp 185. Area of Kallm Western II LU_SQ_042 Kp 188.5. Area of CS03 Option 3 (Verri) Western X II LU_SQ_043 Kp 189.5. Area of CS03 Option 2 (Petove 1) Western III LU_SQ_044 Kp 190. Area of CS03 Option 1 (Petove) Western X III LU_SQ_045 Kp 191.5. Area of CS03 Option 4 (Mujoll - Western III Petove) LU_SQ_040 Kp 194.5. Area of Mujalli Western II LU_SQ_039 Kp 197. Area of Semani Sektor Western V

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Surveys Location Section Sampling Soil quality location category LU_SQ_038 Kp 198.5. Area of Semani i Ri Western VI LU_SQ_037 Kp 200.5. Area of Semani Western X VI LU_SQ_035 Kp 204.5. Area of Sheq-Marine Western VI LU_SQ_034 Kp 206.5. Area of Semani Beach 2 Western VI LU_SQ_036 Kp 207. Area of Semani Beach 2 Western V LU_SQ_033 Kp 208.5. Area of Semani Beach 1 Western X V or VI

Source: Field Survey (June – September 2011), ERM (2011)

Note: Soil quality categories are based on the methodology of the Albanian Institute of Soil Science (1992). The soil quality categories are colour coded, green (high), yellow (medium), and orange (low). 6.4.6.1 Eastern Section

The land is flat, and based on soil types this section is divided into 2 sub-sections:

• Histosols types, which are located in the lower part of Korca – ex Maliqi marshland; and

• Cambisols, located at the foothill system found in the axis Kapshtica – Zemblak.

Based on soil use, this section is divided into 4 subsections:

• In the first subsection (the upper part of the Devolli River), cereals and forages are the main crops, followed by potatoes and fruit trees. With slopes of up to 10%, composed of alluvial/diluvial and limestone parent 1 material, the soils are drained and mechanised with an irrigation system. Almost 90% of this area is cultivated.

• The second subsection of the Eastern Section starts in Devolli Valley and ends close to Korca city. Soils are characterized by high agricultural fertility and are planted with wheat, potatoes, beans and forages. Lands are worked, drained, mechanised and enriched with a considerable amount of fertilisers and pesticides. Crop yields are among the highest in Albania. Currently, the main crop is apple, planted on more than 60% of the surface, with an intensive degree of cultivation that requires a high level of mechanisation and chemical fertilisers. In addition to apples, plums cover 10% of the surface.

• The third subsection of the Eastern Section is the western part of the city of Korca in Dvoran, where agricultural land is used with the same intensity as in the first segment. Much of the land has been transformed into urban territory (urbanised soil). Crop pattern, characterized as private gardens, based on land occupation is as follows: apples, cherries, vegetables (mainly beans), potatoes and forages.

1 ‘Parent material’ is the underlying geological material (generally bedrock or a superficial or drift deposit) in which soil horizons form.

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• In the fourth subsection, from Dvoran up to Kp 51, the cultivated area has the following pattern: cherries, apples, plums and vineyards are up to 50%, and the rest are forages and cereals. Lands are worked, drained, mechanised and irrigated (high level of mechanisation).

Erosion is a major issue across Albania. The degree of erosion has increased due to the degradation of the land, minimal provision of anti-erosion measures and land abandonment. Although erosion in the Eastern Section is lower compared to other sections, the annual erosion of the soil surface is relatively high in the hilly and mountainous slopes surrounding Korca (2 – 5 ton/ha/year), and lower in the lower plain area (up to 2 ton/ha/year). 6.4.6.2 Central Eastern Section

Based on soil types, this section is divided into 3 sub-sections:

• Flat soils defined as phaeozems and specified under the chromic sub-type, corresponding to a field (plain) system from Kamenice – Floq to Gjanci reservoir.

• Chromic or ultramafic soils defined by the mineral characterisation of the bed rock, with a high presence of serpentine, corresponding to the mountain land system from Gjanci reservoir towards the west.

• Calcaric soils, where the bedrock is calcareous and/or dolomitic. In this section, except for the first 2 km, most of the soil consists of wasteland converted into pastures due to the improper chemical nature of the soil profile and its low agronomic productivity, corresponding to the mountain lands system from Gjanci reservoir towards the west.

Based on soil use, this section is divided into 4 subsections.

• The first sub-section includes a small part of the Korca Plain, which is characterised by high plant cover and cultivated soils. The main crops found are: wheat, forage crops, beans and fruit trees (apple and cherry). Agriculture, in general, is intensive, providing high yields. Agriculture is mechanised, irrigated and fragmented, with a functional drainage system, and with common use of nitrogen fertilizers.

• The second sub-section includes the area of the Gjanci hydropower station, which is characterised by a hilly and mountainous system, dominated by abandoned agricultural areas (>60%) converted into pastures. The land surface has 60 – 70% of plant cover and is slopped, with a high presence of stones on the surface. A small portion of these soils are used for agriculture and yields ares low due to the dominance of ultramafic rock as parent material. Crops planted are oat, wheat and forage crops.

• The third sub-section consists of valleys (Leshnja and Vithkuq), which are characterized by high agronomic potential related to calcareous formations and fluvial sediments from the creeks/rivers that traverse them. Cultivated plants are potatoes, beans, wheat, forage crops and apple. Economic changes have influenced land use patterns, and many farmers have abandoned the lands and have emigrated abroad or to the cities.

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• The fourth subsection corresponds to the Potom valley and its surrounding mountains, characterized by the presence of broad-leaved forests on mountain slopes mixed with alpine hay meadows, both grazed and un-grazed. Within the valley itself, landcover includes hornbeam scrub, grasslands used for local grazing of sheeps and goats and arable lands either used for planting of maize and wheat crops or as hay meadows using species such as alfalfa. Some orchards are also present close to villages.

Regarding erosion, there is a medium degree of erosion (approximately 10 – 15 ton/ha/year), according to Mediterranean levels, and a high degree of erosion, according to European levels. The chromic phaeozems are characterised by low erosion potential (< 5 ton/ha/year), while mountainous slopes have high intensity of erosion (10 – 20 ton/ha/year) due to inclination, overgrazing, land abandonment and absence of barrages and/or land protection measures. For 20 years, skeletic phaeozems have been almost abandoned and no traditional protective processes or other measures have been taken for their conservation. The calcaric fluvisols have an erosion potential of medium intensity (between 5 and 10 ton/ha/year) due to both the relatively low slope and the permanent care of farmers cultivating the agricultural plots. In some areas, crossed by small sections of the pipeline, terraces protected by fences, stone walls or strips of forests and shrubs are evident. According to Annex 6.1 – Section 6.1.6 the following features are observed: latent and active slope erosion at Kp 63 to 67 and Kp 74 to 75; and latent and active slope erosion, and active and latent landslides at Kp 77.5, Kp 82 to 83, Kp 87.3 and Kp 88.2.

6.4.6.3 Central Western Section

Based on soil types, due to the variation of the terrain and the specific conditions of soil formation this section is characterized by a miscellaneous variety of soil types, with dominance of fluvisols and calcisols. The distribution of soil types is related to the topographic systems:

• The hilly mountainous system in the proximity of the city of Polican;

• The hilly segment from Polican to Poshnja of Berat; and

• The plain system from Poshnja at the vicinity of Marinza.

Based on soil use, this section is divided into four subsections:

• In the first subsection, from Corovode to Polican, soils are located on top of limestone (calcisols). Those located along the rivers are young fluvisols. Dominating crops are cereals for fluvisols and fruit trees for calcisols. Land is cultivated with the following make up: cereals 30%, forage crops 30% and vegetables 30-40% (calcisols); and cereals 40%, forages 40% and vegetables and fruit trees – mainly cherries 30% (calcisols).

• In the second subsection, from Polican to Berat, there are fluvisols placed on secondary valleys formed by the erosion of creeks that perpendicularly traverse the Osumi River and are covered with mostly young alluvions. Crop patterns are focused towards intensive crops such as greenhouse vegetables, fruit trees (pear, apricot and cherries), and forage crops.

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• In the third subsection, from Berat to Marinza, with the exception of 2 narrow intersections (Otllak and Poshnje), the surface is almost entirely covered with olives (approximately 60% over 60 years in age). Olive groves are well maintained but use a low level of inputs, while for the new olive groves, the level of use of agrarian technology is high and intensive.

• The last subsection corresponds to the eastern part of the Myzeqe Plain, from Marinza to the end of the Central Western Section (Kallm of Fier), here cereals (40%) and forage crops (50-60%) dominate. Lands are well-organised, irrigated, mechanised and of high production potential. There are no cases of abandonment of land along this subsection.

Regarding erosion, three different features may be observed:

• Land that has not been abandoned is characterised by low agronomic potentials and is found on slopes. This has led to anti-erosion measures, although these have been implemented using traditional and local measures (stone banks and fences).

• Cultivated lands are also found on steep slopes (with angles higher than 50%) due to small surfaces per inhabitant. The presence of intensive olive groves in the area of Berat reduces erosion due to the vigorous root system and large crowns of these taller plants.

• A higher degree of erosion is found in the soils of Çorovode – Polican (up to 15 ton/ha) and a lower degree in the area of Uznove (Berat) and Roksovec (Fier). Erosion caused by overflow of the Osumi River which was evident along Poliçan – Ura Vajgurore during the winter season. This causes erosion to occur along the river, resulting in small deviations of the stream and important losses of land.

6.4.6.4 Western Section

The land is flat, with the exception of the Vajkan – Pajovë area, and based on soil types this section is dominated by fluvisols (mostly gleyic sub-type, and albic sub-type in the hilly system), cambisols (in the hilly system) and solonchaks (located at the Western area of this section).

Based on soil use, this section is divided into three subsections:

• Plane soils, from Kallm (Strum – Fier) to Semani i Ri (Fier), are used for cereals (wheat, maize) up to 40-50% of the agricultural area, vegetables up to 40-50%, and fruit trees occupy the remaining 10% of the agricultural lands. Average yields of wheat (5 ton/ha), maize (10 ton/ha) and forages (up to 25 ton/ha) ensure relatively stable incomes for farmers and there is, therefore, no sign of change in the use of this land.

• Soils in the hilly parts of the pipeline route, hilly system segment from Vajkan to Ardenice (Fier), are generally shallow, leached, reddish and with a developed profile. They are characterised by medium fertility and are appropriate for fruit trees, especially olive trees. For the last decade, there is a trend toward growing fruit trees in plantations. Beside olives, other less traditional trees are also being planted, such as mandarin and orange trees.

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• Salty soils, from Semani i Ri to the coastline (15 km inland from the coast), have low to very low agricultural potential. In the 1980s, a national-scale action was undertaken to improve them, based on the principle of leaching their chlorines and sulphates from the surface towards a lower horizon by the use of heavy drainage and irrigation channels. During this period, modest yields were achieved for some crops like wheat and forages, using large quantities of water for irrigation. Over the last 20 years, these soils have been abandoned by the villagers, and currently a high proportion of them are state controlled.

Regarding erosion, in the hilly area of Vajkan – Fier, where the slope reaches 30% and is smoother in the plains of Luvisols and Sollanchack, erosion is high, with the erosion degree characterised as Class 3. Despite this, anti-erosion measures are limited and the terrace system and provision of non-tilled vegetation strips (to protect soil from erosion), wherever present, are not well maintained. However, farmers have taken ownership of the soil surface in these sections and thus are continuously improving land status, using modern technologies, which lower the erosion rates considerably due to the use of less water compared to older methods. Moreover, minimum tillage reduces the effect of water erosion. Along the coast, erosion is variable and highly dynamic. In the past planting of pine trees to stop erosion of dune systems was undertaken and such pine plantations still occur within the vicinity of the pipeline route (i.e. Kp 206). Erosion continues to be an issue along the coast, where marine intrusion is occurring approximately 50 cm per year.

6.4.6.5 Screening of Existing Soil Contamination

In order to screen for existing soil contamination, soil sampling was undertaken in locations where visual signs of affected soil were identified, as well as at the Compressor Station locations (Figure 6.4-36 ). The chemical analyses of soil samples were carried out in Theolab laboratory in Italy. This laboratory was selected because it is capable of analyzing all priority pollutants. Table 6.4-31 presents the analytical program used for the collected samples.

Table 6.4-31 Summary of Samples Collected and Analytical Program

Sample Kp Sample description Parameters WP1 183.6 Sample collected in a location affected by fuel, due Residue at 105° C as total; to the presence of an old petrol extraction well. Fraction sieved 2 mm dry basis at WP3 185.3 Sample collected in a location affected by fuel, due 105° C; to the presence of an old petrol extraction well. Metals; WP114 206.6 Sample collected at Compressor station CS03-D Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (TPHs); Option 6 (CS03). No evidence of affected soil was Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs); detected in the location. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons WP132 0.8 Sample collected at Compressor station CS02- (PAHs) Alternative (CS02 A) No evidence of affected soil was detected in the location.

Source: Field Survey (June – September 2011), ERM (2011)

In the absence of Albanian legislation dealing with soil quality, the analytical results were compared to the Dutch Standards (DS) that provide absolute concentrations of various soil

Page 173 of 382 Area Comp. System Disc. Doc.- Ser. Code Code Code Code Type No. Project Title: Trans Adriatic Pipeline – TAP AAL00-ERM-641-Y-TAE-1008 ESIA Albania Section 6 - Environmental, Document Title: Rev.: 03 Socioeconomic and Cultural Heritage Baseline contaminants. Although they are not legally binding in Albania, they are the reference values most commonly used by consultants and regulators in Europe due to the absence of other values in many European countries. The DS have been established based on criteria of toxicity to humans and ecotoxicity (risk to the environment), and are based on the background levels (natural concentrations found in the environment) inventoried in a study of the subsurface in The Netherlands. The DS values used in the present project are for a ‘standard soil’, composed of 10 % organic matter and 25% clay. There are 2 main DS:

• Dutch Target Value (DTV): For substances found naturally in the environment, target values correspond to background levels. Contamination is considered to exist when values exceed target values.

• Dutch Intervention Value (DIV): Concentrations exceeding the intervention values are considered to represent serious environmental contamination, requiring risk analysis in order to prioritize remediation action.

Figure 6.4-36 Soil Samples Location

Source: ERM 2011

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Analytical results from soil samples have been compared specifically with the DIV. Analytical certificates from laboratory and a summary of analytical results are included in Annex 6.1 - Section 6.1.6. Table 6.4-32 presents a description of the main analytical results.

Table 6.4-32 Description of Analytical Results

Parameters Description

Metals Nickel was detected above the corresponding DIV (100 mg/kg) in samples WP3 and WP114, in concentrations of 136 and 165 mg/kg, respectively. It has been described that metals are present in common soils naturally. For nickel, concentrations between 1 and 1000 mg/kg can be considered as natural concentrations (Mas, A.; Azcue, J.M. 1993), so it could be assumed that concentrations detected are natural concentrations existing in the soil sampling locations, once no evidence of affected soil was found, nor any potential nickel source was identified on site. The remaining metals analyzed have been detected below the respective DIV, or below the laboratory detection limit. TPHs TPHs were detected above the corresponding DIV (5000 mg/kg) in samples WP1 and WP3, with concentrations of 11500 and 7440 mg/kg respectively. That confirms the visual evidence of affected soil observed in those locations as a result of the activity of the former petrol extraction wells in both locations. TPHs have been detected below the DIV in the rest of the samples. PCBs PCBs were detected below the laboratory detection limit in all the analyzed soils samples PAHs PAHs were detected below the corresponding DIV, or below the laboratory detection limit in all the analyzed soil samples.

Source: Theolab (2011)

6.4.6.6 Key Findings and Conclusions

The Eastern Section is characterized by the presence histosols and cambisols. Soils are generally characterized by high fertility, and agriculture in this section is significant. Soil quality and sensitivity is considered as medium (soil quality levels III and IV) and high (soil quality levels I and II), providing a substrate with physical qualities and/or degree of productivity to support the development of important concentrations of biomass,

The Central Eastern Section is characterized by the presence of phaeozems and fluvisols. The area adjacent to the Eastern Section is characterised by intensive agricultural activity, with medium soil quality and sensitivity level (soil quality level III). The valleys of Leshnja, Vithkuq and Potom, although characterized by a high potential for agricultural development, are mostly abandoned or used for pasture purposes. In this case soils would be also associated with a high quality and sensitivity level (soil quality level II), as a result of their potentially high agricultural conditions. The remainder of the Central Eastern Section does not have good properties for agricultural use, so it is mostly abandoned, or only used for pasture purposes. Low soil quality and sensitivity levels have been assigned to this area (soil quality levels V and VI), because they are a poor substrate.

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The Central Western Section is characterized by the presence of calcisols, fluvisols and luvisols. From Corovode to Polican agricultural use is focused on fruit trees in calcisols and cereals in fluvisols. From Polican to Berat agriculture is focused on intensive crops, such as greenhouse vegetables. From Berat to Roskovec agriculture is characterized by an intensive presence of olive trees. The Eastern part of the Myzeqe Plain is dominated by cereals and forage crops, with a high production potential. To conclude, a medium soil quality and sensitivity level (soil quality levels III and IV) is assigned to soils in the Central Western Section, with the exception of the Eastern part of the Myzeqe Plain, for which a high level quality is defined, due to its high production potential (soil quality level II).

The Western Section is characterized by the presence of luvisols, cambisols and solanchak. Luvisols are located up to Seman i Ri, with a domination of cereals, forages, vegetables and fruits. Cambisols are located in the hilly system intersecting Seman i Ri; with a domination of fruit and olive trees. Solanchak soils are located from Seman i Ri to the sea shore. They are saline soils, with a very low production. A medium soil quality and sensitivity is assigned to soils in the Western Section (soil quality level III), with the exception of solanchaks, for which a low level of quality and sensitivity is defined (soil quality levels V and VI), due to its low production potential, and soils located at the east of the hilly system, for which a high level of quality and sensitivity is defined (soil quality level II).

Regarding screening for soil contamination, two samples were collected, in which high concentrations of hydrocarbons were detected, in the proximity of former oil wells. In soil samples collected in the compressor station areas, no concentration above DIV was detected, despite a Ni concentration in CS03 area that may be associated to a natural origin.

6.4.7 Landscape and Visual Amenity

Landscape and visual amenity is presented in this section in a structured approach, from east to west. The section presents first the landscape at CS02, then the landscapes along the pipeline sections and finally the landscape at CS03.

The landscape of the each area has been analysed and described in terms of the key features and overall character. Each area has been subdivided into a number of discrete Landscape Character Areas (LCA) or parcels of landscape which share common characteristics. These LCA are then described in terms of land cover and sensitivity.

6.4.7.1 Landscape of the Compressor Station Site CS02

The boundaries of the landscape character areas are identified with reference to a 15 km study area measured from the edges of the site proposed for CS02. These are illustrated in Figure 6.4-37.

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Figure 6.4-37 Baseline Landscape and Visual Amenity at site for CS02

Source: Albania topographic map with modifications by ERM (2012)

6.4.7.1.1 LCA 1 – Flat Riverine Farmland of the Devolli Region

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: The main land cover types include non irrigated arable land (211), complex cultivation patterns (242), and pastures (231).

Protected or special landscapes include the Great Oak of Zichisti – Designated Natural Monument located 9.6 km west of the site for the proposed compressor station and the Poplar of Piluri – Designated Natural Monument located 16 km north of the site for the proposed compressor station

Description and Sensitivity: This is a large expanse of relatively flat farmland located between two major mountain ranges. These are the Morava Mountains to the west, hills and mountains in Greece to the east, and the mountains in the vicinity of Lake Prespa to the north.

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The farmed landscape stands out in stark contrast to the surrounding upland areas because of its low lying and relatively flat terrain and the ordered and geometric field pattern which dominates throughout. The course of the Devolli River follows a sinuous path traversing this landscape in a north-south orientation. Settlements located in this landscape include Bilisht and Poloske. Wooded vegetation cover is sparse and is mainly located on or near the banks of the Devolli River. The landscape is visually very open; long range views across this farmland are available from many locations. This landscape is considered to be of medium sensitivity to the proposed change (the compressor station). This is attributed to the visually open character of this landscape in which any new structures would be very exposed.

6.4.7.1.2 LCA 2 – Mountains and Foothills of the Morava Mountain Range

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: The main land cover types present include broadleaf forest, (311), transitional woodland scrub (324) and pastures (231).

Protected or special landscapes include St Thanasi Beech Forest – Designated Natural Monument located 14 km west of the site for the proposed compressor station. The Morava Mountain Range is a designated protected landscape.

Description and Sensitivity: This landscape character area features the abrupt and dramatic transition from low-lying farmland in the east to upland hill and mountain landscapes as represented by the foothills to the Morava Mountains. This landscape has varied topography with steep sided mountains and hills with valleys in between. Settlements are located at the transition between upland and lowland landscapes and these include Perparimaj, Hochist, Grace and Baban. Large lakes are present in this area (1 north of Perparimaj and two others between Grace and Baban).

The visual quality of this landscape is enhanced by the backdrop of the Morava Mountain range which is a dominant skyline visible from many locations in this area. A high sensitivity to the proposed change is predicted to arise for this landscape and this is attributed to the scenic quality associated with the foothills of the Morava Mountains.

6.4.7.1.3 LCA 3 – Mountain Hinterland to Lake Prespa

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: The main land cover types present include natural grassland (321), transitional woodland scrub (324), inland wetlands (411), broadleaf forest (311), sclerophyllus vegetation (323) and moors and heath land (322).

Protected landscapes include Lake Prespa - Designated National Park located 10.5 km to the north of the compressor station site.

Description and Sensitivity: This is a mountainous landscape of unique character. It is a remote and elemental landscape with some wilderness qualities owing to the scarcity of roads, settlements and man-made elements. The northern part of this landscape features Lake Prespa.

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There are few settlements or roads in this area and many of the mountains are covered in deciduous forest and scrub.

This landscape is considered to be of high sensitivity to the proposed change. This reflects the high scenic quality of this landscape together with its rural and elemental character. The National Park designation affects approximately half of this landscape.

Table 6.4-33 Landscape Sensitivity to the Proposed Change – CS02

Landscape Character Area Planned TAP Sensitive landscape Sensitivity Ranking Project Elements elements LCA 1 - Flat Riverine CS02 Great Oak of Zichisti and Medium Farmland of the Devolli Poplar of Piluri, This is attributed to the visually open Region Designated Natural character of this landscape in which Monuments any new structures would be very exposed LCA 2 - Mountains and CS02 St Thanasi Beech Forest High Foothills of the Morava – Designated Natural This reflects the scenic quality Mountain Range Monument associated with the foothills of the Morava Mountains Morava Mountains protected landscape.

LCA 3 – Mountain Hinterland CS02 Lake Prespa - High to Lake Prespa Designated National Park Reflects the high scenic quality of this landscape together with its rural and elemental character.

6.4.7.2 Landscape of the Pipeline Corridor

The boundaries of the landscape character areas are identified with reference to the pipeline chainage in the tables below, together with descriptive information. Photographs of the landscapes along the pipeline route are included in Annex 4.4 and the locations of these photos are illustrated in Figure 6.4-38 to Figure 6.4-41.

The sensitivities of the LCAs along the pipeline are presented in tabular format. The sensitivities tables summarize the key data in each LCA, including the key elements of the project that are likely to be sources of landscape and visual impact. Designated landscapes present in each landscape character area are also tabulated, and finally an evaluation of sensitivity to the proposed change is presented. The sensitivity of the landscape and the viewers contained within is defined based on 2 main factors:

• The scale, nature and duration of the proposed change.

• The receiving landscape including presence of designated landscapes or landscape elements, the quality of the landscape and the visual openness of the landscape.

Viewers located close to the site for the proposal with clear uninterrupted views of the site for the proposed change will be considered to have the same visual sensitivity to the proposed change as the landscape character area in which they are located.

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6.4.7.2.1 Eastern Section

Figure 6.4-38 Baseline Landscape and Visual Amenity - Eastern Section

Source: Albania topographic map with modifications by ERM (February 2012)

LCA 1 - Undulating and hilly farmland of Trestenik Kp 0-4.25

Land cover Types (Corine Classification): The main land cover types present include grassland (321) with rock outcrops (332) and some areas of broadleaf forest (311) at the eastern end near the Greek Border. Further west, the main land cover comprises principally agriculture (243) and grassland (321).

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Description: The area is generally characterised by its undulating and hilly terrain at elevations of approximately 900 m. A ridgeline of afforested hills runs along the border with Greece. Forest species include Pinus nigra and Quercus. spp. West of this is located a flat farmed landscape area featuring a rectilinear field pattern of agricultural crops. Further west, the topography comprises more hilly terrain and the land cover features a range of crop types including cereals and orchards. Roads, where present, are unsurfaced tracks. Smaller tracts of woodland are dispersed throughout. The small settlement of Trestenik is located within this hill farmland. In general, settlements and dwellings are sparse, thus conferring a remote character to this area. The larger mountain range of the Morava Mountains is visible far to the west and more local hills enclose this area from the north.

LCA 2 - Flat farmed landscape of the Devolli River Valley Kp 4.25 – 17

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: The main land cover type is complex cultivation patterns (242). Small patches of other land cover types include natural grassland (321), beaches, dunes and sand plains (331) (associated with exposed sediments of the Devolli River), and agriculture (243) further south.

Protected or special landscapes include Poplar of Piluri at Kp 16.5 – Designated Natural Monument. The Morava Mountains are a designated protected landscape (see Figure 6.4-38 ).

Description: This is a broad expansive river valley with the Morava Mountains in the Devolli Region to the west and other unnamed mountains of the Bilisht Qender region to the east. The elevation is approximately 800m. Much of the lower lying land is used for cereal crop production. Settlements include Vishocice, Kuc and Bilisht. Dwellings tend to be visible in this open landscape and are identifiable by the red tiled roofs. One of the most defining characteristics of this area is the farmed field pattern. This comprises a distinctive patchwork of narrow rectilinear fields of variable colours in accordance with the variable crops and seasons. Roads are narrow dusty unmade tracks, and a large power line crosses the northern part of this landscape. The Devolli River follows a sinuous course through this geometric farmed pattern. Panoramic views are available to the west of the distinctive and highly scenic mountain skyline of the Morava Mountains.

LCA 3 - Narrow Mountain pass of the Proger Region Kp 17 – 23.5

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: The principal land cover of the low lying landscape between the mountain ranges is classified as complex cultivation patterns (242). Small patches of other land cover types present include natural grassland (321) and sclerophyllous vegetation (323). West of Cangonji National Park, there is a patchwork of land cover types including natural grassland (321), sclerophyllous vegetation (323), and agricultural land (243).

Specific designated sensitive landscape within and adjacent to this landscape character area include Cangonj National Park near Kp 17.5 – 19.5, a Managed Nature Reserve, Mali Thate near

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Kp 19 – 25, a proposed Emerald site or ASCI and ACI. The Morava Mountains are present and are a designated protected landscape (see Figure 6.4-38 ).

Description: This is a relatively narrow valley located between the Morava Mountains (listed as a proposed ASCI or proposed Emerald site for its high quality landscape) to the south and the Liquenas Mountain and Proger Mountain range to the north. The main land cover is agricultural and comprises complex cultivation patterns, cereal crops and orchards. The elevation is approximately 800 m. The immediate landscape is visually open, albeit enclosed by the mountains to the north and south which define this mountain pass. The Devolli River follows a sinuous course passing through the valley in a broadly east-west orientation. The large urban areas of Cangonj and Zemblak are visible in the valley against the mountain backdrop to the south of the Morava Mountains. A well surfaced main road route passes through this area linking these settlements. Panoramic views over this landscape are available in all directions towards a dramatic and scenic mountain skyline to the north and south. The transition between these two landscape types (plain and mountain) is abrupt and dramatic.

LCA 4 - Flat farmed landscape of the Pojan Region Kp 23.5 – 34

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: The main land cover type present is non irrigated arable land (211). Patches of complex cultivation patterns (242) are also present.

Specific designated sensitive landscape within and adjacent to this landscape character area include the Stinking Junipers of Dishnica near Kp 31, a Designated Natural Monument (see Figure 6.4-38).

Description: This area comprises a very large expanse of flat farmland which extends westward from the mountains of the Devolli Region. The elevation is approximately 800m. Much of the land is in use for agriculture, mainly tillage. The landscape is very visually open. Settlements are visible and identifiable by the red tiled roofs. The rectilinear field pattern described in LCA 2 is present in this landscape. The patchwork pattern of narrow rectangular fields is very strong throughout this area and is the key defining characteristic. Long straight drainage watercourses cross this landscape as tributaries of the Devolli River. Views towards the dramatic mountain skyline of the Morava Mountains are possible to the east and the Liquenas and Proger Mountains to the northeast.

LCA 5 - Farmed Hinterland of Korca Kp 34 – 40

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: The main land cover type present is complex cultivation patterns (242). Patches of non irrigated arable land (211) are also present.

Specific designated sensitive landscape includes the Oriental plane of the city (St Mary or Madonna) near Kp 36, a Designated Natural Monument.

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Description: This is a flat farmed landscape located between the Morava Mountains of the Devolli Region to the east and the Mountain ranges in the Korca region to the west. The elevation is generally around 800 m. The large settlement of Korca is located to the east of the site. The land cover is classed as complex cultivation patterns. The Dunaveci River passes through this landscape. These include cereal crops and orchards. Woodland and scrub vegetation cover features in this landscape, although it is not abundant. Field boundaries are often defined by tall tree lines. This landscape is very similar in character to that at LCA 4. The city of Korca represents a sizable urban mass in the eastern part of this landscape character area; however, due to the low rise nature of this urban area, it is not very visually prominent from the surrounding landscape. Thus the landscape is of overall rural character.

LCA 6 - Riverine farmland of the Dunaveci River Valley Kp 40 – 52

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: The principal land cover of the low lying landscape is classified complex cultivation patterns (242). Patches of non irrigated arable land (211) are also present. Further south near the settlement of Mollaj, there is a large tract of land classified as fruit trees and berry plantations (222). Also areas classed as permanently irrigated land (212).

Specific designated sensitive landscape within and adjacent to this landscape character area include Voskop Spring (Water Source of combustible gas) near to Kp 51, a Designated natural Monument and a Geological Feature near Kp 44, a Designated Natural Monument (see Figure 6.4-38 ).

Description: This landscape comprises a broad expanse of farmland located between the mountains in the Quender region to the west and the Morava Mountains to the east. Much of the area is intensively used as farmland, mainly for cereals and also alfalfa and orchard plantations. An extensive area of fruit cropping is located near the settlement of Mollaj. The Dunaveci River runs along the length of this landscape assuming a north-south orientation. Settlements are visible in the distance, identifiable by the red tiled roofs. This landscape is very visually open and commands views of scenic mountain skylines. A strong rectilinear field pattern is present throughout and the valley is overlooked by various settlements including Ravonik, Polene, Pulahe and Ujebardhe.

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Sensitivity to the Proposed Change – Eastern Section

Table 6.4-34 presents the sensitivity summary for the Eastern Section. Table 6.4-34 Landscape Sensitivity to the Proposed Change – Eastern Section

Landscape Character Area Planned TAP Sensitive landscape Sensitivity Ranking Project Elements elements LCA 1 - Undulating and hilly Pipeline No protected landscapes Low farmland of Trestenik. Kp 0 - 4.25 LCA 2 - Flat farmed landscape Pipeline Poplar of Piluri – Medium of the Devolli River Valley. Designated Natural This reflects the temporary disruption Kp 4.25 - 17 Monument. to the edge of the Morava Mountain Morava Mountains landscape between Kp 14 and 17 protected landscape. LCA 3 – Narrow mountain Pipeline Cangonj - National Park High pass of the Proger Region. Morava Mountains Reflects the special landscape quality Kp 17 - 23.5 Protected Landscape of the mountain pass and the nearby and Mali Thate proposed National Park together with the ASCI/ACI designated Morava Mountain landscape. LCA 4 - Flat farmed landscape Pipeline Stinking Junipers of Low of the Pojan Region. Kp 23.5 - Dishnica – Designated This reflects the temporary disruption 34 Natural Monument. to the landscape caused by the proposed change LCA 5 - Farmed Hinterland of Pipeline Oriental plane of the city Low Korca. Kp 34 - 40 (St Mary or Madonna) – This reflects the temporary disruption Designated Natural to the landscape caused by the Monument. proposed change LCA 6 - Riverine farmland of Pipeline Voskop Spring Water Low the Dunavec River Valley Kp Source of combustible This reflects the temporary disruption 40 - 52 gas at Kp 51 – to the landscape caused by the Designated natural proposed change Monument

Source: ERM (2011)

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6.4.7.2.2 Central Eastern Section

Figure 6.4-39 Baseline Landscape and Visual Amenity - Central Eastern Section

Source: Albania topographic map with modifications by ERM (2012)

LCA 1 Waterscape and Hill farmland of Gjanci Reservoir Kp 52 – 60

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: The main land cover types present include complex cultivation patterns (242), land principally occupied by agriculture (243), transitional woodland shrub (324) and a large reservoir.

Specific designated sensitive landscape within and adjacent to this landscape character area include the Forest of Markeza near Kp 59.5, a Designated Natural Monument (see Figure 6.4-39 ).

Description: This is an elevated landscape exceeding over 1000 m. It comprises a mosaic of limestone hills with pastoral valleys. The Gjanci Reservoir is a large feature in the area. Expansive views are available across this water body to landscapes beyond. Further east of this, the landscape comprises a mixture of pasture, and limestone hills with woody vegetation. Woodland and scrub features species such as Pinus spp together with some regenerating oak.

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These are located generally on the hilltops whilst the grassland areas occupy the lower lying topography.

The Osumi River passes through this landscape and features some riparian wooded vegetation. Some orchard plantations feature throughout this landscape. A small winding road crosses the area extending from east to west. It is a remote area with few or no settlements except Leshnje at Kp 60. An elongated area of farmland is located in the vicinity of Leshnje featuring the characteristic rectilinear field pattern. The landscape on the western side of The Gjanci Reservoir features relatively flat meadows which extend westwards and form an abrupt junction with the steep sided afforested mountains.

LCA 2 - Mountain and upland farmland of the Vithkuq Region Kp 60 – 82

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: The main land cover types present include broadleaf forest (311), coniferous forest (312) and transitional woodland scrub (324).

Specific designated sensitive landscape includes the Sensitive Forest from Kp 61 to 82 located within the Vithquk to Ostrovic Area of Conservation Interest and the designated Natural Monuments of the Forest of Lirza in Helmes (see Figure 6.4-39 ).

Description: The beginning of this area is marked by a transition between pasture at lower elevations and woodland at higher elevations. Elevations rise to 1,500 m and the hills and ridgelines in this area feature rock outcrops with some limited woodland cover as far as Kp 68. This part of the landscape overlooks a steep sided valley to the north in which the settlement of Vithkuq is located. The wooded areas comprise a mix of coniferous and deciduous woodland together with transitional scrub. Open areas of sub alpine pastures are present in the more low lying parts of this landscape. The elevated mountain top locations are generally comprised of woodland with open areas of rock outcrop. Within this mountainous landscape, a ridgeline corresponding to Kp 70 to 82 runs east-west (Kp 70 - 76) and north-south (Kp 76 - 82) and is completely afforested at the eastern end (elevation of 1,700 m). Amid the dense forested mountains, some rock outcrops are present and these become more prevalent on approaching the Ostrovice Mountains. On higher mountain tops, the forestry features a range of species including Fagus spp., Pinus spp. and Abies spp. Ridgelines of bare mountain rock outcrops feature in this area.

LCA 3 Potom Valley Kp 82 – 90

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: The main land cover types present include mixed forests (313), natural grasslands (321), sclerophillous vegetation (323) and primarily transitional woodland and scrub (324).

Specific designated sensitive landscape within and adjacent to this landscape character area include the Beech Forest of Potom a Designated Natural Monument (see Figure 6.4-39 ).

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Description: The Potom Valley constitutes a transition between the Ostrovice Mountain range and the hilly landscape that follows to the west. It is formed by an undulating landscape with elevations varying from 1,400 to 700 m and back to 1,200 m to the west. The valley features the Stravecke River and its tributaries, the course of which has led to the formation of small gorges. This catchment and its tributies define the character of this landscape. This landscape commands wide panoramic views of the surrounding mountain slopes, some of which are very steep and mostly covered by forest. The lower altitude areas of the valley feature natural grasslands used for pasture.

LCA 4 – Afforested hills of the Potom Region Kp 90 – 102

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: The main land cover types present include broadleaf forest (311), coniferous forest (312) and transitional woodland scrub (324).

Specific designated sensitive landscape include an area of ancient non coppiced woodland located west of the settlement of Osoje extending from Kp 98 to 99 (see Figure 6.4-39 ).

Description: This region is visually and topographically separated from the landscapes further east by the prominent ridgeline associated with the Ostrovice Mountain Range. It is a mountainous landscape with elevations varying from 800 to 1000 m. Wide panoramic viewing opportunities are available of the mosaic of pasturelands and wooded areas. Some of the wooded areas show signs of erosion. The area features woodland and scrub cover. Some regenerating oak woodland is present. The topography comprises hilly terrain showing signs of erosion in many places thus giving the landscape a somewhat worn quality. This is a reflection of the underlying geology which comprises a softer flysch and gives the mountains a darker red colour. The mountain landscapes are not completely devoid of man made influences. Some power lines and small roads cross the landscape in this area.

Sensitivity to the Proposed Change – Central Eastern Section

Figure 6.4-33 presents the sensitivity summary for the Central Eastern Section.

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Table 6.4-35 Landscape Sensitivity to the Proposed Change – Central Eastern Section

Landscape Character Area Planned TAP Sensitive landscape Sensitivity Ranking Elements elements LCA 1 Waterscape and Hill Pipeline Forest of Markeza - Medium farmland of Gjanci Reservoir. Designated Natural Reflects the unique landscape Kp 52-60 Monument on the pipeline setting associated with lake corridor at kp 60. Gjancit LCA 2 - Mountain and upland Pipeline Designated Sensitive Forest High farmland of the Vithkuq Pipeline requiring from Kp 61 to 82 located on Reflects the rural and scenic Region. Kp 60-82 ridge modification the proposed pipeline quality together with designated works. landscape elements. In particular Short section of Designated Natural the extensive designated proposed roads. Monument of Forest of Lirza sensitive forest which extends in Helmes at Kp 80.5. throughout. LCA 3 – Potom Valley. Kp Pipeline Section of Designated Natural High 82-90 proposed road. Monument of Beech Forest Reflects the rural landscape of Potom at Kp 84. together with the presence of designated landscape elements.

LCA 4 - Afforested hills of the Pipeline An area of ancient non Medium Potom Region. Kp 90-102 Pipeline requiring coppiced woodland west of Reflects the rural landscape ridge modification the settlement of Osoje quality and the permanent works. extending from Kp 98 - 99. changes arising from ridge Isolated small modification. sections of The medium sensitivity also permanent roads. reflects the variable topography of this landscape and its capacity to absorb some adverse changes.

Source: ERM (2012)

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6.4.7.2.3 Central Western Section

Figure 6.4-40 Baseline Landscape and Visual Amenity - Central Western Section

Source: Albania topographic map with modifications by ERM (February 2012)

LCA 1 – Riverine and mountain landscape in the vicinity of Corovode Kp 102 – 113

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: The main land cover types include complex cultivation patterns (242), land principally occupied by agriculture (243), sclerophyllus vegetation (323), broadleaf forest (311) and small areas of transitional woodland shrub (324).

Specific designated sensitive landscapes include the Oriental Plane of Verzhezha near Kp 106 - Designated Natural Monument. Other designated landscapes include the Osumi River at Kp 103- 113 - Sensitive wetland, Small areas of designated sensitive forest in vicinity of the Osumi River and Tomorr ASCI (located approximately 2.6 km north of Kp 102 – see Figure 6.4-40 ).

Description: This is a mountainous and hilly landscape at around 200m elevation. The Osumi River is a central feature in this landscape. The Osumi River valley comprises a deep valley flanked on either side by steep sided mountains and ridgelines many of which are afforested.

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Vegetation comprises coniferous or broadleaf forest and regenerating scrub. Species include Oak. Woodland vegetation usually does not reach potential maximum height owing to the thin soil cover in this area. Other hilltops in the area feature grassland. Some signs of erosion are apparent. The course of the Osumi River is broad and sinuous. The eastern bridge of Corovode links this large settlement to this rural river valley. The river banks vary from sandy linear beaches to steep cliff line banks which are eroding due to the river flow.

The urban area of Corovode is concealed within a steep sided valley.

LCA 2 – Mountain hinterland of Vendreshe region Kp 113 – 123

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: The main land cover types present include large tracts of broadleaf forest (311). Abundant areas of sclerophyllys vegetation (323) and some agriculture (243) are present.

Specific designated sensitive landscape includes Bogove – National Park located 0.6 km to the east of Kp 120. Also a Designated Sensitive Wetland extends from Chainage 123 – Chainage 124 (see Figure 6.4-40 ).

Description: This is a mountain landscape at elevations of around 600 m. Woodland cover dominates these hills however signs of erosion are apparent along the steeper slopes thereby giving the landscape a degraded quality. Areas of rough grassland are present in this landscape. Tracks are few in number and are usually present as unmade dusty surfaces. The mountains feature frequent rock outcrops. Large tracts of meadow or grassland areas are located in between mountain passes. Other more low lying areas of hilly pasture are present and the red coated cattle breeds are a colour contrasting focal point. The wooded cover is especially dominant between Kp 118–123. Occasional torrents flow down from the steep mountain sides.

LCA 3 - Osumi River Valley Kp 123 – 125

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: The main land cover type present comprises large tracts of broadleaf forest (311). Some natural grassland areas (321) are present together with transitional woodland scrub (324).

Specific designated sensitive landscapes include the Designated Sensitive Wetland Area near Ustie (see Figure 6.4-40 ).

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Description: This landscape character area is centred on the confluence of the Osumi River and the torrent of Vocopola which flows down from the mountains further south near to the settlement of Ustie. The landscape of the Vokopola Torrent comprises an intimate enclosed river valley. The landscape of the Osumi River is enclosed with steep sided hills and mountains which feature a mix of woodland and scrub cover together with open areas of grassland. The river assumes a sinuous course running broadly east-west.

LCA 4 - Farmed and afforested ridgeline of the Polican region Kp 125 – 131

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: The main land cover types present include tracts of broadleaf forest (311). Large areas of sclerophyllus vegetation (323) and general agricultural land (243) are present.

Specific designated sensitive landscapes include a Designated Sensitive Wetland Area near Polican (see Figure 6.4-40 ).

Description: This is a hilly and mountainous landscape. The immediate corridor of the pipeline route follows the summit of a ridgeline which extends from northwest to southeast over the entire length of this area. The ridgeline is dominated by woodland cover particularly on the west facing slopes. The east facing slopes comprise farmland and this elevated farmed landscape overlooks the Osumi River Valley further to the east. Small roads cross this farmland and these provide access to the sparse tiny settlements in the area. The large settlement of Polican is located east of the River and commands views towards this ridgeline landscape.

LCA 5 Osumi River Valley Kp 131 – 142

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: The main land cover types present include beaches, dunes and sand plains (331) associated with the Osumi catchment. Also abundant areas of broadleaf forest (311) are present together with large areas of sclerophyllus vegetation (323) and general agricultural land (243)

Specific designated sensitive landscapes include the Mall I Tommorit - National Park, located 8 km to the east of the pipeline corridor (see Figure 6.4-40 ).

Description: The immediate landscape of this area is dominated and characterised by the valley of the Osumi River which runs parallel to the study corridor. The river corridor is broad and features sand and shingle banks. The river is enclosed throughout with afforested hills. Striking rock outcrops feature at point locations where steep sided mountains greet the river bank. Occasional views out of this landscape usually capture more distant mountains. Some settlements are distributed throughout and overlook the river valley landscape. Torrents flow into the course of the Osumi River at various points along its course. The Vertop torrent features in this landscape. It assumes a sinuous course through afforested hills. Sand and shingle beaches feature along the shores of the torrent. In the far distance, mountain ridgelines are visible as a distant backdrop behind the nearer afforested hills.

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LCA 6 Hilly Farmland in the vicinity of Berat Kp 142 – 154

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: The main land cover types present include beaches, dunes and sand plains (331) associated with the Osumi Catchment. Also abundant areas of olive plantations (223) and general agricultural land (243) together with the large urban area of Berat are present. There are no specific protected landscape within and adjacent to this landscape character area.

Description: The character of this area is very much influenced by the physical and visual presence of the large urban area of Berat. Large tracts of strikingly flat farmland are located near the confluence of the Osumi River and a torrent flowing down from the mountains to the north east. Some of the areas feature covered cropping which is visually dominant as white polythene covered areas. The upland areas comprise gentle hills featuring scrub vegetation. Woody species present include Gorse. These more elevated areas command panoramic views of the flat farmed landscapes below and the large urban area of Berat. Settlements are identifiable by the bright red tiled roofs. Abundant woodland cover is present on the hilltops between Kp 152.5 and 154. Some small settlements and dwellings are identifiable by the red tiled roofs.

LCA 7 Wide flat farmed valley of the Osumi River Kp 154 – 166

Land cover Types (Corine Classification): The main land cover type present is the complex cultivation patterns (242). Further afield large areas of coniferous forest (312) and natural grassland (321) are present. There are no specific protected landscape within and adjacent to this landscape character area.

Description: The landscape here comprises flat farmland overlooked in the distance by gentle wooded hills. The course of the Osumi River is a dominant feature throughout this area and it follows a sinuous path. It is a broad river with shingle banks in places. Small shingle beaches are located along the margins of sections of this river. The confluence of this river and the Devolli River is located north of the settlement of Poshnje and this is broadly north of Kp 166 of the study corridor. The Devolli River is much narrower and visually less prominent at this location. The landscape around the confluence of these rivers is flat and features the characteristic rectilinear farmed field pattern. Directly to the north, the landing strip and clearance zone around Berat airport is located. The lower lying farmed and river landscape is open and affords views out to the surrounding mountains. One prominent afforested ridgeline overlooks the large settlement of Ura Vajgurore. East of this confluence of the rivers Devolli and Osumi, a single main catchment flows to the west and is known as the Semani River.

LCA 8 Flat Farmed Plains of the Kutalli and Strum Regions Kp 166 – 171

Land cover Types (Corine Classification): The main land cover type present includes complex cultivation patterns (242) together with some urban areas. There are no specific protected landscape within and adjacent to this landscape character area.

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Description: This comprises a farmed landscape. A variety of crop types feature and these present as a striking patchwork geometric field pattern especially when seen from neighbouring hills. Power lines cross this landscape and are visually prominent against some largely flat areas. Some polythene covered crop production is evident and this visually stands out against the greener farmland. Overall the topography is undulating and the area comprises a mix of farmland and woodland cover with no overall strong pattern.

Sensitivity to the Proposed Change – Central Western Section

Table 6.4-36 presents the sensitivity summary for the Central Western Section.

Table 6.4-36 Landscape Sensitivity to the Proposed Change – Central Western Section

Landscape Planned TAP Sensitive landscape elements Sensitivity Ranking Character Area Elements LCA 1 – Riverine Pipeline Oriental Plane of Verzhezha- High and mountain Short section of Designated Natural Monument. Sensitivity ranking reflects landscape landscape in the proposed road. Osumi River – Designated quality and designated sensitive vicinity of Corovode. sensitive wetland wetland. Kp 102 - 113 Small areas of designated sensitive forest in vicinity of the Osumi River Tomorr ASCI LCA 2 – Mountain Pipeline Bogove – National Park located High, hinterland of Ridge modification 0.6 km to the east of Kp 120. The site for the pipeline and sections Vendreshe region. works. Designated Sensitive Wetland of permanent road are located near to Kp 113 - 123 Short section of north of Kp 123 – 124 the National Park which is a sensitive proposed road. element in this landscape. LCA 3 - Osumi Pipeline Area near Ustie - Designated Low River Valley. Kp 123 Ridge Modification Sensitive Wetland This reflects the temporary disruption - 125 works to the landscape caused by the proposed change. Sensitive wetland occupies a very small part of this landscape LCA 4 - Farmed and Pipeline Area near Polican - Designated Medium afforested ridgeline Ridge Modification Sensitive Wetland Sensitive wetland occupies a very of the Polican works small part of this landscape. region. Kp 125 – Short section of The pipeline is the main impact source 131 proposed road. which will be temporary however permanent impacts will arise from ridge modifications and short sections of new road. LCA 5 Osumi River Pipeline Mall I Tommorit - National Park, Medium Valley. Kp 131 - 142 Short section of located 8 km to the east The river itself is a valued landscape proposed road. element. LCA 6 Hilly Pipeline None Low Farmland in the This reflects the temporary disruption vicinity of Berat. Kp to the landscape caused by the 142 - 154 proposed change. LCA 7 Wide flat Pipeline None Low farmed valley of the This reflects the temporary disruption Osumi River. Kp to the landscape caused by the 154 - 166 proposed change.

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Landscape Planned TAP Sensitive landscape elements Sensitivity Ranking Character Area Elements LCA 8 Flat Farmed Pipeline None Low Plains of the Kutalli Short section of and Strum Regions. proposed road. Kp 166 - 171.

Source: ERM (2012)

6.4.7.2.4 Western Section

Figure 6.4-41 Baseline Landscape and Visual Amenity - Western Section

Source: Albania topographic map with modifications by ERM (2012)

LCA 1 - Flat farmed plains of the Fier region Kp 171 – 180

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: The main land cover types present comprise complex cultivation patterns (242) together with extensive areas of non irrigated arable land (211).

There are no specific protected landscape within and adjacent to this landscape character area.

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Description: This comprises a uniformly flat landscape. There is almost no woodland or scrub cover. The land use is almost completely dominated by crops which present as a characteristic patchwork of rectangular fields. The broad course of the Semani River follows a sinuous course as it crosses this geometric farmed field pattern. Small roads cross this landscape and these link settlements in the area including Velmishe, Strume, Drenovice and Roskovec.

LCA 2 – Semani River Kp 180-181

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: The lands in the vicinity of the river itself feature complex cultivation patterns (242) with extensive areas of non irrigated arable land (211). The western bank of the river features natural grassland (321). There are no specific protected landscape within and adjacent to this landscape character area.

Description: This small area is centred on the watercourse of the Semani River. It has a broad and sinuous course and the landscape in the immediate vicinity comprises farmland with a strong field pattern. A small road runs parallel to the river on the western side and this links some small unnamed settlements. The Semani River is lined with deciduous mature vegetation which stands out visually as a vegetated boundary to the expanses of flat farmland.

LCA 3 – Flat Farmed Plains of the Mbrostar Region Kp 181-189

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: The area is principally comprised of areas of non irrigated arable land (211) together with some areas classed as complex cultivation patterns (242). There are no specific protected landscape within and adjacent to this landscape character area.

Description: This is a uniformly flat landscape comprising a characteristic rectilinear field pattern with almost no woodland or scrub vegetation. It is very similar to LCA 1 - Flat Farmed Plains of the Fier Region. Large expanses of flat farmland featuring a range of crop types are present. Occasional pylons are present. Parts of this flat farmed setting are overlooked by the Libofshe Hills in the distance.

LCA 4 – Hilly farmland of the Vajkan Area Kp 189-192

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: The ridgeline on the eastern side features olive groves (223) and further west, large tracts of natural grassland are present (321). There are no specific protected landscapes within and adjacent to this landscape character area.

Description: The eastern edge of this landscape comprises a very steep escarpment which presents as an abrupt transition between this area and the adjacent LCA 3, Flat Farmland of the Mbrostar Region to the east. The landscape within this area comprises an undulating hilly farmed landscape with scattered areas of woodland vegetation. The Petrova Reservoir is located in the centre of this landscape. The eastern edge of this landscape, defined by a steep escarpment, features some woodland and scrub cover and olive plantations on the east facing slopes. A road

Page 195 of 382 Area Comp. System Disc. Doc.- Ser. Code Code Code Code Type No. Project Title: Trans Adriatic Pipeline – TAP AAL00-ERM-641-Y-TAE-1008 ESIA Albania Section 6 - Environmental, Document Title: Rev.: 03 Socioeconomic and Cultural Heritage Baseline runs along the foot of this ridgeline on the eastern edge of this landscape character area. This route links the settlements of Vajkan and Mbrostar. The western part of this landscape character area comprises gentler hilly farmland. The western edge features a road route which links some small unnamed settlements. Large expanses of polythene covered crops are present.

LCA 5 – Semani River Kp 192-193

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: Apart from the Semani River watercourse itself the land is principally comprised of complex cultivation patterns (242). There are no specific protected landscape within and adjacent to this landscape character area.

Description: This landscape is centred on the Semani River which is a prominent feature in this open farmed area. A road and large bridge over this river links the nearby settlements of Rreth- Libofshe (eastern bank) to Mojalla (western bank). The River is broad and the banks are lined with wooded vegetation. The landscape on either side is dominated by farmland. The farmed pattern is very strong here and comprises rectangular fields oriented at right angles to the course of the river. This rectangular field pattern persists throughout this area, thus enforcing a very strong grid-like pattern to the landscape.

LCA 6 – Flat farmed plains of the Semani region Kp 193 – 204

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: The main land cover types present include complex cultivation patterns (242) together with extensive areas of non irrigated arable land (211).

Specific designated sensitive landscapes include the Crown Forest of the Semani River – Natural Monument located approximately 3 km to the north (see Figure 6.4-41 ).

Description: This landscape is dominated by flat farmland with a strong rectilinear field pattern which assumes a mosaic form throughout. In this regard, the pattern does not follow quite the same rigid field pattern as is present in LCA 5 at the Semani River.

There is very little if any wooded vegetation at all. Roads cross this landscape. Some of these follow a straight course and collectively assume a geometric layout. Some roads follow a sinuous course. Scattered settlements are present throughout and these include Semani and Topoje. A busy motorway further south of the pipeline corridor (extending from east to west) cuts through this landscape.

The Semani River landscape, which is located to the north of the pipeline corridor, is a broad river with wooded vegetated banks.

A description of the landscape at all of the above selected survey points is presented below. Whilst some characteristics are apparent at all survey points, there are some characteristics which are unique to each location.

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LCA 7 – Coastal Farmland of Topoje Kp 204 – 209.1

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: The principal land cover type comprises non irrigated arable land (211). Near the coast, inland marsh is present (411) and salt marsh (421). There are no specific protected landscape within and adjacent to this landscape character area.

Description: The eastern edge of this landscape comprises farmland. A large scale rectilinear field pattern dominates this area. It was formerly a salt marsh area which has since been drained and reclaimed for agricultural use. The field pattern is arranged in geometric grid like layout and dominates the eastern edge of this landscape. Drainage ditches feature in this landscape and these are often lined with tall grasses. At Kp 206.4, a road route crosses the area running north to south. West of this, the land cover changes to woodland and scrub cover. The actual pipeline corridor features some farmed fields although the pattern is more broken in this area. The coastline at the western end features sandy beaches.

Sensitivity to the Proposed Change – Western Section

Table 6.4-37 presents the sensitivity summary for the Western Section.

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Table 6.4-37 Landscape Sensitivity to the Proposed Change – Western Section

Landscape Character Area Planned Sensitive Sensitivity Ranking Project Landscape Element Element LCA 1 - Flat farmed plains of Pipeline None Low the Fier region. Kp 171 - 180 This reflects the temporary disruption to the landscape caused by the proposed change. LCA 2 – Semani River. Kp 180 - Pipeline None Low 181 This reflects the temporary disruption to the landscape caused by the proposed change. LCA 3 – Flat farmed plains of Pipeline None Low the Mbrostar Region. Kp 181 – This reflects the temporary disruption to the 189 landscape caused by the proposed change. LCA 4 – Hilly farmland of the Pipeline None Low Vajkan Area. Kp 189 - 192 This reflects the temporary disruption to the landscape caused by the proposed change. LCA 5 Semani River. Kp 192 - Pipeline None Low 193 This reflects the temporary disruption to the landscape caused by the proposed change. LCA 6 – Flat farmed plains of Pipeline Crown Forest of Low, the Semani region. Kp 193 - the Semani This reflects the temporary disruption to the 204 River – Natural landscape. The designated natural monument Monument lies over 2 km away from the pipeline. located 3 km to the north. LCA 7 – Coastal farmland of Pipeline None Medium Topoje. Kp 204 - 209.1 The area itself is an existing wetland with presence of salt marshes and sand dunes. The medium sensitivity reflects the unique coastal character of this landscape and the visually open nature of same. The medium sensitivity also reflects that whilst this landscape is valued, the nature of the change is small in scale with temporary impacts only during construction.

Source: ERM (2011)

6.4.7.3 Landscape – Compressor Station Site C03

The boundaries of the landscape character areas are identified with reference to a 15 km study area measured from the centre of the site proposed for the compressor station at the western end of the alignment. These are illustrated in Figure 6.4-42.

LCA 1 – Flat Settled Farmland of Fier

Land cover Types (Corine Classification) and Protected Landscapes: The main land cover type comprises extensive areas of non irrigated arable land (211). Protected or special landscapes include the Karavasta Lagoon National Park located 10 km to the north of the compressor station site (see Annex 4.2).

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Description and Sensitivity: The farmed landscape has similar characteristics as the Flat farmed plains of the Fier region identified in the landscape baseline for the pipeline corridor at this location. This comprises a uniformly flat landscape. There is almost no woodland or scrub cover. The land use is almost completely dominated by crops which present as a characteristic patchwork of rectangular fields. The broad course of the Semani River follows a sinuous course as it crosses this geometric farmed field pattern. Small roads cross this landscape and these link settlements in the area including Velmishe, Strume, Drenovice and Roskovec.

The landscape of the Kutalli region comprises large expanses of flat farmland. Hills and mountains around the Kutalli settlement form a backdrop in panoramic views of the area. Scattered settlements are present and identifiable by the red tiled roofs.

The Karavasta National Park, which covers some 22,230 ha, is located 10 km to the north of the site for the compressor station and contains an ecologically important wetland designated as a Ramsar Site.

This is a landscape which is not of particularly high scenic quality. It is however very visually open owing to the absence of vegetation and the flat landform. It is considered to have a medium sensitivity to the proposed change (the compressor station).

LCA 2 - Urban Area of Fier

Land cover Types (Corine Classification): The main land cover types comprise built up urban areas (111) and (112). No specific designated landscapes are present.

Description and Sensitivity: This landscape, or more correctly, townscape, comprises the built up area of Fier. The urban area comprises a rectilinear street layout giving this settlement an overall grid like urban pattern. As the townscape character is mostly visually screened from the site for the proposal by the built up urban fabric, it is considered to have a low sensitivity to the proposed change (the compressor station).

LCA 3 Osumi River Valley Farmland

Land cover Types (Corine Classification): The main land cover types present include agricultural land (231) and transitional woodland scrub (324). The Crown Forest of the Semani River – Natural Monument is located 4.9 km to the north east of the compressor station site (see Annex 4.2 ).

Description and Sensitivity: The Semani River follows a broad and meandering course which contrasts with the rectilinear farmed pattern featured in the surrounding farmland. Large tracts of scrub vegetation are located along the banks of the river. Hedgerow lines featuring mature trees occupy the farmland at and near the river banks.

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The vegetation cover currently acts as a visual screen between parts of this landscape and the site for the compressor station. It is considered that the farmland has a low sensitivity to the proposed change. This reflects the unique quality of the river landscape and the presence of the National Park designation. The vegetation cover provides some visual screening and some capacity to accommodate the proposed change.

LCA 4 - Coastal and Estuarine Farmland at the Semani River

Land cover Types (Corine Classification): The main land cover types present include Inland wetlands (411), maritime wetlands (421), sparsely vegetated areas (333), beaches, dunes and sand plains (331) and transitional woodland scrub (324). No specific designated landscapes are present.

Description and Sensitivity: This area comprises the landscape and seascape of the western coast of Albania. It comprises estuarine salt marshes with marshland scrub and sandy beach shorelines at the western edge. A small promontory is located at the coast at Lumi. This landscape is flat and is of some scenic quality owing to the natural features and coastal orientation.

This landscape is considered to have a medium sensitivity to the proposed change (the compressor station). This takes account of the natural and scenic qualities and also takes into consideration its orientation out to sea away from the site for the proposal.

LCA 5 - Mountain Hinterland of Fier

Land cover Types (Corine Classification): The main land cover types include sclerophylous vegetation (323), natural grassland (321) and broadleaf forest (311). The Levan National Park is located in the vicinity of this landscape character area (see Annex 4.2 ).

Description and Sensitivity: This comprises an upland hilly and mountainous landscape. It is very rural with few roads and settlements. Many of the mountain peaks and ridgelines are clothed in deciduous mature vegetation. Roads are sparse and cross the valleys. This is a rural and relatively unspoilt landscape of some considerable scenic quality owing to the mountain topography.

A medium sensitivity to the proposed change is considered to arise and this reflects the scenic quality of this landscape together with the presence of the Levan National Park. The variable topography will provide visual screening from the site for the proposal and this characteristic gives this landscape some capacity to accommodate change.

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Figure 6.4-42 Baseline Landscape and Visual Amenity at site for CS03

Source: Albania topographic map with modifications by ERM (February 2012)

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Table 6.4-38 Landscape Sensitivity to the Proposed Change – CS03

Landscape Character Area Planned Project Sensitive Landscape Sensitivity Ranking Element Element LCA 1 - Flat Settled Farmland CS03 Karavasta Lagoon Medium of Fier National Not of particularly high scenic quality, however very visually open owing to the absence of vegetation and the flat landform LCA 2 – Urban Area of Fier CS03 None Low The townscape character is mostly visually screened from the site

LCA 3 - Osumi River Valley CS03 Crown Forest of the Low Farmland Semani River – Natural The vegetation cover provides some Monument. visual screening and some capacity to accommodate the proposed change LCA 4 - Coastal and Estuarine CS03 None Medium Farmland at the Semani River This takes account of the natural and scenic qualities and also takes account of its orientation out to sea away from the site for the proposal LCA 5 – Mountain Hinterland CS03 Levan National Park Medium of Fier Reflects the scenic quality of this landscape together with the presence of the Levan National Park.

6.4.7.4 Limitations

Landscape and visual baseline data has been gathered using topographical mapping, aerial photography and CORINE land data coverage (updated using high resolution images and field data) by the landscape architect.

The detail of the landscape and visual baseline has been developed by data gathered in the field by environmental specialists which was provided to the project landscape architect in order to complete the project landscape characterisation process.

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6.5 Onshore Biological Environment

This section provides a description of the terrestrial and aquatic ecology identified along the area of influence of the TAP Project across Albania. 6.5.1 Terrestrial Ecology

The following subsections describe the terrestrial ecology conditions found along the five sections of the study area (500 m corridor of the TAP route across Albania): Eastern, Central Eastern, Central Western, Western and the Northern section (specifically relating to road improvements and a main pipe yard near the Port of Durres). This section should be read in conjunction with the detailed information provided in Annex 4.1 and Annex 6.2.

Annex 6.2 includes detailed lists of flora, fauna and habitats identified including common and latin names ( Annex 6.2.1.1 to Annex 6.2.1.5 ), and detailed data sheets of all sites visited ( Annex 6.2.1.6 to Annex 6.2.1.9 ). The thematic maps developed to present spatial distribution of the data described are presented in Annexes 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3. 6.5.1.1 Eastern Section

Figure 6.5-1 presents the locations where key species where observed (recorded during the field survey) or thought to potentially present in the Eastern Section (for more details see Annex 4.1 and Annex 6.2.1.2 ). Three types of findings were identified: 1) Zoology findings (Z), 2) Botanic findings (B), and 3) Bioconservation findings (BC).

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Figure 6.5-1 Sampling points with Key Species Observed or Potentially Present

Source: Albania topographic map with modifications by ERM (2011)

Most of the study area (500 m corridor of the pipeline route) is composed of agricultural land that is divided among a large number of landowners. Only a small portion of the corridor runs through forest (e.g. some pine forests planted on slopes prone to erosion with the objective of stabilising landslides) and scrublands, which were transferred recently to the Communes of the Cangonji and Zemblak villages. In some sections it crosses apple orchards and vineyards, most of which were recently planted on abandoned croplands. The Devolli River runs northwards through the study area and forms an important river valley corridor ( Annex 6.2.1.6 Survey Point B-040).

Desktop studies and the field surveys undertaken suggest that approximately 203 species, or 5.8% of the Albanian higher plant flora, are found within the region (Qosja, 1979, 1985; Paparisto et al., 1988 – 2000). The full species lists for the Eastern Section can be seen in Annex 6.2.1.6.

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The habitat hosts relatively poor fauna, which is generally of low ecological value and sensitivity. However, some parts of the Eastern Section, especially next to the Greek border, have some ecological sensitivity due to seasonal presence of the brown bear ( Ursus arctos ) and wolf ( Canis lupus ) in this transboundary area. Additionally, the river crossing of the main Devolli River near Bilisht and Zemblaku and the Trestenik water reservoir are important sites for aquatic animal life.

6.5.1.1.1 Habitats and Flora in the Eastern Section

Habitats in the Eastern Section

The eastern study area supports a wide range of natural and semi-natural vegetation types and habitats. Semi-natural and modified habitats, especially those intensively used for agriculture, constitute the majority of the habitats present (Xh. Qosja, 1985). These semi-natural habitats within the Eastern Section only have a limited nature conservation value and limited ecological quality. However, forest habitats are of particular significance to local communities especially as a source of firewood. Habitats occurring inside the 500 m corridor along the pipeline route are shown in Table 6.5-1. The distribution of these key habitats is shown in Annex 4.3.

Table 6.5-1 CORINE Land Cover Types Present within the Eastern Section

Habitat Chainage (Kp) where habitat present Complex cultivation patterns 5-52 Coniferous forest 0-1; 18 -22 Discontinuous urban fabric 3; 6-7; 9-10; 18 -22; 27-35; 37-38; 50 Fruit trees and berry plantations 46-48 Land principally occupied by agriculture, with significant areas of 2-4; 6-7; 18-19; 21-23 natural vegetation Natural grassland 1-2; 23-25 Non-irrigated arable land 6-7; 9-10; 12-14; 21 -51 Pastures 0-1; 4-5; 8-9; 18-22 Permanently irrigated land 43-45; 50-51 Sparsely vegetated areas 22-23 Transitional woodland-shrub 18-22 Vineyards 51-52 Watercourses 5-12; 18-26

Source: Field Surveys (June and August 2011) and modified CORINE land cover data, ERM (2011)

Following the provision of the CORINE land cover data, an additional number of European Habitats were identified (European Commission, 2007). Annex 4.3 presents the limited spatial distribution of European Habitats found in the Eastern Section as also seen in Table 6.5-2 reflecting the agricultural nature of the habitat present within the Eastern Section.

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Table 6.5-2 European Habitats Present within the Eastern Section

Habitat Habitat Chainage (Kp) where habitat Code present 5110 Stable xerothermophilous formations with Buxus sempervirens on 18-22 rock slopes (Berberidion p.p.) 6520 Mountain hay meadows 0-2; 4-5; 8-9; 18-25 8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation 22-23 9170 Galio-Carpinetum oak-hornbeam forests 18-22 92A0 Salix alba and Populus alba galleries 5-12; 18-26 9540 Mediterranean pine forests with endemic Mesogean pines 0-1; 18 -22

Source: Field Surveys (June and August 2011) and modified CORINE land cover data, ERM (2011)

Full species lists for the study area are provided in Annex 6.2.1.1 , and full description of the habitats found within the study area is provided in Annex 6.2.1.4 , which includes a description of the main vegetation types and habitats found within the eastern study area listing key species, abundance and distribution as well as habitat sensitivity (see Annex 5 for detailed Methodology). Habitats listed as of European importance are also identified. In addition to the above European habitats further micro habitats were identified during surveys completed as part of the Habitats Directive Assessment in April 2012 within the Morova designated area (between Kp 15.5 - Kp 18 and between Kp 21.5 - Kp 24, see Section 6.6.3 ). These additional habitats included; Lowland hay meadows (Alopecurus pratensis, Sanguisorba officinalis) 6510; Reed beds (Phragmito- Magnocaricetea) 72A0; *(Sub-) Mediterranean pine forest with endemic black pines ( Pinus nigra ) 9530. Endangered and Threatened Plant Species in the Eastern Section

Among all the observed taxa, 7 species, or 2%, are included in the group of species of national conservation concern that are protected by National Legislation (refer Table 6.5-3 ).

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Table 6.5-3 Endangered and Threatened Plant Species in the Eastern Section

Latin name Common name Location Family name Distribution *Threat status (IUCN) Hypericum Perforate St. John’s Kp 0-53 GUTTIFERAE Paleotemp. EN perforatum Wort Juglans regia Black walnut Kp 0-53 JUGLANDACEAE Eurasiat. EN Juniperus oxycedrus Prickly juniper Kp 18-22 CUPRESSACEAE Eurimedit. VU Juniperus communis Common juniper Kp 18-22 CUPRESSACEAE Circumbor. VU Origanum vulgare Wild marjoram Kp 18-22 LAMIACEAE Eurasiat. EN Salix fragilis Crack willow Kp 8-9; 18-19 SALICACEAE Eurosib. VU Sambucus nigra Common elder Kp 8-9; 18-19 CAPRIFOLIACEAE Europeo-Cauc. VU Notes: *Threat status taken from National Red Data Book (Vangjeli et al., 1995) Abbreviations: IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature EN: Endangered VU: Vulnerable Source: Field Survey (June and August 2011), ERM (2011)

All plant species observed that are classified as threatened under Albanian legislation in the Eastern Section are classified as either EN (3 species) or VU (4 species) under National IUCN criteria. The groups of species present are commonly occurring species within Albania which have become threatened more widely by over collecting or by unsustainable harvesting for traditional herbal remedies (Vangjeli et al. 1995). One of the vulnerable plant species identified, crack willow ( Salix fragilis ), is not under direct threat although has a very sensitive biological equilibrium (even for small interventions) due to its common occurrence along riparian corridors. Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Species in the Eastern Section

The area supports 34 species of medicinal and aromatic plants that are presented in Annex 6.2.1.3. Many are well-known by the local population, with a long tradition of collecting them either for individual and family use or for sale. These species have low abundance-dominance values and no evident role in the physiognomy of these ecosystems or in providing income for the local population engaged in this activity. Of the species recorded in the field, the common juniper ( Juniperus communis ), prickly juniper ( Juniperus oxycedrus ), wild marjoram ( Origanum vulgare ), Orchis sp and common elder ( Sambucus nigra ) are all listed in the Albanian Red Data Book (Vangjeli et al., 1995).

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6.5.1.1.2 Fauna in the Eastern Section

Species Richness in the Eastern Section

Based on the literature review and field surveys in 2009 and 2011, the Eastern Section has the potential to support some 133 vertebrate species including fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals (refer to Table 6.5-4 ). The Eastern Section of the study area is the poorest and least sensitive of the 4 sections in terms of species richness and ecological sensitivity. This is primarily explained by the low habitat diversity and high disturbance levels where the route passes through the intensive agricultural and urbanised areas of the Devolli and Korca basins.

Table 6.5-4 Fauna Species Present in the Eastern Section Study Area

Group Number of Internationally Regionally Nationally Species Threatened (IUCN) Threatened (IUCN) Threatened (IUCN) Fish* 10 2 1 2 Amphibians 10 0 0 1 Reptiles 11 2 0 0 Birds 63 1 0 14 Mammals 39 1 3 5 Total vertebrates 133 6 4 22 Notes*: For further details on fish species refer to Section 6.1.2

Source: Field Survey (June and August 2011), ERM (2011)

At least 6 vertebrate species present in the survey area are considered Globally Threatened (long-fingered bat [Myotis capacinii ], lesser kestrel [Falco naumanni ], dice snake [Natrix tessellata ], Balkan wall lizard [Podarcis taurica ], barbel [Barbus perspensis ], loach [Oxynoemacheilus pindus ]), 4 are Regionally Threatened (barbel, long-fingered bat, Mediterranean horseshoe bat , [Rhinolophus euryale ], and brown bear [ Ursus arctos ]) while 22 species are Nationally Threatened (common nase [ Chondrostoma nasus ], chub [Squalius cephalus ], balkan frog [ Rana balcanica ], goshawk [Accipiter gentilis ], sparrowhawk [ Accipiter nisus ], grey heron [Ardea cinerea ], buzzard [Buteo buteo ], little egret [Egretta garzetta ], lesser kestrel [F. naumanni ], peregrine [Falco peregrinus ], hobby [ Falco subbuteo ], kestrel [ Falco tinnunculus ], black kite [Milvus migrans ], red kite [Milvus milvus ], bee-eater [Merops apiaster ], pygmy cormorant [Phalacrocorax pygmeus ], hoopoe [Upupa epops ], jackal [ Canis aureus ], otter [Lutra lutra ], badger [Meles meles ], Mediterranean hoseshoe bat [ R. euryale ], and brown bear brown bear [ U. arctos ],) (see Annex 6.2.1.2 and Annex 6.2.2.6 ).

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Amphibians and Reptiles

The herpetofauna of the Eastern Section of the pipeline route is relatively poor. Based on a desk- based study and literature review (Bruno, 1989; Haxhiu, 1994, 1995, 1998) and data collected during field work, 10 amphibian (out of 16 species reported in Albania) and 11 reptile species (out of 37 species reported in Albania) are expected to be present in this section ( Annex 6.2.1.2 ). Three species of amphibians and 6 species of reptiles were directly observed during the field survey of August 2011, while the remaining species are considered potentially present along the Eastern Section based on habitat analysis and distribution range. The low number of species observed is explained by the unusual, unfavourable weather conditions during the field survey period (very dry and hot).

The most common amphibians are yellow-bellied toad ( Bombina variegate ) and Balkan frog (Rana balcanica ), while the most common reptiles are common wall lizard ( Podarcis muralis ), European green lizard ( Lacerta viridis ), and Hermann’s tortoise ( Testudo hermanni ).

Some 13 species (10 amphibians and 3 reptiles) are considered aquatic animals or closely linked with aquatic habitats, while the remaining 8 species are considered terrestrial, frequenting woodlands, rocky shelters, open grassland, and arable land. Habitats identified as particularly important for supporting amphibian and reptile species, such as watercourses (Survey points Z- 061 and Z-059) and bare rock habitat (Kp 22 to 23) are listed in Annex 6.2.1.5 with further details on the habitat and species present within them.

Two species of reptiles, dice snake ( Natrix tessellata ) and Balkan wall lizard ( Podarcis taurica ) are considered Globally Threatened under the IUCN as VU, while all amphibians and the remaining reptile species are considered LR or NE (see Annex 6.2.1.2 for definitions of Conservation Status; CE, EN, VU, NT, LC, DD, NE).

In the national context, all amphibians present in the area are evaluated as Low Risk (LR), except for 1 species, Balkan frog ( R. balcanica ), which is classified as VU. None of the reptile species are considered threatened, although 9 species are LR and 2 others NE (see Annex 6.2.1.2 ).

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In the European context, 5 amphibian species (yellow-bellied toad [ B. variegata ], European green toad [Bufo viridis], European tree frog [Hyla arborea ], agile frog [Rana dalmatina ], great crested newt [ Tristurus cristatus ]) and 9 reptile species (Caspian whip snake [ Coluber jugularis ], aesculapian snake [Elaphe longissima ], European pond terrapin [Emys orbicularis ], European green lizard [ Lacerta viridis ], dice snake [N. tasselata ], common wall lizard [ P. muralis ], Balkan wall lizard [P. taurica ], Hermann’s tortoise [T. hermanni ], European nose horn viper [ Vipera ammodytes ]) are listed in Annex II of the Bern Convention, thus considered as Strictly Protected Species. The remaining 5 amphibians (common toad [ B. bufo], smooth newt [Lissotriton vulgaris ], Balkan frog [ R. balcanica ], stream frog [R. graeca ], and common frog [R. temporaria ]) and 2 reptiles (slow worm [ Anguis fragilis], European grass snake [Natrix natrix ]) are listed under Annex III of the Bern Convention and hence are considered Protected Species (see Annex 6.2.1.2 ). No reptile and amphibian species listed as threatened within the Mediterranean region are present in this section. In terms of the EU Habitats Directive, 9 species are listed under Annex IV (Caspian whip snake [ C. jugularis ], aesculapian snake [E. longissima ], European pond terrapin [E. orbicularis ], common lizard [L. viridis ], dice snake [N. tasselata ], common wall lizard [P. muralis ], Balkan wall lizard [P. taurica ], Hermann’s tortoise [T. hermanni ], European nose horn viper [ V. ammodytes ]) and 2 species (European pond terrapin [ Emys orbicularis ], and Hermann’s tortoise [T. hermanni ]) are listed under Annex II. 6 species of amphibians are listed under Annex IV (yellow-bellied toad [ B. variegata ], European green toad [B. viridis ], European tree frog [R. Arborea], agile frog [R. dalmatina ], stream frog [R. graeca ], great crested newt [T. cristatus ]) and 2 species (yellow-bellied toad [ B. veriegata ] and great crested newt [ Triturus cristatus ]) are listed under Annex II. All species listed under Annex II are also listed under Annex IV, and all are strictly protected under EU legislation. Birds

The Eastern Section was generally found to support a low number of bird species which was thought to be due to low habitat diversity and high disturbance levels within the section. From observations made during the field survey of 2011 and from the literature review (Bino et al., 1996; Casale et al., 2000; Kayser et al., 1997) it is believed that some 63 species of birds (out of 330 known to occur in Albania) or 19% of the total number of birds species present in Albania (See Annex 6.2.1.2 ) are present within the Eastern Section. Similar to overall species richness, this reflects the lowest number of species recorded along the TAP route in Albania. Forty-five of the species identified were recorded directly in the field while a further 18 are thought to be potentially present. Most of the species whose presence is considered “potential” are either wintering or migratory species that may visit Devolli and the Korca basin during winter time or on passage (early spring and autumn).

Of the 63 species (as shown in Annex 6.2.1.2 ), 34 species are resident, 21 species are summer visitors and breeders, 3 species are winter visitors while the remaining 5 are migratory species seen during passage in spring and/or autumn.

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Habitat preference for species varied, with 15 species closely linked with forest and woodland habitat (particularly between Kp 22 and 23 near the Cangonji Protected Area). A further 30 species utilised open grasslands and scrubby terrain (recorded throughout the Devolli River Valley); 11 species are wetland species (rivers, streams and water reservoirs such as the Devolli River [survey point Z-065] and Zemblaku Dam located adjacent to each other and the minor Trestenik dam [survey point Z-059]); while 7 are found in areas associated with human settlements. Thus, the bird community of the Eastern Section is dominated by species associated with open terrain such as grasslands and bordering low shrubs. This habitat type will also largely be the one most represented along the pipeline route within the section.

One species, the lesser kestrel ( Falco naumanni ) present in the Eastern Section, is listed as VU under the IUCN Red List while a further 14 species (or 22% of the total number of species) are nationally threatened (goshawk [ Accipiter gentilis ], sparrowhawk [ Accipiter nisus ], grey heron [Ardea cinerea ], buzzard [ Buteo buteo ], little egret [ Egretta garzetta ], lesser kestrel [ Falco naumanni ], peregrine [ Falco peregrinus ], hobby [ Falco subbuteo ], kestrel [ Falco tinnunculus ], black kite [ Milvus migrans ], red kite [ Milvus milvus ], bee-eater [ Merops apiaster ], pygmy cormorant [ Phalocrocorax pygmeus ], hoopoe [ Upupa epops ]). The majority of nationally threatened birds belong to VU category (9 species – goshawk [ Accipiter gentilis ], grey heron [Ardea cinerea ], buzzard [ Buteo buteo ], little egret [ Egretta garzetta ], lesser kestrel [ Falco naumanni ], peregrine [ Falco peregrinus ], hobby [ Falco subbuteo ], kestrel [ Falco tinnunculus ], hoopoe [ Upupa epops ]) and EN (4 species – sparrowhawk [ Accipiter nasus ], black kite [ Milvus migrans ], red kite [ Milvus milvus ], bee-eater [ Merops apiaster ]), while 1 species, the pygmy cormorant ( Phalacrocorax pygmeus ), is considered CE in Albania. Most of the threatened species in Albania are birds of prey that hunt over open terrain and woodland whilst a few threatened species are water birds, such as pygmy comorant ( P. pygmeus) and little egret ( E. garzetta ), both of which were observed along the main Devolli River (survey point Z-065) nearby Zemblaku Dam and Bilishti (survey point Z-061), as well as at the reservoir near Trestenik Village (survey point Z-059) (see Annex 6.2.1.7 ). It should be mentioned that none of the 3 nationally threatened species of birds breed at these sites, which are used more for temporary feeding grounds.

Overall, 43 or 68% of the 63 bird species recorded for the Eastern Section are NE or have secure conservation status (SS) in the national context. Of the total, 53 bird species are protected by Albanian law, and 39 species are listed under Annex II of the Bern Convention, while 18 species are listed under Annex III of the same convention (see Annex 6.2.1.2 ). Species listed on the EU Bird Directive included 17 species, and 8 of these are listed in Annex I of the Directive which requires the designation of protected areas across Europe. The majority of Annex I species are raptors, however, P. pygmeus and E. garzetta were recorded in the Devolli River (see above), directly within the route corridor.

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Mammals

The number of mammals occurring in the Eastern Section of the study area is estimated at 39 species (out of 69 terrestrial species known to occur in Albania). The presence of 22 mammal species was directly confirmed during the field surveys, while the presence of the remaining 17 species inside the Eastern Section is based on literature review (including Bego et al., 2008; Bego et al., 2002; Atkinson, 1990) in relation to the geographical distribution, habitat requirement analysis, and the presence of the species in the surrounding area.

The mammal community is dominated by bats (16 species) and rodents (10 species), followed by carnivorous species (8 species) and insectivores (4 species). No ungulates were observed or expected to occur along the Eastern Section of the study area, while the order Lagomorpha is represented by the brown hare ( Lepus europaeus ) (see Annex 6.2.1.2 ).

One-third of the mammal species (13 species) in this section prefer forests and shrubs (good habitat for them was recorded to the south of the pipeline between Kp 22 and 23), 10 species prefer grasslands (recorded throughout this section), 10 species of bats are cave-dwellers, 5 species are linked with urban/rural areas (sinanthropic species), and 1 species, the otter ( Lutra lutra ), is considered an aquatic mammal ( Annex 6.2.1.2 , recorded on the Devolli River and it’s tributaries). For the bat species, cave habitat is not found along the pipeline route, although caves and tunnels are situated some 1 to 3 km from the study area, and some cave-dwelling bats visit the study area during their night hunting. The cave at Treni is most important, situated at the Small Prespa Lake.

Only 1 species, the long-fingered bat ( Myotis capaccinii ), is listed as Globally Threatened, while 38 species are Lower Risk. In a national context, 5 species are Nationally Threatened (2 EN – jackal [ Canis aureus ] and badger [ Meles meles ], and 3 VU – otter [ Lutra lutra ], Meditterranean horseshoe bat [ Rhinolophus Euryale ], and brown bear [ Ursus arctos ]) (see Annex 6.2.1.2 ). The long-fingered bat ( M. capaccinii) , the Mediterranean horseshoe bat ( R. euryale ), and brown bear (U. arctos ) are Regionally Threatened within the Mediterranean with all 3 species listed as VU. Of the species recorded on the EU Habitats Directive 12 are listed under Annex II, 19 under Annex IV and 2 under Annex V. The majority of these species are bats (16) while the remaining 3 species listed under Annex II and IV are the key species brown bear ( U. arctos), otter ( L. lutra ),and wolf ( C. lupus ).

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Large Carnivores

Signs of large carnivores were not directly recorded during the ESIA 2011 field survey. Nevertheless, surveys carried out during the route narrowing process in Albania (2009 and 2011) recorded wolf ( C. lupus ) and brown bear ( U. arctos ) in the area. Brown bear was widely present and confirmed by footprints in a relatively large number of locations (including the the Albanian- Greek border). The presence of large carnivores was confirmed in the 2011 survey along the border between Albania and Greece based on evidence provided during an informal interview with villagers at Trestenik (survey point Z-060). The villagers complained of damage caused to their crops and livestock by both species, and according to these people, the damage caused by U. arctos in particular has increased annually as a result of an increase in its population in the Greek part of the transboundary area. Villagers stated that during the late summer and autumn, individuals cross the border and feed on crops and livestock in Albania (currently there is no compensation scheme for damages caused by these species to farmers). In addition, the Cangonji gorge crossing could act as a potential corridor for large carnivores and other wildlife species in the area connecting the Morava mountain ranges with the Mali i Thate/Prespa area (at Kp 21 to 23, survey point Z-064) although evidence was not recorded during the survey. Additionally, the field survey did not reveal any signs of ungulate prey species in this section, like the roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus ) or wild boar ( Sus scrofa ), and their presence in the intensive agriculture matrix with high human activity levels is unlikely.

Otter (L. lutra) presence was verified on the Devolli River at 2 locations where the pipeline crosses, near Bilishti (survey point Z-061 see Annex 6.2.1.7 ) and the Zemblaku Dam (survey point Z-065 see Annex 6.2.1.7 ). The Zemblaku Dam represents a temporary stagnant water wetland along the main Devolli River. The presence of otter ( L. lutra ) gives the area of the Devolli River wetland ecosystems some conservation interest as it is considered a primary focus species in national nature conservation strategies (NEA, 1999) and within various international treaties and conventions (as previously stated).

6.5.1.1.3 Summary of Key Habitats and Species within the Eastern Section

No endemic plant species were identified within the Eastern Section of the study area (the 500 m corridor of the pipeline route). In general, habitat was of minor importance from a nature conservation perspective; minimal habitat was identified with a European status, and no habitat was identified with a European Priority Habitat status. However, forest habitats are of particular significance to the local communities especially as a source of firewood. Provision of alternative sources for heating (e.g. gas) from the TAP Project may reduce community reliance on these resources especially those found within large settlements (i.e. Bilisht district).

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The wider 2 km corridor includes areas within the Cangonji Managed Nature Reserve and proposed Morava Emerald site (Cangonji – Drenova’s Fir – Nikolice – Gramoz), which are both of High Importance due to their protected status. However, the actual route alignment does not pass though any of the habitats (including broadleaf woodland) for which these areas have been designated (see Section 6.6.3 for details).

From a fauna perspective, the Trestenik reservoir (survey point Z-059) provides a sensitive habitat of medium importance and quality, as it provides habitat for a variety of animal taxa linked with aquatic habitats, such as dragonflies, fish, amphibians, aquatic reptiles, and water birds. The presence of otter ( L. lutra) was not confirmed at this location during our field surveys in this area; however the habitat appears suitable for this species.

The presence of otter ( L. lutra) , which is a species of High importance (listed on the EU Habitats directive and others), was detected on the Devolli River at crossing points located at Kp 12 (survey point Z-061) and Kp 22 (survey point Z-065). The Devolli River provides valuable habitat for a range of species (including protected bird species) within the Eastern Section, and it is of High importance.

While no direct signs of wolf ( C. lupus) were recorded during 2011 ESIA survey, anecdotal evidence of these species was recorded during 2009 (the low number of sites where wolf could be confirmed is partially caused by the difficulties of differentiating the footprints between wolf and shepherd dogs and, as such, a conservative approach was adopted to identification). Brown bear ( U. arctos) presence was widely confirmed, including abundant footprints on the Albanian- Greek border (on both sides). This possibly indicates transit of individuals between Albania and Greece from the Morava Mountain chain to the Prespa/Mali Thate area (Bego, 2002) making this area potentially of High importance as a wildlife corridor for species (as also identified by the European Green Belt Initiative) even if the overall habitat quality in this area is only considered of Medium value.

6.5.1.2 Central Eastern Section

Although the Central Eastern Section of the study area is small, its flora is characterised by considerable species richness due to the high mountain massifs, complex topography, the highly variable rock substrates, soil types, and hydrological conditions. The following figure presents the locations where key species where observed (recorded during the field survey) or thought to potentially present in the Central Eastern Section (for more details see Annex 4.3 and Annex 6.2.1.4 ). Three types of findings were identified: 1) Zoology findings (Z), 2) Botanic findings (B), and 3) Bioconservation findings (BC).

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Figure 6.5-2 Sampling Points with Key Species Observed or Potentially Present

Source: Albania topographic map with modifications by ERM (2012)

The altitude within the Central Eastern Section ranges from 850 to 1,850 masl Altitude therefore plays a significant role in shaping the dominant vegetation types present. The 3 distinct belts of natural climax vegetation in this study area can be identified based on the altitude:

• Thermophilic sclerophyllous broadleaf oaks and all other derived degradation stages and mixed broadleaf deciduous oak forests (Quercus sp.) often degraded to transitional woodland-scrub dominated by oriental hornbeam (Carpinus orientalis) from 500 to 1,300 m.a.s.l;

• Mesophilic broadleaf forests, represented by beech (Fagus sylvatica) forest from 1,300 to 1,700 masl; and

• Sub-alpine grasslands above 1,500 to 1,850 masl.

Stands of coniferous forest, generally dominated either by Austrian pine ( Pinus nigra ) or by common silver fir ( Abies alba ), are also widespread within the Central Eastern Section at altitudes of around 1,100 to 1,500 masl The other key habitat area within the section is along the Osumi River, which has riparian habitat along its banks.

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Desktop studies and the field surveys undertaken suggest that approximately 374 plant species, or 10.6%, of the Albanian higher plant flora are found within this section. The full species list for the section can be seen in Annex 6.2.1.1.

While generally degraded from their full potential, the habitats present still provide a highly important resource for fauna species with a good representation from all the main groups. Large mammals and carnivores, woodpeckers, and other animal communities (both vertebrates and invertebrates) linked with old growth forests are all present, and these species and groups are considered of special conservation interest nationally, regionally (Balkan region) and internationally. Much of the section is still considered a transboundary area as it is situated within 25 km of the Greek border which gives this study area a special conservation interest.

6.5.1.2.1 Habitats and Flora in the Central Eastern Section

Habitats in the Central Eastern Section

The study area supports a wide range of natural and semi-natural vegetation types and habitats. Important Natural habitats are also still found in some remaining patches along the route corridor. The main habitats within the Central Eastern Section are semi-natural and have only limited nature conservation value. Habitats occurring inside the Central Eastern Section are shown in Table 6.5-5 and their distribution is shown in maps found in Annex 4.3.

Natural, semi-natural and modified habitats, especially those intensively used for firewood collection and grazing, constitute the majority of the habitats present, while artificial habitats, represented mostly by pine plantations on eroded slopes, only cover small sections of the study area.

Table 6.5-5 CORINE Land Cover Types Present within the Central Eastern Section

No. Habitat Chainage (Kp) where habitat present 1 Bare rock 91 2 Broadleaf forest 69 -84 3 Complex cultivation patterns 65-66; 93-95 4 Coniferous forest 63; 65-67; 75, 83-85 5 Discontinuous urban fabric 6 Fruit trees and berry plantations 87-89 7 Land principally occupied by agriculture, with significant areas of natural 55-58 vegetation 8 Mixed forest 94-95 9 Natural grassland 52-55; 91-99 10 Non-irrigated arable land 11 Pastures 70-71, 75-78, 79-83 12 Permanently irrigated land 13 Sclerophyllous vegetation 52-55 14 Sparsely vegetated areas 79-91 15 Transitional woodland-shrub 53-67; 84-85, 90-99 16 Vineyards 52-52.5

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No. Habitat Chainage (Kp) where habitat present 17 Water bodies 55-56; 60,84 18 Watercourses 57, 85

Source: Field Surveys (June and August 2011, July 2012) and modified CORINE land cover data, ERM (2012)

Within the Central Eastern Section, 1 European Priority Habitat and a further 16 European Habitats were identified (see Table 6.5-6 ).

Table 6.5-6 European Habitats Present within Central Eastern Section

No. Habitat Habitat Chainage (Kp) Code where habitat present 1 3150 Natural eutrophic lakes with Magnopotamion or Hydrocharition - type vegetation 55-56; 60 2 5110 Stable xerothermophilous formations with Buxus sempervirens on rock slopes 52-55 (Berberidion p.p.) 3 5130 Juniperus communis formations on heaths or calcareous grasslands 79-91 4 5210 Mediterranean arborescent matorral, arborescent matorral with Juniperus spp. 83-84 5 6170 Alpine and subalpine calcareous grassland 77-81; 85 6 6520 Mountain hay meadows 52-55; 71; 75-81; 91- 99 7 8210 Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation 79-91 8 8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation 75-78 9 9110 Luzulo-Fagetum beech forests 69-84 10 9130 Asperulo-Fagetum beech forests 78 11 9160 Sub-Atlantic and medio-European oak 84 12 9170 Galio-Carpinetum oak-hornbeam forests 53-67; 90-99 13 91F0 Riparian mixed forests along the great rivers 85-87 14 91M0 Pannonian-Balkanic turkey oak- sessile oak forests 94-95 15 92A0 Salix alba and Populus alba galleries 57, 88 16 92B0 Riparian formations on intermittent Mediterranean watercourses with Salix and 78; 85-86 others 17 9530 * (Sub-)Mediterranean pine forests with endemic black pine 63; 65-67; 75; 83-85

Source: Field Surveys (June and August 2011, July 2012) and modified CORINE land cover data, ERM (2012)

The full species lists and a full description of the habitats present are provided in Annex 6.2.1.1 and Annex 6.2.1.4 respectively where the main vegetation types and habitats are listed with details on key species, abundance and distribution as well as habitat sensitivity. In addition to the above European habitats further micro habitat was identified during surveys completed as part of the Habitats Directive Assessment in April 2012 within the Vithkuq - Ostrovice designated area (between Kp 61 – 69), see Section 6.6.3 ). The additional habitat identified consisted of Juniperus communis formations on heaths or calcareous grasslands 5130.

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Along the section of ridgeline from Kp 76 to Kp 83 there are key stands of primary beech forest which are observed to still be in a ‘high forest’ 1 condition and glades of un-grazed alpine hay meadows within the forest. Both habitat types are known to support a number of protected and European Priority species (as described in Section 6.5.1.2.2 ). The extent of this habitat is represented in Figure 6.5-3 . This figure was created from a visual interpretation of satellite imagery and from observations during field surveys in the area, giving an indicative representation of the ‘High Forest’ habitat remaining within the Vithkuq – Ostrovice area which is of key importance. Figure 6.5-3 High Forest Habitat present within the Vithkuq – Ostrovice Area

Source: Visual interpretation of satellite imagery (Google Earth 2012 / VHR Orthomosaica)and Field Survey observations (October 2011/2012), ERM (2012)

The beech forest between Kp 69 and Kp 83 also represents a large tract of unbroken forest habitat which is now unusual in the region. The total extent of this forest area is approximately

1 ‘High forest‘ is a term used to describe woodland or forest with a well-developed natural struture, grown from seed. In high forest trees range in age from from young saplings to mature and veteran trees. This is an accepted term under the heading of ‘Forest‘ in the EU Habitats Interpretation Manual (July 2007) – European Commission DG Environment Nature and Biodiversity.

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2,950 ha and consists not only of high quality ‘High Forest’ stands but also of pollarded and coppiced woodland harvested in the past by local populations.

Endangered and Threatened Plant Species in the Central Eastern Section

Among all the observed taxa, 22 species, or 6.2% of the total number, are included in the group of species of national conservation concern that are protected by national legislation. These species are shown in Table 6.5-7 . Two of these species are endemic while, according to National IUCN categories, two species are listed as CR, eight species as EN, eight species as VU, and four species as Lower Risk (LR).

Table 6.5-7 Endangered and Threatened Plant Species in the Central Eastern Section

No. Latin name Common name Location Family name Distribution *Threat (Kp) status (IUCN) 1 Aconitum lamarckii Yellow monks hood 75-78 RANUNCULACEAE S-Europ. CR 2 Adiantum capillus- Maidenhair fern 69-84 ADIANTACEAE Pantropic. VU veneris 3 Agrimonia eupatoria Common agrimony 69-84 ROSACEAE Sub-Cosmop. LR 4 Atropa bella-donna Banewort 69-84 SOLANACEAE Orof.-Medit. CR 5 Colchicum autumnale Meadow saffron 74, 79 LILIACEAE Europeo-Centr. EN 6 Crataegus heldreichii Hawthorn 75-84 ROSACEAE Balcan. LR 7 Digitalis lanata Woolly foxglove 69-84 SCROPHULARIACEAE Sub-Balcan. LR 8 Dryopteris filix-mas Male-fern 69-84 ASPIDIACEAE Sub-Cosmop. LR 9 Festucopsis serpentini Serpentine false 75-78 POACEAE Endemic EN brome 10 Gentiana lutea Great yellow gentian 75-80 GENTIANACEAE Orof. S.-Europ. EN 11 Hypericum perforatum Perforate St. John’s 52-65; 78-80 GUTTIFERAE Paleotemp. EN wort 12 Juglans regia Black walnut 52-65; 84-99 JUGLANDACEAE Eurasiat. EN 13 Juniperus oxycedrus Prickly juniper 53-67; 90-99 CUPRESSACEAE Eurimedit. VU 14 Juniperus communis Common juniper 53-67; 90-99 CUPRESSACEAE Circumbor. VU 15 Lilium albanicum Albanian lily 75-78 LILIACEAE Endemic EN 16 Origanum vulgare Wild marjoram 52-69; 90-99 LAMIACEAE Eurasiat. EN 17 Phyllitis Hart’s tongue fern 69-84 ASPLENIACEAE Circumbor. VU scolopendrium 18 Salix fragilis Crack willow 57 SALICACEAE Eurosib. VU 19 Sambucus nigra Common elder 69-84 CAPRIFOLIACEAE Europeo-Cauc. VU 20 Satureja montana Winter savoury 79-91 LAMIACEAE Orof. W-Medit. VU 21 Sideritis raeseri Mountain tea 65 – 72; 75- LAMIACEAE Balcan. EN 78 22 Viscum album Mistletoe 63; 65-67;75 LORANTHACEAE Eurasiat. VU Note: *Threat status taken from National Red Data Book (Vangjeli et al., 1995) Abbreviations: IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature Categories CR: Critically Endangered, EN: Endangered, VU: Vulnerable,LR Low Risk (below Vulnerable category) Source: Field Surveys (June / August 2011 and July 2012), ERM (2012)

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The CR plant species present in the study area are yellow monks hood ( Aconitum lamarckii ) and banewort ( Atropa bella-donna ), which are distributed mostly in beech forests. A. lamarckii is considered to be very rare within the study area and A. bella-donna is threatened by unsustainable levels of collecting for traditional herbal remedies.

The majority of threatened species present in the Central Eastern study area are associated with belts of broadleaf beech forest ( F. sylvatica ). These groups contain a number of widely occurring species, and overall the endangered plant species present within this section of the study area are for the most part commonly occurring species within Albania, which have become threatened by over-collecting. Some of the vulnerable plant species are not under direct threat however are threatened due to their occurrence in habitats where biological equilibrium is very sensitive. Toromani (2011) reported that much of the beech forest in this section are considered to consist of fairly young at around 25 to 30 years of age, and provide an economic value as firewood and industrial wood to approximately EU 15,061.50. The black pines found in the Vithkuqi area are around 45 years old and are valued at around EU 8,466.90 (Toromani, 2011). The forest coverage from Backe village extends to Berat town (in Central Western Section) in distinct patches consisting of relatively old trees from beech, black pine, oak and shrubs species valued to a total of EU 44,794.10 (Toromani, 2011).

The remaining 4 endangered or threatened plant species are classified as LR which includes mostly sub-endemic or relict species of the Tertiary period. The threats to these species derive mainly from their limited distribution. In addition to the above, serpentine false brome (Festucopsis serpentini ) and Albanian lily ( Lilium albanicum ) are recognised as the only species endemic to Albania (considered EN, Table 6.5-7 ).

Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Species in the Central Eastern Section

The area supports 50 species of medicinal and aromatic plants which are presented in Annex 6.2.1.3 . Many are well known by the local population with a long tradition of collecting them either for individual and family use or for sale (refer to Section 6.7 , Socioeconomic Environment). Of the species recorded in the field, 11 are listed within the Albanian Red Data Book (Vangjeli et al ., 1995).

6.5.1.2.2 Fauna in the Central Eastern Section

Species Richness in the Central Eastern Section

According to the literature review, the Central Eastern study area has the potential to support some 243 vertebrate species including fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals ( Table 6.5-8 ). This section is the richest in terms of fauna as a result of the habitats present which, while largely degraded from its climax form, still provides a valuable resource for species.

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Table 6.5-8 Fauna Species Present in the Central Eastern Section Study Area

Group Number of Species Internationally Regionally Nationally Threatened (IUCN) Threatened (IUCN) Threatened (IUCN) Fish* 2 0 1 0 Amphibians 12 0 0 1 Reptiles 19 2 0 0 Birds 152 2 0 26 Mammals 56 1 4 9 Total vertebrates 241 5 5 37 Invertebrates 23 1 5 22 Grand Total 264 10 5 59 Note: For further details on fish species see Section 6.6.2

Source: Field Survey (June and August 2011, August 2012), ERM (2011)

At least 10 species present in the survey area are considered Globally Threatened, of which 5 are vertebrates (long-fingered bat [ Myotis capaccinii ], lesser kestrel [ Falco naumanni ], Egyptian vulture [ Neophron percnopterus ], dice snake [ Natrix tasselata ], Balkan wall lizard [ P. taurica ] and 5 invertebrates (see Annex 6.2.1.2 ), and 5 species are considered as Regionally Threatened (barbel [ Barbus prespensis ], lynx [ Lynx lynx], Long-fingered bat [ Myotis capaccinii ], Mediterranean horseshoe bat [ Rhinolophus euryale ], brown bear [U. arctos] ). Threatened invertebrates listed under the Bern Convention found in this section include great Capricorn beetle ( Cerambyx cerdo) (Survey point Z-010, Annex 6.2.1.7 ) and Rosalia longicorn ( Rosalia alpine ) (survey point WP019), an indicator of mature forests. Amphibians and Reptiles

The herpetofauna of the Central Eastern Section is relatively rich. Based on a desk-based study review and data collected during the field survey, 12 amphibian (out of 16 species reported in Albania) and 19 reptiles species (out of 37 species reported in Albania) are expected to be present in the section (see Annex 6.2.1.2 ). During the field survey in June 2011, 11 species of amphibians and 14 species of reptiles were directly observed, while the presence of the remaining species (1 amphibian and 5 reptile species) are considered to be potentially present due to habitat analysis and distribution range of the species. The Central Eastern Section is the only section where the alpine newt ( Triturus alpestris ) has been observed (in rain-filled temporary ponds on the track to Marta’s Pass), and the only section of presumed presence of the common European viper ( Vipera berus ) in the upland alpine meadows located in a mosaic habitat with remaining broadleaf woodland between Kp 58 and Kp 77 (survey point Z-009 and Z-010) (Haxhiu, 1998).

1 The number refers only to taxa included in the Red Data Book of Albania.

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The most common amphibians are yellow-bellied toad ( B. variegata), Balkan frog (R. balcanica) , agile frog ( R. dalmatina ), stream frog ( R. graeca ), while the most common reptiles are common wall lizard ( P. muralis), European green lizard (L. viridis) , European grass snake ( Natrix natrix ), dice snake ( N. tessellata) , and Hermann’s tortoise ( T. hermanni) .

Some 15 species (12 amphibians and 3 reptiles) are considered aquatic or closely linked with aquatic habitats, while the remaining 16 species are considered terrestrial species, frequenting a range of habitats, such as oak, pine, fir, and beech forests, rocky shelters, open grassland, and agricultural land (Haxhiu, 1994, 1998).

Two species of reptiles (Dice snake [N. tessellata], and Balkan wall lizard [P. taurica] ) are considered Globally Threatened, under the IUCN category of VU, while all amphibians and the rest of the reptile species are considered LR or NE (see Annex 6.2.1.2 ).

Amphibians present in the Central Eastern Section are all evaluated as NT species in the national context (see Annex 6.2.1.2 ), except for 1 species, Balkan frog ( R. balcanica) , which is classified as VU. All other species are classified as LR. None of the reptile species is considered a threatened species at either the regional or national level.

In the European context, 5 amphibian species (yellow-bellied toad [ Bombina variegata ], European green toad [ Bufo viridisi] , European tree frog [ Hyla arborea ], agile frog [ R. dalmatina ]) and 14 reptile species (Balkan whip snake [ Coluber gemonensis ], Caspian whip snake [ Coluber jugularis ], Dahl’s whip snake [ Coluber najadum ], smooth snake [ Coronella austriaca ], aesculapian snake [ Elaphe longissima ], European pond terrapin [ Emys orbicularis ], Balkan green lizard [ Lacerta trilineata ], European green lizard [ Lacerta viridis ], dice snake [ Natrix tassellata ], common wall lizard [ Podarcis muralis ], Balkan wall lizard [ Podarcis taurica ], Mediterranean cat snake [ Telescopus fallax ], Hermann’s tortoise [ Testudo hermanni ], European nose horn viper [ V. ammodytes ]) are listed in Annex II of the Bern Convention, while the remaining 7 amphibians (common toad [ Bufo bufo] , smooth newt [ Lissortriton vulgaris ], Alpine newt [ Mesotriton alpestris ], Balkan frog [ Rana balcanica ], stream frog [ Rana graeca ], common frog [ Rana temporaria ], fire salamander [ Salamandra salamandra ]) and 5 reptiles are listed in Annex III (Slow worm [ Anguis fragilis ], large whip snake [ Coluber caspius ], Montpellier snake [ Malpolon monspensulanum ], European grass snake [ Natrix natrix ], common European viper [V. berus ]). For the EU Habitats Directive, 14 reptile species were listed in Annex IV (Large whip snake [ Coluber caspius ], Caspian whip snake [ Coluber jugularis ], Dah’s whipsnake [ Coluber najadum ], smooth snake [Coronella austriaca ], Aesculapian snake [ Elaphe longissima ], European pond terrapin [ Emys orbicularis ], Balkan green lizard [Lacerta trilineata ], European green lizard [ Lacerta viridisi] , dice snake [ Natrix tassellata ], common wall lizard [ Podarcis muralis ], Balkan wall lizard [ Podarcis taurica ], Mediterranean cat snake [ Telescopus fallax ], Hermann’s tortoise [ Testudo hermanni] , European nose horn viper [ V. ammodytes ]) while a further 2 of these were listed in Annex II (European pond terrapin [ E. orbicularis], and Hermann’s tortoise [T. hermanni] ). All amphibian species (representing 6 in Annex IV and 2 in Annex II) identified were the same as those for the Eastern Section (see Annex 6.2.1.2 ).

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During field surveys conducted in November 2011 and July 2012 several individuals of 3 species of amphibians were observed at various pipeline crossings of the Osumi River: yellow-bellied toad ( B. variegata); stream frog (R. graeca); and Balkan frog ( R. balcanica) . Most of the few individuals observed consisted of juveniles and, in general, amphibian activity in the areas were lower than that observed during the June 2011 survey. Birds

The Central Eastern Section supports a range of habitats which provide food and shelter for a variety of bird species during the winter, breeding seasons or as stop-over on migration. From the literature review and surveys in 2009, 2011 and 2012, it is believed that some 152 species of birds (out of 330 known to occur in Albania), or around 46% of the total number of bird species present in Albania (see Annex 6.2.1.2 ), are present within the Central Eastern Section. Some 114 bird species were directly observed during the field surveys, while the remaining 38 species are considered potentially present from the desk-based research. Most of the birds that are considered to be potentially present are winter visitors or passage migrants that might visit Gjançi Reservoir and other habitats along the study area (Bino et al., 1996; Kayser et al., 1997). Of the bird species thought present, 87 species are resident, 34 species are summer visitors and breeders, 23 species are winter visitors, while 8 species are passage migrants (see Annex 6.2.1.2 ).

The bird community richness is explained by the high habitat diversity which includes broadleaf and coniferous forest, shrubs, sub-alpine meadows, rivers, streams, water reservoirs, among others. Some 47 species of birds are closely linked with high forest fragments (present between Kp 61 and Kp 93). Sixty-one species are associated with open grasslands and scrubby terrains, 29 species with wetland habitats (rivers, streams, and water reservoirs), 13 species with rocks and cliffs, and 7 species with human settlements.

In the Central Eastern Section, lesser kestrel ( F. naumanni) and Egyptian vulture ( Neophron percnopterus ) are listed under the Globally Threatened Category (EN and VU respectively), while some 27 species (or 18% of the total number of species) are nationally threatened. The majority of nationally threatened birds belong to categories of VU (13 species – Goshawk [ Accipiter gentilis ], grey heron [ Ardea cinerea ], buzzard [ Buteo buteo ], short-toed eagle [ Circaetus gallicus ], little egret [ Egretta garzetta ], lesser kestrel [ Falco naumanni ], peregrine [ Falco peregrinus ], hobby [Falco subbuteo ], kestrel [ Falco tinnunculus ], Egyptian vulture [ Neophron percnopterus ], grey- headed woodpecker [ Picus canus ], bullfinch [ Pyrrhula pyrrhula ], [ U. epops ]) and EN (10 species – sparrowhawk [ Accipiter nisus ], golden eagle [ Aquila chrysaetos ], Bonelli’s eagle [ Hieraaetus fasciatus ], booted eagle [ Hieraaetus fasciatus ], yellow-legged gull [ Larus cachinnans ], black kite [Milvus migrans ], red kite [ Milvus milvus ], honey buzzard [ Pernis apivorus ], wallcreeper [Tichodroma muraria ]), while 4 species (pygmy cormorant [ P. pygmeus ], ferruginous duck [Aythya nyroca ], griffon vulture [ Gyps fulvus ], and eagle owl [ Bubo bubo ]) are considered CR in Albania (see Annex 6.2.1.2 ). Most of the threatened species are birds of prey including the golden eagle ( Aquila chrysaetos ) which is an Annex II species that was recorded near Marta’s

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Pass. Woodpeckers and other bird species that are linked with old-growth forests and high mountain ecosystems are also threatened and likely to be present in the Central Eastern Section, as well as a number of water bird species. Hence, the old growth forests and reservoirs situated along or next to the pipeline route of the Central Eastern Section are considered sensitive and critical habitats for birds.

The numbers of species recorded or thought likely to be present demonstrates the importance of the section for a large number of bird species of national and international conservation interest. Of the 152 bird species identified in the study area, 132 are protected by Albanian law, 96 are listed under Annex II and 48 species are listed under Annex III of the Bern Convention. Of the species listed under Annex I of the Birds Directive, 28 were recorded in the Central Eastern Section. Many of these are either raptors (including 3 eagle species associated with upland environments) or species associated with old growth forest, such as woodpeckers (5 species recorded), showing that the mature forest and upland environment, especially from Kp 65 to Kp 81, is particularly important for bird species. Mammals

The number of mammals occurring in the section is estimated at 56 species (out of 69 terrestrial species known to occur in Albania). The mammal community is dominated by rodents, followed by bats and carnivores (Bego, 1997).

The presence of 28 mammal species was confirmed during the field surveys, while a further 27 species were thought to be potentially present based on the geographical distribution, habitat requirement analysis, and the presence of the species in areas adjacent to the study area. 2 species, the lynx ( Lynx lynx ) (discussed in more detail later) and snow vole ( Microtus nivalis ), are thought either extinct or very rare (Von Arx et al., 2004; Keçi et al., 2008).

Small mammals (insectivores and rodents) are represented with 23 species, followed by bats (20 species) and carnivores (10 species. Ungulates (Order Artiodactyla) are represented by only 2 species which are roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus) and wild boar ( Sus scrofa) , while the Order Lagomorpha is represented by 1 species which is brown hare ( Lepus europaeus (see Annex 6.2.1.2 ).

Almost half of the mammal species (approximately 28 species) in the study area prefer forests and shrubs (see Annex 6.2.1.7 ). Nine species prefer grasslands, 12 species of bats are cave- dwellers, 5 species are linked with urban/rural areas (sinanthropic species), while 2 species are considered aquatic mammals.

The presence of large mammals, especially large carnivores, such as the brown bear ( U. arctos), wolf ( C. lupus) , and wild cat ( Felis silvestris ), gives the area a special conservation interest, both at the national and regional (Balkan) level. Habitats of old-growth stands (particularly between Kp 65 – Kp 81), dominated by beech forests and mixed stands of beech and fir, and sub-alpine meadows, are important habitats for large mammals and carnivores (Bego et al., 2002). The

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Only 1 species, long-fingered bat ( M. capaccinii) , is listed as a globally threatened species, while 55 species are LR. Regionally, 3 species, long-fingered bat ( M. capaccinii), brown bear (U. arctos) , and Mediterranean hoseshoe bat ( R. euryale) , are listed as threatened, 53 species are LR. In the National context, 9 species are Nationally Threatened (1 CR lynx [ L. lynx] , 3 EN [badger ( M. meles), western polecat (Mustela putorius), wild cat (Felis silvestris) ], and 5 VU [ roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus) , otter ( L. lutra), Felten’s pine vole (Microtus felteni), Meditterranean hoseshoe bat ( R. euryale), brown bear (U. arctos) ]), and 7 species are NT. Due to the protected status of the formerly listed species, the Central Eastern Section is of particular conservation interest, both internationally and nationally ( Annex 6.2.3.1 ).

Threatened species on the National list include roe deer ( C. capreolus), lynx (L. lynx - unlikely), wild cat ( F. silvestris) , badger ( Meles meles ), wolf ( C. lupus) , and brown bear ( U. arctos) , all of which are linked with old growth forests and Alpine habitat (Bego et al., 2002).

The study area represents the south-eastern part of the distribution range of brown bear ( U. arctos) in Albania and the southern Balkans, and this fact makes the site important in the national and regional (Balkan) context. Based on the recent studies (Bego, 2005) and habitat analysis, it is thought that most of the study area is part of the bear range as described in the following subsection.

Nationally, 50 mammal species are protected by Albanian law. In the European context, 24 species are part of Annex II of the Bern Convention, and 17 others are listed under Annex III. For species listed under the Habitats Directive, 23 are listed under Annex IV, 19 are listed under Annex II, and 3 are listed under Annex V. Of the species listed under Annex IV, 19 are bat species and the other 4 (which are also under Annex II) include brown bear ( U. arctos) , otter ( L. lutra), wolf (C. lupus) , as well as lynx ( L. lynx) . All these species are associated with old-growth forest and upland environments which are present throughout much of this section.

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In the November 2011 survey, no otter signs were observed during the low flow season along the upper Osumi River (Survey point Z-015), although otter presence was confirmed there during the June survey. Further surveys in 2012 along the higher reaches of the Osumi River also recorded no otter presence near Potom. Food availability, human disturbance (grazing and shepherd dogs) and accessibility are likely to be the reasons why otter was found absent in this section of the Osumi River. Grazing signs with sheep and goats, the lack of fish in the river, and low density of amphibians in and along the river support this hypothesis. Otter presence was confirmed along the Gjançi reservoir, although the water level there had dropped significantly to the dead water volume of the reservoir, due to it being used to produce energy from Gjançi Hydropower. Food availability (carp, crayfish and amphibians) were still abundant in the water reservoir meaning activity was still high during the autumn season. Large Carnivores

For large mammals including carnivores, the Central Eastern Section has some vast expanses of regenerating beech forests, particularly in the region between Vithkuqi Village and Ostrovica Mountain (Marta’s pass between Kp 65 – Kp 81), that are known to act as a refuge for large mammal populations. Given the natural and anthropogenic conditions within this section, the diversity and abundance of mammals in general, and large carnivores in particular, seem to be high when compared to the other sections of the study area. This is supported by the higher number of signs found in the field and the higher diversity of species confirmed to be present overall.

The 2009 survey findings confirmed the presence of 2 large carnivores in the area, namely brown bear ( U. arctos) and wolf ( C. lupus) as well as the presence of otter ( L. lutra) (see Annex 6.2.1.8 for details). The 2011 and 2012 surveys corroborated the findings from the 2009 survey on the presence of these animals with evidence seen along the Gjanci Reservoir (survey point Z-019), Osumi River (survey Z-015), upland reservoir (survey Z-013), and within sections of the ‘high forest’ and Alpine hay meadows (Kp 76 to Kp 83). These findings give this area special conservation value. What makes it more important is that within this section, active reproduction of brown bear ( U. arctos) is taking place as evidenced by the discovery of tracks of an adult female accompanied by her cub(s) in the vicinity of Shtylla Village (location BC-22, Figure 6.5-4). In addition, a track of a likely additional adult bear and tracks and scat of wolf ( C. lupus) (Figure 6.5-4), were recorded in the beech forests above Çemerica Village and the alpine pastures near Marta’s pass, respectively. Among ungulate prey species, roe deer ( C. capreolus, BC-17) and wild boar ( S. scrofa ) presence was confirmed in the area through track identification.

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Figure 6.5-4 Bear Tracks (Female and Cub) and Wolf Tracks - Central Eastern Section

Source: Field Survey (June and August 2011), ERM (2011) The presence of lynx ( L. lynx) in this section was not confirmed during the latest survey or those undertaken previously. However, the methodology used in the field study was set with the objective of providing sufficient information for an ESIA and cannot be considered sufficiently exhaustive to draw final conclusions in this respect. Further focused investigations using appropriate methods and under appropriate conditions would be needed to define whether lynx (L. lynx) (and other unconfirmed mammal species) are present. The section is not considered a lynx ( L. lynx) distribution region in the available literature; however, recent surveys in Albania indicate that lynx ( L. lynx) might occur sporadically in the region, and that up to 20 to 25 years ago they were permanently present in the area (Ivanov et al., 2008; Trajçe et al., 2008). In addition, the relatively good forest conditions, low anthropogenic disturbance and presence of prey base (roe deer, Lagomorphs, etc.) make this area a potential good habitat for lynx ( L. lynx) .

6.5.1.2.3 Summary of Key Habitats and Species within the Central Eastern Section

Within the Central Eastern Section of the study area, 2 endemic plant species were identified which were located at (B-009): Albanian lily ( L. albanicum) and Serpentine false brome ( F. serpentini) . These species were recorded within sub-alpine natural grassland in the Vithkuqi, Korca district, containing habitats or populations of nationally important species including those listed in Section 6.5.1.2.2. This area is considered to be of High Importance with habitat critical for rare, vulnerable, or endangered species. It is also a fragile ecosystem, and while modified by summer grazing, this habitat is still of good quality. Furthermore, ungrazed glades remain within the forest between Kp 77 and Kp 79 and are of particularly high quality and importance.

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Limited areas of healthy, mature forests dominated by Hungarian oak ( Quercus frainetto), Turkey oak (Q. cerris) , and Sessile oak ( Q. petraea) are situated only in the vicinity of Çorovoda City (a number of key fauna species were recorded, and habitats of importance for these species were identified in a number of locations). Standing water habitats within the section included the Gjanci Reservoir (survey points Z-018 to Z-021, and Z-07; Kp 55 – Kp 56), 2 other smaller reservoirs situated on the road between Vithkuq and Rehove (Kp 64) and a reservoir near the town of Helmes (Kp 84) which is also listed as a Nature Monument. These provide habitat of Medium or High Importance for a variety of animal taxa linked with aquatic habitats, such as dragonflies, fish, amphibians, aquatic reptiles, water birds and otter ( L. lutra) . Three water reservoirs have been confirmed as important sites for otter ( L. lutra) during the field surveys conducted in June and August, 2011, however the reservoir at Helmes showed no signs of the species being present. Otter ( L. lutra) presence was also confirmed at Kp 51 and Kp 57 where the pipeline route crossed the Dunaveci River and the Osumi River. The field survey in November 2011 reinforced the findings from the June 2011 survey that Gjançi water reservoir is a key habitat for otters in the Central Eastern Section of the pipeline route.

The large woodland area and sub-alpine pastures located between Kp 58 and Kp 83 and between Kp 89 and Kp 97, are the other main habitat areas which are of particular importance for fauna. These areas, which include stands of old growth broadleaf forest (see Figure 6.5-5 and Annex 6.2.1.6 , Survey Point PW10), are of high importance providing large tracts of unbroken forest habitat as well as high quality habitat providing optimal habitat for a large number of protected species. In addition, these areas are important as they act as a wildlife corridor for large carnivores and are known to support a number of protected and European priority species. One example of this is brown bear ( U. arctos) which were recorded to be breeding and more than 1 individual adult was also recorded present. Signs of wolf ( C. lupus) were also recorded and roe deer ( C. capreolus) tracks found. Furthermore, the general habitat condition was recorded as ideal for other species, such as other large mammals, woodpeckers (5 species recorded and listed in Annex I of Birds Directive), and insects (i.e. great Capricorn beetle [ Cerambyx cerdo ], stag beetle [ Lucanus cervus ], and Rosalia longicorn [Rosalia alpina ]) linked with old-growth stands (of which the latter was directly recorded in July 2012 surveys). The high mountain pass is also ideal for a number of protected raptor species.

Beech ( F. sylvatica) forest situated in the vicinity of the Vithkuq and Potom region (Kp 68 – Kp 83) is mature and provides some of the most natural forest recorded along the entire study area. This habitat still includes stands of ‘High Forest’ in primary condition and can be regarded to be of high quality and importance and supports a number of priority species. The forest between Kp 76 and Kp 83 provides habitats critical to a variety of European priority species such as brown bear ( U. arctos ), wolf ( C. lupus ), Rosalia longicorn [ Rosalia alpina ] as well as woodpeckers.

The pipeline route passes through the Vithkuq-Ostrovice proposed Landscape Protected Area. Although this is not yet protected, it reflects the interest of the area and its ecological potential. It should be noted that Albania's Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (1999) document includes

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Coniferous Forest, Dominated by European black pine ( P. nigra) habitat located within the section (located at Kp 63; Kp 65 to 67; and Kp 75 [see also B-013]) is considered of special interest at a Medium or High status, as it is listed as a European Priority Habitat (9530 * [Sub-] Mediterranean pine forests with endemic black pines). Figure 6.5-5 Old-Growth Mixed Broadleaf ( Quercus sp.) Forest in the Vicinity of Çorovoda City (Annex 6.2.1.6, PW10)

Source: Field Survey (October 2009), ERM (2009)

6.5.1.3 Central Western Section

A wide range of habitats are found in the Central Western Section due to the hilly massifs, complex topography, the highly variable rock substrates, soil types, and hydrological conditions. The study area ranges from 50 to 850 masl Altitude therefore plays a significant role in shaping the dominant vegetation types present in the study area.

A distinct belt of natural climax vegetation can be identified, which includes thermophilic broadleaf oaks, and all other degradation stages and mixed broadleaf deciduous oak forests (Quercus sp.) often degraded to transitional woodland-scrub dominated by oriental hornbeam (Carpinus orientalis ) from 50 to 900 masl

Thermophilic evergreen sclerophyllous broadleaf oaks and all other degradation stages occupy a large proportion of the section. Human impact on this habitat is significant and also evident

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Mixed broadleaf deciduous oak forest is found in the hilly and sub-mountainous areas of the Central Western Section at around 800 m (Therepeli area). They generally represent degraded forest treated as coppice, used by local population for firewood and for grazing (especially goats).

In addition to the woodland habitat, riparian habitat is present throughout as the Osumi River forms an important river valley corridor flowing through the Central Western Section.

Figure 6.5-6 presents the locations where key species where observed (recorded during the field survey) or thought to potentially present in the Central West Section (for more detail see Annex 4.3 and Annex 6.2.1.2 ). Three types of findings were identified: 1) Zoology findings (Z), 2) Botanic findings (B), and 3) Bioconservation findings (BC). Figure 6.5-6 Sampling Points with Key Species Observed or Potentially Present

Source: Albania topographic map with modifications by ERM (October 2011)

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Plant species recorded or thought to potentially be present are listed in Annex 6.2.1.1 . This list includes key species which define the main habitats within the Central Western Section, as well as the key endangered and protected species. Desktop studies and the field surveys undertaken suggest that approximately 267 species, or 7.6% of the Albanian higher plant flora, are found within the Central Western study area. Fauna within the section are represented by a relatively high number of species. This again reflects the diversity of habitat present and the presence of particular habitats, which support large numbers of species (see Annex 6.2.1.5 ).

6.5.1.3.1 Habitats and Flora in the Central Western Section

Habitats in the Central Western Section

The Central Western study area supports a range of natural, semi-natural and artificial vegetation types and habitats. Semi-natural and modified habitats, especially those intensively used for firewood collection and grazing, constitute the majority of the habitats present, while artificial habitats, represented mostly by pine plantations on eroded slopes, cover small sections of the study area. However, forest habitats are of particular significance to the local communities especially as a source of firewood.

The main habitats within the Central Western Section are semi-natural and hold only limited nature conservation value. Habitats occurring inside the section of the 500 m corridor of the pipeline route are shown in Table 6.5-9 with their distribution shown in Annex 4.3.

Table 6.5-9 CORINE Land Cover Types Present within the Central Western Section

Habitat Chainages where habitat present (Kp) Mixed broadleaf forest 99–102, 116-130; 135; 152; 158-159 Complex cultivation patterns 131-174 Coniferous forest 159-161 Discontinuous urban fabric 104-105 Fruit trees and berry plantations 142-143 Land principally occupied by agriculture, with significant areas of natural 116-144; 169-173 vegetation Natural grassland 114-173 Non-irrigated arable land 156 Olive groves 136-150 Pastures 137-139 Sclerophyllous vegetation 99-136; 157-174 Sparsely vegetated areas 113-114 Transitional woodland-shrub 99-116 Water bodies 168; 173 Watercourses 104-112; 124-125; 131-143; 156

Source: Field Surveys (June and August 2011) and modified CORINE land cover data, ERM (2011)

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Within the Central Western Section, the majority of the habitat is not of high conservation value and consists of 10 European habitats which are widely present across Europe. These habitats are listed in Table 6.5-10, and a full description of the habitats is presented in Annex 6.2.1.4.

Table 6.5-10 European Habitats Present within the Central Western Section

Habitat Habitat Chainages where habitat Code present (Kp) 3150 Natural eutrophic lakes with Magnopotamion or Hydrocharition - 168; 173 type vegetation 5210 Mediterranean arborescent matorral, Arborescent matorral with 99-136; 157-174 Juniperus spp. 6510 Lowland hay meadows ( Alopecurus pratensis , Sanguisorba 114-173; 137-139 officinalis ) 8210 Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation 113-114; 159-161

9170 Galio-Carpinetum oak-hornbeam forests 99-116 91M0 Pannonian-Balkanic turkey oak- sessile oak forests 116-160 92A0 Salix alba and Populus alba galleries 104-112; 124-125; 131-143; 156 92C0 Platanus orientalis and Liquidambar orientalis woods ( Plantanion orientalis ) 104-112; 124-125; 131-143; 156 9340 Quercus ilex forests 126-128 9540 Mediterranean pine forests with endemic Mesogean pines 159-161

Source: Field Surveys (June and August 2011) and modified CORINE land cover data, ERM (2011)

A full species list and description of the habitats present in the Central Western study area can be found in Annex 6.2.1.1 and Annex 6.2.1.4, respectively, where habitats listed above from CORINE and European classifications are described in further detail.

Endangered and Threatened Plant Species in the Central Western Section

Among all the observed taxa, 14 species, or 4% of the total, are included in the group of species of national conservation concern that are protected by national legislation. These species are presented in Table 6.5-11 below. According to National IUCN categories, 6 species are EN, 7 are VU, and 1 is LR.

Table 6.5-11 Endangered and Threatened Plant Species in the Central Western Region

Latin name Common name Location (Kp) Family name Distribution *Threat status (IUCN) Adiantum capillus- Maidenhair fern 104-112; 124-125; 131-143; Adiantaceae Pantropic. VU veneris 156 Colchicum Meadow saffron 126-129 Liliaceae Europeo-Centr. EN autumnale Hypericum Perforate St. 100-174 Guttiferae Paleotemp. EN perforatum John’s wort Dictamnus albus Burning bush, 116-160 Rutaceae Eurosib. VU dittany Dryopteris filix-mas Male-fern 99-136; 157-174; 126-128 Aspidiaceae Sub-Cosmop. LR Ephedra distachya Joint pine 99-136; 157-174; 126-128 Ephedraceae Steno-Medit. EN Juglans regia Black walnut 100-174 Juglandaceae Eurasiat. EN

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Latin name Common name Location (Kp) Family name Distribution *Threat status (IUCN) Juniperus Prickly juniper 99-136; 157-174; 126-128 Cupressaceae Eurimedit. VU oxycedrus Origanum vulgare Wild marjoram Lamiaceae Eurasiat. EN 99-136; 157-174; 126-128; 114-173; 137-139 Quercus ilex Holm oak, holly 99-136; 157-174; 126-128 Fagaceae Steno-Medit. EN oak Salvia officinalis Common sage 159-161 Labiatae Stenomedit. VU Sambucus nigra Common elder 104-112; 124-125; 131-143; Caprifoliaceae Europeo-Cauc. VU 156 Satureja montana Winter savoury Lamiaceae Orof. W-Medit. VU 99-136; 157-174; 126-128; 159-161 Viburnum tinus Laurustinus 99-136; 157-174; 126-128 Caprifoliaceae Steno-Medit. VU Note: *Threat status taken from National Red Data Book (Vangjeli et al., 1995) Abbreviations: IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature Categories CR: EN: Endangered, VU: Vulnerable,LR Low Risk (below Vulnerable category)

Source: Field Survey (June and August 2011), ERM (2011)

The main part of the Red List is made up of the plants in the EN (6) and VU categories (7), which include widespread species. Plant species present in the section are for the most part commonly occurring throughout the country. Some of the species are mainly threatened by unsustainable collecting (especially for the group of economical importance, medicinal and aromatic plants), such as meadow saffron ( Colchicum autumnale), dittany (Dictamnus albus), Ephedra distachya, perforate St. John’s wort ( Hypericum perforatum), prickly juniper (J. oxycedrus), wild marjoram (O. vulgare), common sage ( Salvia officinalis), common elder (S. nigra) , and winter savory (Satureja montana) .

Some of the VU species are not under direct threat however occur in areas where biological equilibrium is very sensitive as previously described for riparian areas. Toromani (2011) stated that P. halapensis found in the Ottlak region during a forestry survey is particularly valuable and worth in the region of EU 24,161.50.

Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Species in the Central Western Section

The Central Western study area supports 43 species of medicinal and aromatic plants that are presented in Annex 6.2.1.3. Many are well known by the local population, which have a long tradition of collecting them either for individual and family use or for sale. Of these species, 7 are listed in the Albanian Red Data Book (Vangjeli et al., 1995) and all of these have been previously described for the Eastern and Central Eastern Sections except for meadow saffron ( Colchicum automnale) .

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6.5.1.3.2 Fauna in the Central Western Section

Species Richness in the Central Western Section

According to the literature review, the Central Western Section could host some 238 vertebrate species including fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals ( Table 6.5-12 ). This section is rich in terms of species, explained by the habitat richness and well preserved habitats along parts of the pipeline route.

Table 6.5-12 Fauna Species Present in the Central Western Section Study Area

Group Number of Species Internationally Regionally Nationally Threatened (IUCN) Threatened Threatened (IUCN) (IUCN) Fish 17 4 2 2 Amphibians 12 - - 1 Reptiles 23 2 - 2 Birds 136 2 - 24 Mammals 50 - - 9 Total vertebrates 238 8 4 38 Invertebrates 23 1 5 - 22 Grand Total 268 13 4 60 Notes: For further details on fish species see Section 6.6.2.

Source: Field Survey (June and August 2011), ERM (2011)

At least 13 species present in the survey area are considered Globally Threatened, of which 8 are vertebrates (barbel [ B. prespensis ], loach [O. pindus], bleak [Alburnus albidus], eel [ Anguilla Anguilla ], lesser kestrel [ F. naumanni ], Egyptian vulture [ N. percnoptus ], dice snake [N. tassellata ], Balkan wall lizard [ P. taurica ]) and 5 are invertebrates (see Annex 6.2.1.2), and 4 species are considered Regionally Threatened ( barbel [B. prespensis ], eel [ A. Anguilla ], Mediterranean hoseshoe bat [ R. euryale ], brown bear [U. arctos ]).

(1) The number refers to only taxa included in the red data book of Albania

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Amphibians and Reptiles

The herpetofauna of the Central Western Section of the pipeline route is relatively rich. From a desk-based study and based on the data collected during the field surveys, some 12 amphibian (out of 16 species reported in Albania) and 23 reptile species (out of 37 species reported in Albania) are expected to be present in this study area ( Annex 6.2.2.7 ). The presence of 11 species of amphibians and 15 species of reptiles was verified during the field surveys, while the presence of the remaining species is considered to be potentially present due to habitat analysis and species distribution. The most common amphibian and reptile species are the same as those identified for the Central Eastern Section.

Some 15 species, the same as in the Central Eastern Section, are considered aquatic animals and were found or were thought likely to occur within the Osumi River Valley throughout the section. The remaining 20 species are considered terrestrial, frequenting a range of habitats, such as broadleaf woodland, planted pine forests (Kp 158 – Kp 157), rocky shelters, riparian, open grassland, olive groves (Berati and Lapharda) and orchards, and arable land. For reptile species, bare rock habitat present in this section is of particular importance (Haxhiu, 1994, 1998). Two reptile species in the section, dice snake ( N. tessellata) and Balkan wall lizard ( P. taurica) , are considered Globally Threatened, while all amphibians and the remaining reptile species are listed as LR or NE (see Annex 6.2.2.7 ).

Balkan frog ( R. balcanica, which is the only frog harvested in Albania) was the only amphibian species classified as VU. Two reptile species, European rat snake ( Elaphe situla ) and four-lined snake ( Elaphe quatuorlineata ), are considered threatened species at a national level (threat category VU). No reptile and amphibian species are listed as Regionally Threatened for the Mediterranean in this section of the study area. The November 2011 surveys found yellow-bellied toad ( B. variegata) , stream frog ( R. graeca) and Balkan frog ( R. balcanica) at all the crossing points surveyed along the Osumi River, where most of the individuals observed consisting of juveniles with only 1 adult male of stream frog ( R. graeca) observed at Vokopola stream. As expected, amphibian activity was lower than that observed during the June 2011 survey.

In the European context, 5 amphibian species and 18 reptile species are listed in Annex II of the Bern Convention, while 7 amphibians and 5 reptiles are listed under Annex III. Of the reptile species listed in the EU Habitats Directive, 17 are listed under Annex IV while 4 are listed under Annex II. Two of the Annex II species (four-lined snake [ E. quatuorlineata ] and European rat snake [ E. situla ]) were not previously recorded in other sections of the study area. Amphibian species listed on the Habitats Directive were the same as those from previous sections.

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Birds

The Central Western Section route supports a range of habitats which provide food and shelter for birds throughout the year. According to a literature review and from the field surveys in 2009 and 2011, some 136 species of birds (out of 330 known to occur in Albania), or around 41%, are thought to be potentially present (see Annex 6.2.1.2 ). Of these, 113 bird species were directly observed during the field surveys, while the remaining 23 species were thought to be present from habitat preference and distribution range.

Of the 136 species, 76 species are resident, 39 species are summer visitors, 14 species are winter visitor, while 7 species are passage migrants.

The moderate species richness for birds in the study area is due to the high habitat diversity and variability in climatic conditions. Some 42 species of birds are closely linked with forests (both coniferous and broadleaf), 62 species belong to open grasslands and scrubby terrains, 16 species with wetland habitats (rivers, streams and water reservoirs including the Osumi River Valley), 9 species with rocks and cliffs, and 7 species with human settlements.

The 2 species that are listed as globally threatened are the same as those for the Central Eastern Section: lesser krestel ( F. naumanni) and Egyptian vulture ( N. percnopterus) . A further 130 bird species are listed in the LR category. In the national context, some 38 species, or 28%, of the total bird species occurring in the study area are listed in the national Red List, of which 24 species are nationally threatened. The majority of the nationally threatened bird species belong to the VU category (15 species – goshawk [ A. gentilis], grey heron [ A. cinerea ], short- eared owl [Asio flammeus ], buzzard [B. buteo ], short-toed eagle [ Circaetus gallicus ], little egret [E. garzetta ], merlin [ F. columbarius ], lesser kestrel [ F. naumanni ], peregrine [ F. peregrinus ], hobby [ F. subbuteo], kestrel [ F. tinnunculus ], Egyitian vulture [ N. percnopterus ], grey-headed woodpecker [ P. canus], barn owl [ Tyto alba ], hoopoe [ U. epops ]), and EN (7 species – sparrowhawk [ A. nisus ], booted eagle [ H. penatus ], Bonelli’s eagle [ H. fasciatus ], yellow-legged gull [ L. cachinnans ], black and red kite [ M. migrans, M. milvus ], honey buzzard [ P. apivorus ]), while 2 species, griffon vulture ( G. fulvus) and eagle owl ( B. bubo) are considered CR in Albania. Both these species are associated with cliff and bare rock habitat which is present in the Osumi River Valley and in the wider area surrounding the route between Corovode and Berat. Most of the threatened species are birds of prey, both diurnal and nocturnal (Misja, 2006).

Of the 136 bird species thought to be present in the study area, 121 are protected by Albanian legislation. A further 90 birds are listed under Annex II of the Bern Convention, while 37 species are listed under Annex III. Species listed under Annex I of the Birds Directive included 26 species (see Annex 6.2.1.2 ). Again, a considerable number of these were raptors represented within the section as well as others such as those species associated with cliffs and rocky environments, such as the eagle owl ( B. bubo) and rock partridge ( Alectoris graeca ).

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Mammals

The number of mammals occurring in the Central Western Section is estimated at 50 species. The presence of 29 species was confirmed during the field surveys, while the presence of the other 21 species is based on the geographical distribution of the species and their habitat preference.

As for other sections, species proportions were broadly similar, with small mammals (insectivores and rodents) represented with 19 species, followed by bats (18 species) and carnivores (10 species). Ungulates (Artiodactyla) are represented by 2 only species, roe deer ( C. capreolus) and wild boar ( S. scrofa) , while the Order Lagomorpha is represented by 1 species, brown hare (L. europaeus) .

More than half the mammal species recorded (27 species) prefer forests and shrubs; 7 species prefer grasslands; 10 species of bats are cave-dwellers, and 5 are sinanthropic species, while 1 species is considered an aquatic mammal.

The confirmed presence of wolf ( C. lupus), otter (L. lutra) and wild cat ( F. silvestris) gives the area a special conservation interest (Bego, 2002). Brown bear ( U. arctos) was not recorded directly, although it is possible that this species, along with wolf ( C. lupus) , seasonally visits the upper part of the section near the Corovoda, Vokopola and Bogova areas. Otter ( L. lutra) presence was confirmed during the field survey conducted in June 2011 at the locations of the Osumi River pipeline crossing at Peshtani i Poshtem (Kp 138 and Kp 139 [survey points Z-027 – Z-041]), and Otllak (Kp 156 [survey points Z-028, Z-022 and Z-023]), however no signs of otters were recorded at the river crossings south and west of Çorovoda Town (survey point Z-034 and Z-035), and Vertop-Mbrakull (survey points Z-33 and Z-031). The Osumi River between Kp 134 – Kp 135 (survey points Z-037–Z-041) was found to provide very suitable habitat for otter and a potential location for holts (otter resting site).

During the November 2011 survey, otter ( L. lutra) was found present in 4 out of 5 crossing points of the pipeline with the Osumi River and other tributaries surveyed. In comparison with the June 2011 survey during the high flow season, presence of otter ( L. lutra) was confirmed in 2 new points at Çorovoda and Vokopola crossings. It is thought that there were no signs observed in these crossings during June 2011 due to a combination of factors including high river flow, bad weather conditions, rain, and high water turbidity, which may have washed away any footprints and/or otter spraints. The only river crossing of the Osumi River with no otter ( L. lutra) signs during both June and November 2011 surveys is that of Mbrakull, possibly due to the location experiencing high human disturbance, the lack of shelter for otters along the river and the rapid flow of the river at the section due to riverbed topography.

The Fushe Peshtan River crossing resulted in the highest marking activity for otter ( L. lutra) (average of 2.75 sprainting points and 6.5 spraints per 200 m of river length), followed by Çorovoda river crossing (2.2 sprainting points and 5.2 spraints per 200 m of river length), while Vokopola stream and Otllak river crossing possess a moderate to low otter sprainting activity.

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None of the mammals identified for the section are globally threatened, while 49 species are LR and 1 species is DD. In a national context, 9 species are Nationally Threatened (4 EN – jackal [ C. aureus ], wild cat [ F. silvestris ], badger [M. meles], western polecat [M. putorius ], and 5 VU – roe deer [ C. capreolus ], otter [L. lutra ], Felten’s pine vole [ M. felteni ], Mediterranean horseshoe [ R. euryale ], brown bear [ U. arctos ]), 7 species are NT. However, 2 species of mammals, brown bear (U. arctos) and Mediterranean horseshoe bat [ R. euryale ], are listed as VU in the Mediterranean Red List, 6 species as NT.

The national list of threatened species for the Central Western Section includes species similar to those from the Central Eastern Section, as well as the polecat ( Mustela putorius ), which are all linked with forests, or aquatic environments such as the Osumi River.

Of the 50 species thought to be present, 44 are protected by national law, while in the European context, 22 species are listed under Annex II of the Bern Directive, and 14 species are listed under Annex III. Of the mammal species listed on the EU Habitats Directive, 26 species are in Annex IV, 17 are in Annex II, and 3 species in Annex V. Bats (18 species) were the most recorded protected species while other species, including brown bear ( U. arctos) , otter ( L. lutra) , and wolf ( C. lupus) , are all thought to be potentially present. Large Carnivores

Recent field surveys confirmed only the presence of wolf ( C. lupus) . Signs of brown bear ( U. arctos) and lynx ( L. lynx) were not recorded during the survey. In addition they seem not to occur in this section of the study area based on the available literature and previous surveys conducted (Trajçe et al., 2008). It is possible that roaming brown bear ( U. arctos) may occur, although this is less likely for lynx ( L. lynx) as this species is extremely rare in Albania. The field survey did not reveal any signs of presence of ungulate prey species in this section (e.g. roe deer [ C. capreolus ] and wild boar [ S. scrofa ]): However, local accounts, existing information, and evaluation of habitat characteristics indicate that they should be present in this section of the study area. The presence of chamois ( R. rupicapra) is considered highly unlikely in this section due to the low altitude and lack of preferred habitat.

6.5.1.3.3 Summary of Key Habitats and Species within Central Western Section

Within the Central Western Section no endemic species were identified, and limited areas of healthy, mature forest or other types of habitat considered of special interest where identified. These limited areas of interest include:

• Forests of Medium importance dominated by evergreen oak (Quercus ilex) situated in vicinity of the Bogova protected area (Kp 119 – Kp 121);

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• High Importance stream/river habitat of the Osumi River dominated by oriental plane (Platanus orientalis), white willow (Salix alba), wig tree (Cottynus coggygria), mastic tree (Pistacia lentiscus), prickly juniper (J. oxycedrus), and pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium) which may be considered as an old-growth riparian forest of high ecological interest. (B-019, position 34 T 427948 4486169);

• High Importance canyons of the Osumi River near Çorovoda city (see Figure 6.5-7 ) with stream/river habitat (dominated by P. nigra and white willow - S. alba). At this particular location the upper parts of canyons are populated by elements of Macchia such as narrow- leaved phillyrea (Phillyrea angustifolia) and wild privet (Ligustrum vulgare). These habitats are generally of high ecological interest (B-68 from 2009 survey and survey point Z-034 from 2011, position 434438 4482994);

• The High Importance Bogova Managed Nature Reserve, a small part of which is located 150 m from the 2 km corridor of the pipeline route at Kp 121.

• Forests of significant interest for local communities, especially as a source of firewood (e.g. forests located within Corovada district). However, provision of alternative sources for heating (e.g. gas) by the TAP Project may reduce community reliance on these resources.

From a faunal perspective, habitats listed above will also be of key importance, representing the best examples of natural and semi-natural habitat within this section.

For species, those identified of High Conservation importance were similar to those from the Central Eastern Section. Otter ( L. lutra) were recorded on the Osumi River at Fushe Peshtan (survey points Z-037–Z-041) and at Otlak (survey points Z-028, Z-022 and Z-023). It was thought that these sites have the potential to have holts (an otter den), which are protected under legislation in the European Union. The Osumi River also provides habitat for a wide variety of other species throughout the section (including regionally endemic fish species) and is of High conservation importance. Based on the November survey, it was found that the Osumi River section at Fushe Peshtan is undoubtedly the most important section for L. lutra as it provides very suitable habitat, both for feeding and breeding. Abundance of food (fish, frogs, and crabs) and dense, thick vegetation make this section a grade 1 (very good) habitat for otters. Another area found to be important is the confluence of Vokopola Stream with the Osumi River where 2 otter territories may overlap, as indicated by the very high marking observed (3 sprainting sites and 11 spraints, excrements and scratching). This point is located around 900 m from the crossing point of the pipeline with Vokopola stream. The low flow river survey in November 2011 confirmed the findings from the June survey that Osumi River and its main tributaries provide suitable habitat for otters in the Central Western Section of the pipeline route.

Wolf was also recorded during the survey within the Central Western Section. Habitat of particular importance was not identified to the High quality of that in the Central Eastern Section, although woodland throughout will be capable of supporting this highly mobile species.

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Figure 6.5-7 Canyons of the Osumi river near Corovoda City (Sampling Point B-68 from 2009 survey) / (Annex 4.1, Z-034 from 2011 survey)

Source: Field Survey (October 2009), ERM (2009)

6.5.1.4 Western Section

The Western Section can be easily differentiated into 3 different fundamental types, coastal area, stream/river habitat and terrestrial ecosystems.

The coastal area represents a relatively narrow transitional zone between sea and land and is characterised by a rich diversity of habitats including lagoons (e.g. the Gjemia and Petriti Lagoons), salt marshes, sand dunes, coastal coniferous forest dominated by P. halepensis , drainage channels, and agricultural lands.

The dune systems in the western section are considered to be composed of eroding mobile dunes, with a high proportion of bare mobile sand on which only a few plant species can develop. As a result of this as well as continuing erosion, a number of sand dune plants are now believed to have become endangered in the region including European marram grass ( Ammophila arenaria) and sea daffodil ( Pancratium maritimum) (Vangjeli et al, 1995) due to destruction of dune habitats.

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As was done elsewhere in the coastal region of Albania, attempts were made to stabilise the dune system by planting maritime pines ( P. halepensis and P. pinea ) approximately 30 - 40 years ago, which has had a major impact on much of the dune landscape throughout the area. These forests, now considered to be a European Priority habitat, occupy a small part of the section largely where the grid connection will be located, extending parallel to the dune systems..

Figure 6.5-8 presents the locations where key species where observed (recorded during the field survey) or thought to potentially present in the Western Section (for more detail see Annex 4.3.0 and Annex 6.2.1.2 ). Three types of findings are identified: 1) Zoology findings (Z), 2) Botanic findings (B), and 3) Bioconservation findings (BC). Figure 6.5-8 Sampling Points with Key Species Observed or Potentially Present

Source: Albania topographic map with modifications by ERM (October 2011)

Salt marshes, present in the more sheltered areas of coast, support a variety of specialist plant communities and associated fauna (especially breeding and wintering birds) and often have high nature conservation interest. The Gjemia Lagoon and Petriti Lagoon are both present within the section and support a range of specialist flora and fauna.

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The coastal plain behind the coastline consists of reclaimed coastal wetlands which now constitutes poor-quality agricultural land and is criss-crossed by drainage channels. These channels are characterised by high species and vegetation richness. In addition to the many drainage channels present in the section, there is also a main river system present, known as the Semani River. This river system supports a thin strip of riparian vegetation along its length.

Areas of sclerophyllous shrubs/forests (macchia) as well as much degraded areas of broadleaf woodland are located in pockets on higher areas, especially toward the east of the Western Section (Libofsha hilly area).

The number of species shown in Annex 6.2.1.1 (higher plant species) is larger, and in some groups several times larger, than that previously believed to be present. This increase in knowledge of the flora has come about through the 2009 and 2011 ecological surveys.

The Western Section, although very much altered, urbanised and used for agriculture and oil industry, comprises some patches of natural and seminatural habitats, that host a relatively high number of species, some of which have economical values (fish species, common frog, bird game species), while many others are of national and international conservation interest. Water birds (especially wintering and migratory birds) and other animals linked with wetlands (coastal lagoons and marshlands, rivers and streams, water reservoirs and drainage channels) are all present within this section of the study area (see Figure 6.5-8).

6.5.1.4.1 Habitats and Flora in the Western Section Habitats in the Western Section

The Western Section supports a range of natural and semi-natural vegetation types and habitats. Semi-natural and modified habitats, especially those intensively used for agriculture, constitute the majority of the habitats present and hold only limited nature conservation value. The Western Section, although dominated by anthropoid environments and landscapes (urbanised areas, agricultural lands, etc.) still contains some areas of natural and semi-natural habitats such as riparian habitats, salt marshes, sand dunes, coastal lagoons and pine forests, that host a relatively high number of species, some of which are of economic value.

Habitats occurring inside the section (within the 500 m corridor) are shown in Table 6.5-13 . The distribution of these key habitats is shown in maps in Annex 4.3.

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Table 6.5-13 CORINE Land cover Types Present within the Western Section

Nr. Habitat Chainages where habitat present (Kp) 1 Beaches, dunes, and sand plains 209 2 Complex cultivation patterns 174-207 3 Coniferous forest 206-208 5 Inland marshes 207-209 6 Land principally occupied by agriculture, with significant areas of 189-192 natural vegetation 7 Mineral extraction sites 176-181 8 Natural grassland 189-192 9 Non-irrigated arable land 174-207 10 Olive groves 189 11 Salt marshes 207-209 12 Sclerophyllous vegetation 189-192 13 Vineyards 189-192 14 Watercourses 180-181; 192-193 15 Water bodies 190-191

Source: Field Surveys (June and August 2011) and modified CORINE land cover data, ERM (2011)

Within the Western Section 2 European Priority Habitats and an additional 10 European Habitats are present, a full description is provided in Annex 6.2.1.4 (see also Annex 6.2.1.1 for details on species) . These habitats are shown in Table 6.5-14 . The majority of the habitat present is not of conservation value and consists of the 10 main habitats as described in Table 6.5-14.

Table 6.5-14 European Habitats Present within Western Section

No. EU Habitat Habitat Chainages where habitat Code present (Kp) 1 1150 * Coastal lagoons 207-209 2 1310 Salicornia and other annuals colonising mud and sand 207-208 3 1410 Mediterranean salt meadows ( Juncetalia maritimi ) 209 4 1420 Mediterranean and thermo-Atlantic halophilous scrubs 207-208 (Sarcocornetea fruticosi ) 5 2110 Embryonic shifting dunes (Cakiletea maritimae & 209 Ammophiletea) 6 2270 * Wooded dunes with Pinus pinea and/or Pinus pinaster 207-209 7 3150 Natural eutrophic lakes with Magnopotamion or Hydrocharition 190-191 - type vegetation 8 72A0 Reed beds (Phragmito-Magnocaricetea) 180-181; 192-193 9 92A0 Salix alba and Populus alba galleries, ( Salicetea purpureae ) 180-181; 192-193 10 92D0 Saline tamarisk thickets (Nerio-Tamaricetea) 207-208 Notes: Habitats with priority status are included in Annex I to Directive 92/43/EEC

Source: Field Surveys (June and August 2011) and modified CORINE land cover data, ERM (2011)

A further survey completed as part of the Habitats Directive Assessment in April 2012 enabled additional micro habitat classification within the Grykedhja Semanit –Pishe Poro designated site. In addition, a survey of the CS03 grid connection in July 2012 also identified further habitat along the footprint of the transmission line route. However, all habitats recorded on both surveys are

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A number of European habitats will be directly crossed by the pipeline alignment, access road and grid connection as can be seen in Annex 4.3 , including habitats with EU codes 92D0, 2270, 1420 and 1410 No detailed habitat mapping has been undertaken for the grid connection which is outside the 500 m pipeline corridor. Endangered and Threatened Plant Species in the Western Section

Among all the observed taxa, 8 species, or 2.3% of the Red Data Book plant species of Albania (Vangjeli, et al ., 1996), are included in the group of species of national conservation concern that are protected by national legislation (refer Table 6.5-15). According to National IUCN categories, 6 of these species are categorised as EN, and 2 are categorised as VU.

Table 6.5-15 Endangered and Threatened Plant Species in the Western Section

No Latin name Common name Location Family name Distribut. *Threat (Kp) status (IUCN) 1 Ammophila arenaria Marram grass 208-209 Poaceae Medit. EN 2 Elymus farctus Sand Couch Grass 208-209 Poaceae Medit. EN 3 Hypericum perforatum Perforate St. John’s 189-192 Guttiferae Paleotemp. EN Wort 4 Juniperus oxycedrus subsp . Prickly Juniper 208-209 Cupressaceae EuriMedit. VU macrocarpa 5 Origanum vulgare Wild Marjoram 189-192 Labiatae Euroasiat. EN 6 Pancratium maritimum Sea Daffodil 208-209 Amaryllidaceae Medit. EN 7 Sambucus nigra Common elder 180-181; Caprifoliaceae Paleotemp. VU 192 8 Stachys maritima Sea Woundwort 209 Labiatae Medit. EN Note: *Threat status taken from National Red Data Book (Vangjeli et al., 1995) Abbreviations: IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature Categories CR: Critically Endangered, EN: Endangered, VU: Vulnerable

Source: Field Surveys (June and August 2011), ERM (2011)

There are 5 species distributed on beaches and sandy dunes: sea daffodil ( Pancratium maritimum, Figure 6.5-9 ), sea woundwort ( Stachys maritime), marram ( Ammophila arenaria), prickly juniper ( J. oxycedrus subsp. Macrocarpa) and sand couch grass ( Elymus farctus) . Others are distributed within the macchia belt.

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Figure 6.5-9 Sea Daffodil ( Pancratium maritimum) on Sandy Dunes of the Western Section

Source: Field Surveys (June and August 2011), ERM (2011)

Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Species in the Western Section

The area supports 39 species of medicinal and aromatic plants that are presented in Annex 6.2.1.3. Many are well known by the local population, which has a long tradition of collecting them either for individual and family use or for sale. Of the species, 4 are listed within the Albanian Red Data Book (Vangjeli et al., 1995) and of these perforate St. John’s wort ( Hypericum perforatum) was the only species not recorded in previously described sections of the study area.

6.5.1.4.2 Fauna in the Western Section Species Richness in the Western Section

According to the literature review and from the 2011 field surveys, the Western Section has the potential to support some 254 vertebrate species including fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals ( Table 6.5-16 ). This section has the second highest species richness of all the sections along the pipeline route as a result of its high habitat richness within a limited area (coastal lagoons and marshlands, rivers and streams, water reservoirs and drainage channels), and its particular richness in bird life, especially water birds linked with relatively well preserved habitats along the coastal area.

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Table 6.5-16 Fauna Species Present in the Western Section Study Area

Group Number of Species Internationally Regionally Nationally Threatened (IUCN) Threatened Threatened (IUCN) (IUCN) Fish 15 2 1 2 Amphibians 9 0 0 1 Reptiles 22 2 0 2 Birds 175 3 0 40 Mammals 33 0 1 5 Total vertebrates 254 7 2 50 Invertebrates 17( 1) 1 17 Grand Total 271 8 2 67 Note: For further details on fish species see Section 6.6.2

Source: Field Surveys (June and August 2011), ERM (2011)

At least 7 species present in the Western Section are considered as Globally Threatened, of which 6 are vertebrates (eel [ A. anguilla ], spotted eagle [ Aquila clanga ], corncrake [ Crex crex ], Dalmatian pelican [ Pelecanus crispus ], dice snake [ N. tassellata], Balkan wall lizard [ P. taurica ]) and 1 invertebrate (see Annex 6.2.1.7 ) while only 2 species are considered as Regionally Threatened (eel [ A. anguilla ], Mediterranean horseshoe bat [R. euryale ]). Some 50 vertebrates (jackal [ Canis aureus ], otter [ Lutra lutra ], badger [ Meles meles ], western polecat [ Mustela putorius ], Mediterranean horseshoe bat [ Myotis capaccinii ], goshawk [ Accipiter gentilis ], sparrowhawk [ Accipiter nisus ], moustached warbler [ Acrocephalus melanopogon ], sedge warbler [Acrocephalus schoenobaenus ], spotted eagle [ Aquila clanga ], lesser spotted eagle [ Aquila pomarina ], grey heron [ Ardea cinerea ], purple heron [ Ardea purpurea ], short-eared owl [ Asio flammeus ], ferruginous duck [ Aythya nyroca ], stone-curlew [ Burhinus oedicnuemus ], buzzard [Buteo buteo ], marsh harrier [ Circus aeruginosus ], hen harrier [ Circus cyaneus ], roller [ Coracias garrulous ], corncrake [ Crex crex ], great white egret [ Egretta alba ], little egret [ Egretta garzetta ], merlin [ Falco columbrius ], peregrine [ Falco peregrinus ], hobby [ Falco subbuteo ], kestrel [ Falco tinnunculus ], red-footed falcon [ Falco vespertinus ], collared prantincole [ Collared pratincole ], oystercatcher [ Haematopus ostralegus ], black-winged stilt [ Himantopus himantopus ], yellow- legged gull [ Larus cachinnans ], black kite [ Milvus migrans ], red kite [ Milvus milvus ], bee-eater [Merops apiaster ], osprey [ Pandion haliaetus ], Dalmatian pelican [ Pelecanus crispus ], pygmy cormorant [ Phalacrocorax pygmeus ], grey-headed woodpecker [ Pinus canus ], Eurasian spoonbill [Platalea leucorodia ], avocet [ Recurvirostra avosetta ], penduline tit [ Remiz pendulinus ], common tern [ Sterna hirundo ], sandwich tern [ Sterna sandvicensis ], barn owl [ Tyto alba ], hoopoe [ Upupa epops ], four-line snake [ Elaphe quatuorlineata ], European rat snake [ Elaphe situla ], Balkan frog [R. balcanica ]) and 17 invertebrates in the section are Nationally Threatened. This section is highly sensitive especially to water birds and birds of prey, of which 40 species are Nationally Threatened.

(1) The number refers only to taxa included in the Red Data Book of Albania

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Amphibians and Reptiles

The herpetofauna of this section of the pipeline route is relatively rich. Based on a desktop study (Bruno, 1989; Haxhiu, 94, 95, 98) and data collected during the 2011 field surveys, some 9 amphibian species (out of 16 species reported in Albania) and 22 reptiles species (out of 37 species reported in Albania) are expected to be present in this section (see Annex 6.2.1.2 ). All 9 species of amphibians and 14 species of reptiles were directly observed during the field surveys, while the 8 remaining reptile species are considered to be potentially present in this section. Species common along the route were the same as those previously described in other sections. Of these species, 13 were considered aquatic while 18 were considered terrestrial.

Habitats within the section of particular importance for reptile species include the Pine forest at Kp 207 -209 (B-035) which extends along the coast. Farmland, olive groves and grassland habitat recorded throughout the sector is also of importance to reptiles and some amphibian species, although the main habitats for amphibians include the numerous ditches and drains running through the study area as well as the Semani River and the Petova Reservoir (Kp 190).

Reptile species considered to be globally threatened consist of the same 2 species as previously described for the Central Western Section while all amphibians and the remaining reptile species are considered as LR or NE (see Annex 6.2.1.7 ).

Balkan frog ( R. balcanica) was again the only amphibian present which is threatened in a national context, while all other species are classified as LR. Two reptile species are considered threatened species at the national level (under threat category VU). No species of reptiles and amphibians are listed as Regionally Threatened in this section.

In a European context, 5 amphibians and 17 reptiles belong to Annex II of the Bern Convention while the remaining 4 amphibians and 5 reptiles are part of Annex III. In terms of species listed in the EU Habitats Directive, 16 reptiles were listed on Annex IV while a further 5 were listed in Annex II. Of the reptile species the Striped-neck terrapin ( Mauremys caspica ) was the only species not previously recorded in other sections. For Amphibians, 5 species were listed in Annex IV while 2 species were listed in Annex II.

During the November 2011 survey, only yellow-bellied toad ( B. variegata) and Balkan frog ( R. balcanica) were observed, with most of the few individuals found consisting of juveniles. Frogs were also observed along the drainage channel of Topoje investigated at the pipeline crossing. However, no amphibian activity was observed at the temporary wetland site situated next to the access road of the pipeline route, although during early February 2011, this particular site was found to be an important breeding ground for frogs and toads. As expected, amphibian activity during November 2011 at the Semani River crossings was lower than that observed during June 2011.

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Birds

The Western study area supports a range of habitats which provide food and shelter for a range of birds either seasonally or year round. From the literature and from field surveys the Western Section of the pipeline route has the potential to support 175 species (out of 330 known to occur in Albania) or around 53% ( Annex 6.2.1.2 ). Some 106 species were directly observed in the field during the 2009 and 2011 surveys. The remaining 69 species are thought to be potentially present. This number for potentially present species is higher than that for the other sections of the study area, and reflects the likely usage of the site by water bird species over winter and on migration.

Of the bird species, 76 species are resident, 44 species are winter visitors, 40 species are summer visitors while 15 species are passage migrants. Almost half of the bird species (81 species) are closely linked with wetland habitats (i.e. lagoons, salt marshes, water reservoirs, rivers, drainage channels), 34 bird species are closely linked with forests, 53 belong to open grasslands and scrubby terrains, and the remaining 7 are associated with human settlements.

Three bird species, the Dalmatian pelican ( Pelecanus crispus ), the Corncrake ( Crex crex ) and the Spotted eagle ( Aquila clanga ) present in the Western Section are listed as Globally Threatened (as VU), while some 41 species (or 23%) are nationally threatened. The majority of nationally threatened birds belong to the categories of VU (19 species) or EN (15 species), while 7 species are considered as CR in Albania ( Annex 6.2.1.2). Most of the threatened species are water birds (including waders and waterfowl), and other species that are linked with coastal ecosystems. Hence, the coastal lagoons including Gjemise (to the south of the pipeline route) and Petriti (to the north of pipeline route), salt and brackish water marshes (Kp 207 – Kp 209), and the Petrova Reservoir (Kp 190), situated along or next to the pipeline route of the section, are considered sensitive and critical habitats for bird species (Casale et al., 2000; Rose et al., 1997).

Of the 175 bird species of the Western Section, 141 are protected by Albanian law. In a European Context, a further 99 are listed under Annex II of the Bern Convention, while 67 species are listed under Annex III, and 44 species were listed under Annex I of the Birds Directive. This is the largest proportion of such species from all sections of the study area, and it reflects the use of the coastal area of Albania as a migration route for a number of water bird and raptor species. Both spotted eagle ( A. clanga) and the lesser spotted eagle ( Aquila pomarina ) were recorded as being potentially present on passage while species such as Dalmatian pelican (P. crispus) and collared pratincole ( Glareola pratincola ) are known to breed further north along the coast at the Karavata Lagoon Ramsar site.

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Mammals

The number of mammals occurring in the Western Section is estimated at 33 species and is dominated by rodents, followed by bats and carnivorous species (Bego, 2008). Based on the data collected, mammalian faunaof this section is relatively poor. This is explained by the fact that most of the section presents homogenous habitats dominated by artificial and modified habitats such as arable lands, rural areas, terraced olive tree plantations and orchards. This section runs through the western lowland of the Adriatic coast and is heavily urbanised.

During the field surveys the presence of 23 mammal species was directly confirmed, while the other 10 species are thought to be potentially present for reasons previously outlined in relation to other sections.

Small mammals (insectivores and rodents) are represented here by 16 species, followed by bats (9 species) and carnivores (7 species). The Order Lagomorpha is represented by brown hare as previously described in other sections. Of the mammal species, 14 prefer forests and shrubs, 8 prefer grasslands, 5 species of bats are dwellers of the military tunnels found in the area, 4 species are sinanthropic, 1 is associated with reed beds and a further single species is considered an aquatic mammal.

None of the mammals occurring in the section are Globally Threatened; however, all 33 mammals with all listed as LR. Only 1 species, Mediterranean horseshoe bat ( R. euryale) is listed as VU within the Mediterranean Region context.

In the National context, 5 species are Nationally Threatened (3 species EN and 2 species VU). EN species include western polecat ( M. putorius), badger ( M. meles) , and Jackal ( Canis aureus ) while VU species include otter ( L. lutra) and Mediterranean horseshoe bat ( R. euryale) (Atkinson, 1990; Bego, 2002). The remainder of the species include 6 which are NT, while the rest are DD or NE.

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The presence of otter ( L. lutra) has been confirmed in both river crossing points of the pipeline with Semani River (Kp 180 and Kp 192), as well as in the north of Laguna e Gjemise (during 2009 survey Z-138) and Petova water reservoir (Kp 190). Jackal ( C. aureus) presence was confirmed in the salt marshes at the Landfall (Kp 209), while badger ( M. meles) footprints and feeding signs were observed in the section between –Kp 205 – Kp 207. During the November survey, otter ( L. lutra) presence was confirmed in all 3 visited crossing points of the pipeline with the Semani River and Topoje drainage channel. Two crossing points (i.e. Kp 180 and Kp 192) had also been visited in June 2011, while the Topoje drainage channel crossing point (Kp 207) was visited for the first time in November 2011. The Semani River crossing points had a low flow, with parts of the riverbed in dry condition during the survey. It is thought that the scarce water and effects of pollution upstream of the Semani watershed are the reasons why sprainting activity was low at both river crossings, with only 1.3 sprainting points and 2.0 spraints per 200 m of river, and 1.0 sprainting points and 1.6 spraints per 200 m of river recorded for Kp 180 and Kp 192, respectively. At the new survey site, the crossing point at Topoje drainage channel, otter presence was confirmed through observation of fresh footprints, spraints and scratching activities. Presence of food (i.e. fish and frogs) was verified through direct observations.

Of 33 species occurring in the Western Section, 28 mammal species are protected by national legislation, while in the European context 10 species are listed under Annex II of the Bern Convention and a further 11 are listed under Annex III. In terms of the EU Habitats Directive, 10 species are listed under Annex IV, 9 under Annex II and 2 under Annex V. Of the species recorded for Annex IV or Annex II, all species other than otter ( L. lutra) are bats (see Annex 6.2.1.2 ).

It should be noted that no particular survey for Large Carnivores was undertaken within the Western Section, as findings from the literature review and the field surveys of 2009 showed no records for the key species of brown bear ( U. arctos) and wolf ( C. lupus) (Bego et al., 2002; Keçi et al., 2008).

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6.5.1.4.3 Summary of Key Habitats and Species within the Western Section

The habitats situated on the coastal belt (Kp 205 – Kp 209), including sandy dunes, salt marshes, lagoons and Mediterranean pine forests, are part of a CORINE biotope. Although this is not protected, it reflects the interest in the area and its ecological potential. The coastal lagoons and Mediterranean pine forests are considered of special interest and correspond to priority habitats which are included in Annex I of the Habitats Directive (Directive 92/43/EEC) as follows:

• Gjemia and Petriti Lagoons (survey points Z-052 and B-033) are of High Importance as the vegetation of these habitats constitutes plant communities with specific ecological adaptations. CORINE Biotope Site (The Grykederdhja Semanit-Pishe Poro, Fier CORINE biotope) and European Priority Habitats, are indicated in the Habitats Directive.

• The Coastal Coniferous Forest - Dominated by P. halepensis and P. pinea (B- 035) is of High Importance and within the direct footprint of the grid connection. This habitat again is located within the CORINE Biotope Site (The Grykederdhja Semanit-Pishe Poro, Fier biotope) and is also listed as a European Priority Habitat. It should be noted though that this habitat is anthropogenic in origin even if it fulfils the criteria to identify it as a European Priority Habitat.

For faunal species, similar to other sections, water bodies are of key importance. Within the Western Section, these including the Petrova Reservoir (Kp 190) and the Semani River (Kp 192), both provide habitat of Medium Priority for otter, water birds and other aquatic animals. The latter of these 2 sites is heavily polluted, however it is still of High importance locally to species. The November 2011 survey confirmed findings obtained from the June 2011 survey which stated that the downstream areas of the Semani River, coastal lagoons and drainage channels provide suitable habitats for otters. In addition to the above, the pipe route site also lies in the middle of a complex of wetland sites to the north and south (including the Karavasta Lagoon Ramsar site) which are of global importance. Migratory bird species (including 3 globally threatened species), as well as a large number listed in Annex I of the Birds Directive, pass through here annually. More locally the Gjemia and Petriti Lagoons support a number of water bird species, and these sites form part of the coastal complex of important bird habitat along this section of the Adriatic Coast.

6.5.1.5 Northern Section

The Northern Section of TAP can be easily differentiated into two distinct areas, the Durres road and the main pipe yard at Kavaje. The former of these sites is located within the city of Durres in a heavily urbanised area situated along the Adriatic coast while the latter site is located in agricultural farmland south of Durres approximately 1.7 km from the coast.

Habitat at both locations is heavily influenced by anthropogenic activity with the former being urbanised and the latter being agricultural. Neither site holds any key ecological interest and most species likely to be present for both flora and fauna will be common throughout Albania.

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6.5.1.5.1 Habitats in the Northern Section

The Northern Section supports a range of natural and semi-natural vegetation types and habitats. Semi-natural and modified habitats, especially those intensively used for agriculture, constitute the majority of the habitats present and hold only limited nature conservation value. The Northern Section, although dominated by anthropoid environments and landscapes (urbanised areas, agricultural lands, etc.) still contains some areas of natural and semi-natural habitats such as riparian habitats or White willow ( Salix alba ) and White poplar ( Populus alba ) galleries, coastal coniferous forests or wooded dunes with Stone pine ( Pinus pinea ) and/or Maritime pine ( Pinus pinaster ).

Habitats occurring inside the section (within the 500 m corridor) are shown in Table 6.5-13 . The distribution of these key habitats is shown in maps in Annex 4.3.

Table 6.5-17 CORINE Land cover Types Present within the Northern Section

Nr. Habitat Areas where species recorded (Durres road or pipe yard) 1 Complex cultivation patterns Pipe yard 2 Coniferous forest Durres Road 3 Land principally occupied by agriculture, with significant Pipe yard areas of natural vegetation 4 Non-irrigated arable land Pipe yard 5 Vineyards Pipe yard 6 Watercourses Pipe yard

Source: Field Surveys (July 2012) and modified CORINE land cover data, ERM (2012)

Within the Northern Section one European Priority Habitat and an additional European Habitat are present, a full description is provided in Annex 6.2.1.4 (see also Annex 6.2.1.1 for details on species) . These habitats are shown in Table 6.5-17 The majority of the habitat present is not of conservation value and consists of the 2 main habitats as described in Table 6.5-18

Table 6.5-18 European Habitats Present within Northern Section

No. EU Habitat Code Habitat Areas where species recorded (Kavaja - Durres road or pipe yard) 1 2270 * Wooded dunes with Pinus pinea and/or Pinus pinaster Kavaja - Durres Road 2 92A0 Salix alba and Populus alba galleries, ( Salicetea purpureae ) Pipeyard Notes: Habitats with priority status are included in Annex I to Directive 92/43/EEC

Source: Field Surveys (July 2012) and modified CORINE land cover data, ERM (2012)

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Endangered and Threatened Plant Species in the Northern Section

Among all the observed taxa, 2 species, or 0.9 % of the Red Data Book plant species of Albania (Vangjeli, et al ., 1996), are included in the group of species of national conservation concern that are protected by national legislation ( Table 6.5-19).

Table 6.5-19 Endangered and Threatened Plant Species in the Northern Section

No Latin name Common name Location Family name Distribut. *Threat (Durres or Status (IUCN) Pipe Yard) 1 Hypericum perforatum Perforate St. Pipe Yard GUTTIFERAE Paleotemp. EN John’s Wart 2 Origanum vulgare Wild Marjoram Paipe Yard LABIATAE Euroasiat. EN 3 VU Note: *Threat status taken from National Red Data Book (Vangjeli et al., 1995) Abbreviations: IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature Categories EN: Endangered, VU: Vulnerable

Source: Field Surveys (July 2012), ERM (2012)

According to National IUCN Red list categories, the Northern section has 2 Endangered plant species, both are widespread species. Plant species present are for the most part commonly occurring throughout the country and are threatened by the practice of their collection for medicinal or economic purposes.

Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Species in the Northern Section

The area supports 34 species of medicinal and aromatic plants that are presented in Annex 6.2.1.3. Many of them are well-known by the local population, which have a long tradition in collecting them either for individual and family use or for sale. Most of them, being with low distribution, have no obvious role in income of the local population engaged in this activity . Many of the medicinal plants are weeds and ruderal species which grow mainly in the arable lands such as Common dandelion ( Taraxacum officinale ), Stinging nettle ( Urtica dioica ), Common verbain ( Verbena officinalis ), Ribwort plantain ( Plantago lanceolata ), Greater plantain ( Plantago major ), Common knotgrass ( Polygonum aviculare ) etc.

From the species found in this section, 2 are listed within the Albanian Red Data Book (Vangjeli et al., 1995) St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum) and Oregano (Origanum vulgare).

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6.5.1.5.2 Fauna in the Northern Section

Species Richness in the Northern Section

According to the literature review and from the 2012 field surveys, the Northern Section has the potential to support some 97 vertebrate species including fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals ( Table 6.5-20 ). This section has the lowest species richness of all the sections of the Project. This is explained by the low habitat heterogeneity and high level of disturbance within the northern section.

Table 6.5-20 Fauna Species Present in the Northern Section Study Area

Group Number of Species Internationally Regionally Nationally Threatened (IUCN) Threatened Threatened (IUCN) (IUCN) Fish 3 1 1 0 Amphibians 5 0 0 1 Reptiles 14 2 0 1 Birds 56 1 0 6 Mammals 19 0 1 2 Total vertebrates 97 4 2 10 Note: For further details on fish species see Section 6.6.2

Source: Field Surveys (July 2012), ERM (2012)

At least 4 species present in the Northern Section are considered as Globally Threatened (Eel [ A. anguilla ],dice snake [ N. tassellata], Balkan wall lizard [ P. taurica ], Lesser Kestrel [Falco naumani]), while only 2 species are considered as Regionally Threatened (Eel [ A. anguilla ], Mediterranean horseshoe bat [R. euryale ]). Some 10 vertebrates (badger [ Meles meles ], Mediterranean horseshoe bat [R. euryale ], sparrowhawk [ Accipiter nisus ], buzzard [ Buteo buteo ], Lesser Kestrel [Falco naumani ], kestrel [ Falco tinnunculus ], Bee-eater [ Merops apiaster ], hoopoe [Upupa epops ], four-line snake [ Elaphe quatuorlineata ], and Balkan frog [ Pelophyllax kurtmuelleri ]) are Nationally Threatened. This section is of low sensitivity with regard to threatened species, as it can host low number of individuals that belong to threatened species Amphibians and Reptiles

The herpetofauna of the northern section is poor. Based on a desktop study (Bruno, 1989; Haxhiu, 94, 95, 98) and data collected during the 2012 field surveys, some 5 amphibian species (out of 16 species reported in Albania) and 14 reptiles species (out of 37 species reported in Albania) are expected to be present in this section (see Annex 6.2.1.2 ). All 5 species of amphibians and 11 species of reptiles were directly observed during the field surveys, while the 3 remaining reptile species are considered to be potentially present in this section. Species common along the route were the same as those previously described in other sections. Of these species, 8 were considered aquatic while 11 were considered terrestrial.

Habitats within the section of particular importance for reptile species include the Planted Pine forest (along the landward side of the Plepa-Durres Road, which extends along the coast.

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Farmland, and grassland habitat recorded in the Pipeyard sites are also of importance to reptiles and some amphibian species, although the main habitats for amphibians include the drains running through the study area as well as the Karpen River, north of the Pipeyard sites.

Reptile species considered to be globally threatened consist of the same 2 species as previously described for the Western Section while all amphibians and the remaining reptile species are considered as LR or NE (see Annex 6.2.1.2 ).

Balkan frog ( R. balcanica/Pelophyllax kurtmuelleri) was again the only amphibian present which is threatened in a national context, while all other species are classified as LR.

One reptile species is considered threatened species at the national level (under threat category VU). No species of reptiles and amphibians are listed as Regionally Threatened in this section.

In a European context, 3 amphibians and 9 reptiles belong to Annex II of the Bern Convention while the remaining 2 amphibians and 5 reptiles are part of Annex III. In terms of species listed in the EU Habitats Directive, 9 reptiles and 3 amphibians were listed on Annex IV and/or Annex II. Birds

The Northern study area supports a minimal range of habitats which provide food and shelter for a low number of birds either seasonally or year round. From the literature and from field surveys the Northern Section of the pipeline route has the potential to support 56 species (out of 330 known to occur in Albania) or around 17% ( Annex 6.2.1.2 ). Some 36 species were directly observed in the field during the summer 2012 survey. The remaining 20 species are thought to be potentially present. This number of bird species is much lower than that for the other sections of the study area, and reflects the low habitat heterogeneity and high level of disturbance along the northern study area.

Of the bird species, 32 species are resident, 19 species are summer visitors, 4 species are winter visitors while 1 species is passage migrant (Lesser kestrel [ Falco naumani ]). Majority of the bird species (32 species) are closely linked with open terrains (grasslands, farmland and scrubby terrains), 17 species are linked with forests and the remaining 7 are associated with human settlements.

One bird species, Lesser kestrel ( Falco naumani ) is listed as Globally Threatened (as VU), 6 species (or 10%) are nationally threatened (4 species of the VU category and 2 species of the EN category). ( Annex 6.2.1.2).

Of the 56 bird species of the Northern Section, 48 are protected by Albanian law. In a European Context, a further 34 are listed under Annex II of the Bern Convention, while 16 species are listed under Annex III, and 13 species are listed under Annex I (4 species) and Annex II (9 species) of the Birds Directive. This is the lowest number of species from all sections of the study area, and it reflects the low habitat heterogeneity in the Northern section study area.

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Mammals

The number of mammals occurring in the Northern Section is estimated at 19 species and these are dominated by small mammals (rodents and insectivores), followed by bats and carnivorous species (Bego, 2008). Based on the data collected, mammalian fauna of this section is poor. This is explained by the fact that most of the section presents homogenous artificial and modified habitats such as arable lands, rural and urban areas and pine tree plantations. This section runs through the Northern lowland of the Adriatic coast and is heavily urbanised.

During the field surveys the presence of 15 mammal species was directly confirmed, while the other 4 species are thought to be potentially present for reasons previously outlined in relation to other sections.

Small mammals (insectivores and rodents) are represented here by 11 species, followed by bats (5 species) and carnivores (3 species). Of the mammal species, 3 prefer forests and shrubs, 7 prefer grasslands and farmlands, 5 species of bats are dwellers of the houses and military tunnels found in the study area, and 4 species are sinanthropic.

None of the mammals occurring in the section are Globally Threatened; however, all 19 mammals are listed as LR. Only 1 species, Mediterranean horseshoe bat ( Rhylonophus euryale) is listed as VU within the Mediterranean Region context.

In the National context, 2 species are Nationally Threatened (1 species is listed as EN and 1 species as VU). EN species includes badger ( Meles meles) , while VU species includes Mediterranean horseshoe bat ( Rhylonophus euryale) (Misja 2006). The remainder of the species include one which is listed as NT, while the rest are listed as NE or DD.

Of 19 species occurring in the Northern Section, 15 mammal species are protected by national legislation, while in the European context 5 species are listed under Annex II of the Bern Convention and a further 4 are listed under Annex III. In terms of the EU Habitats Directive, 5 species are listed under Annex IV, and 2 under Annex IV. Of the species recorded for Annex IV or Annex II, all 5 species are bats (see Annex 6.2.1.2 ).

6.5.1.5.3 Summary of Key Habitats and Species within the Northern Section

The only habitat of conservation interest in the Northern section are the Mediterranean pine forests as they correspond to priority habitats which are included in Annex I of the Habitats Directive (Directive 92/43/EEC):

• The Coastal Coniferous Forest - dominated by Aleppo pine ( Pinus halepensis ) and Stone pine ( Pinus pinea ) (B- 035) is of High Importance. This habitat again is located on the landward side of the road Plepa-Durres and this type of habitat is also listed as a European Priority Habitat. It should be noted though that this habitat is anthropogenic in origin even if it fulfils the criteria to identify it as a European Priority Habitat.

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Importance of the Northern section for Globally, Regionally and Nationally threatened species is very limited, due to its size and influence of the anthropogenic activities. The only migratory bird species that pass through here, especially during autumn migration passage is the Lesser kestrel (Falco naumani ). During the first week of September, 2012 several dozens of Lesser kestrel were observed on the power lines that come across along the Northern section.

6.5.1.6 Terrestrial Ecology Survey and Desktop Study Limitations

The terrestrial ecology desk study was limited by the amount of available literature for the region and for Albania specifically. No network for recording of species exists nationally from which data could be sourced. The terrestrial ecology field survey was overall qualitative as is the general practice for surveys performed across such a large area, although where possible a more quantitative approach was employed in areas of particular interest (for example in areas of high biodiversity).

The bibliography (national and international, together with local scientific knowledge) is the basis for the analysis of terrestrial ecology, and field surveys are a key complement to the overall analysis and to refine or ground-truth the statements provided in the ESIA. In this context, the timing of surveys was not optimal for some plant species which are only visible at certain times of the year (for example, spring alpine perennials). Furthermore, sampling for faunal species was not optimal for some species groups (e.g. some migrating birds). The surveys conducted were focused on the extent of the pipeline route corridor and direct footprint of associated facilities where finalised (e.g. access roads, pipe yards, construction camp sites, grid connections etc.) thus information on updated sections from micro re-routing of the pipeline, facilities and on adjacent areas to the pipeline route is derived mostly from published literature, expert opinion and other existing secondary sources and not through primary data collection.

6.5.2 Aquatic Ecology

The following subsections provide a summary of the aquatic ecology identified at the survey sites located in each of the sections. This document should be read in conjunction with Annex 4.1 and Annex 6.2. Furthermore, additional detailed information, including field data sheets of all visited sites, is provided in Annex 6.2.2 with the results of each sampling location further described in terms of species composition and habitat type in the data sheets in Annex 6.2.2 – Sections 6.2.2.8 to Annex 6.2.2.10. Species composition and relative abundance of phytobenthos can be found in Annex 6.2.2 – Section 6.2.2.6. Maps showing the location of the survey points are presented in Annex 4.1 .

No sampling was undertaken in the Northern section as it was thought that there would be minimal effect on aquatic ecology from Project elements. The road upgrade at Durres utilises an existing road in an urban area while the pipe storage yard is located within an area of agricultural farmland where no watercourses will be crossed. Due to these considerations the Northern Section has been omitted from the baseline.

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6.5.2.1 Eastern Section

Figure 6.5-9 represents the specific aquatic sampling locations where key species where observed (recorded during the field survey) or thought to potentially present in the Eastern Section. More details on the field survey locations are provided in Annex 4.1 and lists of species, and data sheets are provided in Annex 6.2.2 . Figure 6.5-10 Aquatic Sampling Points with Key Species Observed or Potentially Present

Sampling point 1 – Kp 2; Sampling point 2 – Kp 8; Sampling point 3- Kp 13; Sampling point 4- Kp 17 Sampling point 5- Kp 51 Source: Albania topographic map with modifications by ERM (2011)

6.5.2.1.1 General Characteristics

The Eastern Section of the pipeline route comprises different aquatic habitats that belong to the Devolli River catchment (see Maps in Annex 4.3 ). This includes the Devolli River and its tributaries i.e. Trestenik, Stropani and Dunaveci Streams as well as the Ventroku Channel (refer to Figure 6.5-10, Figure 6.5-11, and Annex 6.2.2 ). During the survey, water flow in streams, apart from the Dunaveci, was extremely limited. The river and its tributaries pass through intensively cultivated areas and rural settlements. Agricultural activities and use of water for irrigation

Page 258 of 382 Area Comp. System Disc. Doc.- Ser. Code Code Code Code Type No. Project Title: Trans Adriatic Pipeline – TAP AAL00-ERM-641-Y-TAE-1008 ESIA Albania Section 6 - Environmental, Document Title: Rev.: 03 Socioeconomic and Cultural Heritage Baseline purposes have altered the natural habitat within the Trestenik area, reducing surface water flow in minor rivers to low levels. Furthermore, the aquatic environment in the Devolli/ Bilishti River has been affected by river mining activities that have resulted in a modification of the flow with the creation of pools and backwaters. Figure 6.5-11 Sampling Locations within the Eastern Section of the Pipeline Route

Source: Field Surveys (June and August 2011), ERM (2011)

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The Dunaveci Stream appeared to be the only area in this section not affected by anthropogenic activities, as evidenced by its high diversity and abundance of benthic community. In comparison, diversity and abundance of macro invertebrates in the Bilishti and Trestenik areas were low. Despite these disturbances, the river and stream system in the Eastern Section presented a high biodiversity of aquatic plants (macroscopic algae, submerged and emergent macrophytes and riparian vegetation); thus, they are considered habitats of high ecological value ( Annex 6.2.2 ). The Devolli/Bilishti River was found to be the richest habitat in the Eastern Section followed by the Ventroku channel.

The recorded composition of benthic diatom communities in the Eastern Section is typical of running waters. Many species that occurred in abundance are also commonly found in the rivers of Europe. Benthic diatoms were generally dominated by pollution-tolerant species. Nevertheless, at least 15 species ( Amphora inariensis Krammer, Amphora montana Krasske, Cavinula scutelloides (W. Smith) Mann & Stickle, Cymbella krammeri Reichardt, Cymbella helvetica Kützing, Cymbella lanceolata Agardh var. lanceolata , Diploneis marginestriata Hustedt, Encyonema minutum (Hilse in Rabenhorst) Mann, Fragilaria biceps (Kützing) Hustedt, Gomphonema lateripunctatum Reichardt & Lange-Bertalot, Gomphonema minutum (Agardh) Agardh, Gomphonema pumilum (Grunow) Reichardt & Lange-Bertalot, Gomphonema tergestinum Fricke, Gyrosigma acuminatum (Kützing) Rabenhorst, Navicula leistikowii Lange- Bertalot) (i.e. 2 in Trestenik, 13 in Bilisht and 9 in Dunaveci) are on the European Red List for Diatoms, thus indicating rare or endangered habitats which are either protected or require environmental protection.

Based on the data collected, it was found that in general, the fish population in the section is highly affected by human intervention, including river mining activities. During the survey 10 species were caught within the sampled sites as presented in Annex 6.2.2 – Section 6.2.2.7 .

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6.5.2.1.2 Eastern Section Key Findings

Aquatic Habitats and Flora were well represented overall as the Eastern Section was recorded to possess the highest diversity of aquatic plants of all sections (see Annex 6.2.2 - Sections 6.2.2.2 and 6.2.2.3 ). Of the sampling points within the Eastern Section, habitat within the Devolli/ Bilishti River (Sampling point 2) and Dunaveci Stream (Sampling point 5) was of higher importance than the other 3 sites.

For phytobenthos ( Annex 6.2.2 – Section 6.2.2.6 ), species abundance and diversity reflected medium levels of nutrients overall. The Devolli/Bilishti River (Sampling point 2) recorded 83 species including some listed as European Red list species. Other Red List species were also recorded within Sampling points 1 and 5 although overall, Sampling point 2 showed much greater species diversity and abundance. Due to low flow rates at the Stropani Stream (Sampling point 3) and the Ventroku Channel (Sampling point 4) no survey was undertaken for macro invertebrates and fish species, reflecting by the seasonal nature of these watercourses that they are not of key importance to species. Within the other 3 sampling points, fish were not recorded in Trestenik Creek (Sampling point 1) and the key sites for fish and macro invertebrates were the Devolli/ Bilishti River (Sampling point 2) and Dunaveci Stream (Sampling point 5). Both these sites can be considered of High Importance, the former supporting High quality habitat, while the latter supports a non-impacted macro invertebrate community and also a number of nationally protected fish species including 2 species (ray-finned fish [ Pseudophoxinus prespensis ] and loach [ Oxynoemacheilus pindus ]) which are also listed by the IUCN as EN and VU, respectively, and which are endemic to the region and restricted to a very limited number of watercourses/water bodies. These sites also support species listed under the EU Habitats Directive and on the Bern Convention, such as common nase ( Chrondostoma nasus) and barbel (Barbus prespensis) .

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6.5.2.2 Central Eastern Section

Figure 6.5-12 presents the locations where key species where observed (recorded during the field survey) or thought to potentially present in the Central Eastern Section (for more details see Annex 4.3 and Annex 6.2.2 ). Figure 6.5-12 Aquatic Sampling Points with Key Species Observed or Potentially Present

Sampling point 5 – Kp 51;Sampling point 6 – Kp 57; Sampling point 7- Kp 95 Source: Albania topographic map with modifications by ERM (2012)

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6.5.2.2.1 General Characteristics

There were 2 sampling points along this section of the pipeline route i.e. Osumi River, Sampling point 6 (Vithkuqi area) and Qafa Creek Sampling point 7 (see Figure 6.5-12, Figure 6.5-13 and Annex 6.2.2 – Section 6.2.2.1 ). Both sites were quite distinct in the type of aquatic habitats present (see Annex 6.6.2 – Section 6.2.2.2 ).

Upstream of the Osumi River, in the Vithkuqi area, the riverbed was narrow with clear flowing water. The riverbed was characterised by boulders and a gravel bottom. The river was heavily shaded by riparian vegetation which was dominated by common alder ( Acer glutinosa) and white willow ( S. alba) . Aquatic plants were well represented, in small open parts, by algae and aquatic mosses found on submerged or partially submerged bedrock and boulders. Areas of erosion were present along the left bank of the channel, most likely due to the movement of livestock accessing the river at this point, otherwise it was relatively undisturbed. This was evident by the high diversity and abundance of macro invertebrates encountered here in comparison to the rest of the pipeline corridor.

Perroi i Qafes (Sampling point 7), is a creek situated near Qafa village, and it is a tributary of the Osumi River. Waters here collect from the surrounding areas and flow over a stony and clayish riverbed. During the dry season there is little water in the creek, while during autumn it becomes a torrent. Due to these hydrological conditions, there were no aquatic macrophytes present within this habitat. The river banks were, however, covered by European hop hornbeam ( Ostrya carpinifolia ) and Turkey oak ( Quercus cerris ). No species of conservation value at the national or European level were encountered on this section of the pipeline route during the field survey.

Within the Potom area, incorporating the Helmesi and Backa valleys, the pipeline route crosses a number of watercourse channels which are all tributaries of the Osumi River (two main channels at Kp 85 and Kp 88.2 – 88.3 and a minor tributary at Kp 88.5). The pipeline route also passes within 200 m of a water reservoir at Kp 84. The watercourses were observed to be of low flow (during July 2012 survey) with riparian vegetation dominated by Macedonian oak ( Quercus trojana ), Turkey oak ( Quercus cerris ), European hornbeam ( Carpinus betulus ), willow ( Salix sp.), and Black locust ( Robinia pseudoacacia ) and surrounded by mosaic agricultural plots on both sides.

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Figure 6.5-13 Sampling Points within the Central Eastern Section of the Pipeline Route

Source: Field Surveys (June and August 2011), ERM (2011)

Data collected on fish species indicates that the population in this area is extremely poor, with the salmonids at the limits of their existence probably due to human interventions and illegal activities. This is evident with only 1 individual of mountain trout ( S. faroides /trutta) identified in this section throughout the whole survey.

Although Albanian fisheries legislation provides a wide range of conservation and management measures that combine technical, input control and catch control measures that should be satisfactory, their effectiveness is undermined by the widespread illegal fishing activities.

6.5.2.2.2 Central Eastern Section Key Findings

Habitat and flora were diverse and riparian habitat was particularly well represented. Aquatic vegetation was not as diverse as that recorded within the Eastern Section, although 24 riparian species were recorded at Osumi River/ Vithkuqi Area (Sampling point 6). No sampling was undertaken at Potom for aquatic ecology although as it is a tributary of the Osumi River it is likely that the crossing at Kp 85 will be similar to other sampling points on this river. At Sampling point 6 the benthic community showed the highest species richness and abundance corresponding to better water quality in this section as was indicated by diatom composition which included 4 species listed on the European Red List ( Cymbella helvetica Kützing, Cymbella lanceolata Agardh var. lanceolata , Gomphonema minutum (Agardh) Agardh, Gomphonema tergestinum Fricke).

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Macroinverebrates sampled at Osumi River/ Vithkuqi Area (Sampling point 6) were high in diversity and reflected a non-impacted community while those at Qafa Creek/ Perroi i Qafes (Sampling point 7) were also relatively diverse and only slightly impacted. However, anthropogenic activity has significantly affected fish species populations on both watercourses (with only 2 fish species recorded in June 2011 survey). During the field survey, it was identified that unsustainable fishing methods such as chlorine and dynamite fishing are still being utilised by the locals within this section. In the November survey, both species recorded during the high flow season were not found to be present in the low flow season.

While both watercourses were affected by unsustainable fishing practices, they retain form and function and provide a High quality habitat for a large number of macro invertebrate and plant species. These crossings have therefore been evaluated to be of Medium Importance and they will also provide a valuable source for other ecologically important species within this region, such as large carnivores. For the further watercourses crossed at Potom they are also likely to be of Medium value and will also provide valuable resources to local species. All these watercourses are also tributaries of the important Osumi River, which is further discussed in the Central Western Section. 6.5.2.3 Central Western Section

Figure 6.5-14 presents the locations where key species where observed (recorded during the field survey) or thought to potentially present in the Central Western Section (for more details see Annex 4.3 and Annex 6.2.2 ).

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Figure 6.5-14 Aquatic Sampling Points with Key Species Observed or Potentially Present

Sampling point 7 – Kp 95; Sampling point 8 – Kp 123; Sampling point 9- Kp 130; Sampling point 10 – Kp 132 Sampling point 11- Kp 156 Source: Albania topographic map with modifications by ERM (October 2011)

6.5.2.3.1 General Characterisitcs

This section of the pipeline route is characterised by 2 distinct aquatic habitat types that belong to the Osumi River catchment i.e. Osumi River and its tributary Vokopola stream (see Figure 6.5-14 and Figure 6.5-15 ). The pipeline route crosses 3 points along the Osumi River i.e. near Polican, Vertop and Otlak areas. The Vokopola Stream runs through an undisturbed hilly forest area near Uji i Zi.

At the time of the survey, waters were turbid and as such no true aquatic macrophytes were recorded. Wet rocks along the banks were covered by mosses, while on sandy-silt substrates patches of horsetail and rush occurred. Riparian vegetation was dominated by Oriental plane ( P. orientalis ), Small flower tamarix ( Tamarix parviflora ), Willows ( Salix purpurea, Salix amplexicaulis ) and partly by Mastic tree ( Pistacia lentiscus ) and Japanese blood grass ( Imperata cylindrica ).

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The macro invertebrate community was characterized by average species richness and abundance in most of the sampling points (Uji i Zi / Vokopola stream, Vertopi and Mbrakulla), except in the Otllak area, where lower species richness and abundance was recorded. This is probably due to the presence of high silt and clay levels in the riverbed sediment, which is more suited to annelids (species of worm) that are able to survive the oxygen-poor content in silt and clay. The data indicates that this section may be a slightly to moderately impacted environment. This could be related to the agricultural activities in the surrounding areas. There was only 1 macro invertebrate species within this section i.e. leech ( Hirudo medicinalis ) occurring in small numbers within the Otlak area, that is listed on the IUCN Red List and European List of Protected Species.

Most of the diatom species found in this section were widely distributed and of low taxonomic interest. Diatom composition in this section indicates a high level of nutrient content in the waters. Many of these were pollution tolerant, such as - Nitzschia palea var. palea , Gomphonema parvulum, Gyrosigma scalproides, Planothidium delicatulum, Navicula cryptotenella, Navicula schroeteri, Navicula subrhynchocephala, Nitzschia dissipata, Nitzschia commutata, Reimeria sinuata, Synedra ulna , etc., indicating poor water quality. In addition, their abundance was not very high. There were, however, 9 species belonging to the Red List of diatoms of Central Europe ( Cymbella helvetica Kützing, Diploneis marginestriata Hustedt, Encyonema minutum (Hilse in Rabenhorst) Mann, Fragilaria capucina Desmazieres var. capucina , Fragilaria biceps (Kützing) Lange-Bertalot, Gomphoneis transsylvanicum (Pantocek) Hustedt, Gomphonema tergestinum Fricke, Gyrosigma acuminatum (Kützing) Rabenhorst, Navicula leistikowii Lange- Bertalot), indicating they belong to rare or endangered habitats which are protected or need environmental protection.

For fish, during the June 2011 survey 16 species were caught within the river crossings of the Central Western Section, and it is likely that a further 2 species are present and inhabit rivers such as the Devolli which will be crossed by the pipe route ( Annex 6.2.2 – Section 6.2.2.7 ). As expected, species were dominated by Cypriniformes (9 species), while mullets were represented by 1 species ( Mugil cephalus ). Eel ( Anguilla anguilla ) listed as CR in the IUCN Red List was present in the main Semani River and based on various data (Shumka et al., 2010) this species is present in some localities of the Osumi River. In the November 2011 survey, apart from the species recorded previously, additional record of loach (O . pindus), Chinese carp ( Carassius carassius) and gudgeon ( Gobio spp). was obtained. The presence of gudgeon ( Gobio sp.) is a first record for the Semani River, and further analyses are needed for determining the exact taxonomic position within the genus.

Eels and mullets were found in the main course of Semani River. While eels are present even in the very eastern location of Osumi River, to date it appears that it is extinct in the upper part of the Devolli. Both species are found in habitats of considerably different physical and chemical characteristics and in fish communities of a very different structure. The freshwater sections of the Semani River at the time of survey were characterized by the presence of extremely high

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Source: Field Surveys (June and August 2011), ERM (2011) Based on the 2011 surveys, one of the main factors influencing the distribution of gudgeon in this section of Semani River is the more diverse substratum, providing more suitable microhabitats for this species in comparison with the other sections of the river. At the stations of Mbrakull, Vertop and Otllak the bed was very variable, even on a local scale, and was composed of stones, gravel of different sizes, and sand. Aquatic macrophytes were abundant and submerged trunks and branches of trees, as well as other wooden debris, were plentiful. The presence of Chinese carp (C. carassius) , definitely must be linked with connection of the river and various aquaculture sites within the Devolli-Osumi-Semani system.

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The high recorded presence of common nase ( C. nasus) and stone moroko ( Pseudorasbora parva) should also be mentioned. Of these, P. parva , a typical alien species is widely spread in Albania since 1988 including the rivers of the Central Western Section with habitats type including surface running waters and surface standing water which have helped its spread.

6.5.2.3.2 Central Western Section Key Findings

At the time of the survey, waters were turbid and as such no true aquatic macrophytes were recorded. Limited numbers of riparian species were also recorded throughout the 4 sampling points. Most of the diatom species were widely distributed and the composition in this section indicated a high level of nutrient content in the waters. However, 9 species belonging to the Red List of diatoms of Central Europe, indicating they belong to rare or endangered habitats which are in need of environmental protection.

The macro invertebrate community was characterised by average species richness and abundance in most of the sampling points and 3 of the 4 sites were classed as slightly impacted which are the Uji i Zi / Vokopola Stream (Sampling point 8), Policani Area/ Osumi River (Sampling point 9) Vertopi and Mbrakulla (Sampling point 10).

For fish, during the June 2011 survey 16 species were caught within the river crossings of the Central Western Section all of which are nationally protected. As all sampling points are on the same river system it is likely that all species will occur throughout the Osumi River and its main tributaries. It is also likely that a further 2 species are present and inhabit rivers such as the Devolli. Eel ( A. Anguilla, CR), carp ( C. carpio) and loach ( O. pindus) (both listed as VU) were all present within the section. As stated before O. pindus is endemic to the region and of particular conservation concern. Furthermore, a number of species were recorded which are listed under European legislation. In the November 2011 surveys, an additional 3 species of fish were recorded with gudgeon ( Gobio sp.) being a first record of the species obtained for the Semani River.

From the above data it can be concluded that due to the presence of protected fish species, wider diversity and abundance of fish in the Osumi River, and relatively intact macro invertebrate population, that all 4 river crossings in the Central Western Section have been evaluated to High Importance. 6.5.2.4 Western Section

Figure 6.5-16 presents the locations where key species where observed (recorded during the field survey) or thought to potentially present in the Western Section (for more details see Annex 4.3 and Annex 6.2.2 ).

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Figure 6.5-16 Aquatic Sampling Points with Key Species Observedor Potentially Present

Sampling point 12 – Kp 192; Sampling point 13 – Kp 206 Source: Albania topographic map with modifications by ERM (October 2011)

6.5.2.4.1 General Characteristics

The pipeline route crosses 2 differing sites within this Western Section i.e. the Semani River (crossed twice) and a drainage channel situated near Topoje village (see Figure 6.5-16 and Figure 6.5-17 ). This reach of the Semani River represents a typical lowland river that is wide, turbid, and deep, with moderate flow and muddy silt sediments. Land use activities in the surrounding area have affected the vegetation in the riparian zone, which is restricted to a narrow strip along the river. Riparian vegetation was dominated by white poplar ( P. alba) and white willow ( S. alba) on both sides of the river in a continuous corridor. Macrophyte species were generally scarce.

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The phytobenthic community was represented by 53 species of algae and 49 species of diatoms. Nitzschia palea var. palea , a saprotroph species that grows in highly polluted habitats, were found in high densities. The high prevalence of N. palea var. palea combined with the scarce number of taxa resulted in low values of the Shannon Diversity Index, thus indicating overall low species richness. N. palea var. palea was mainly accompanied by other saprotroph or pollution tolerant species, such as A. minutissimum, G. parvulum, N. cryptotenella, N. veneta, N. saprophila and S. ulna . Furthermore, the high Trophic Index value indicates water pollution or high quantity of nutrients like phosphorus. A possible source of this could be the discharge of waste from the town of Fier.

Due to thick mud on the river banks, kick-net sampling of the benthic macro invertebrates could not be undertaken. Figure 6.5-17 Sampling Locations within the Western Section of the Pipeline Route

Source: Field Surveys (June and August 2011), ERM (2011) For fish species, only the Topoje site was possible to be sampled due to environmental conditions during the timing of the 2011 survey. 5 species were found within the site during the survey period although it is likely that a further 8 species are present within the Western Section inhabiting the brackish habitat of rivers such as the Semani which will be crossed by the pipe route and which connect directly to the Adriatic coast. Of the species recorded eel ( A. Anguilla) is listed as CR under the IUCN Red List.

The presence of M. cephalus has been recorded in both stations of this section. Flathead mullet is the most common fish species in the site located at the Hoxhara Channel and its character of a clear cosmopolitan type is expressed via its presence along the Semani River with very variable water quality. In both surveys the species appeared as a benthopelagic and catadromous populating all type of water i.e. freshwater, brackish and marine at the different depths.

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Following the November 2011 survey the abundance of the eel ( A. Anguilla) in the Central Western, Central Eastern, and Eastern sections is at the minimum and continues to decline. Clearly it is well represented in the Western Section, particularly in Hoxhara channel. The impact on the eel from anthropogenic and environmental pressures, such as fishing, particularly violent types of fishing methods (dynamite, chemicals, poisoning), pollution, habitat loss (gravel excavation/river mining), are among the most quoted factors for decline. Where dams are missing, fishing, pollution and river mining are directly influencing the decrease of the eel population. Additionally, findings showed that 2 species that were found in June 2011 were not observed in the November 2011 survey being the Toothcarp ( Aphanius fasciatus ) and sand smelt (Atherina hepsetus ).

6.5.2.4.2 Western Section Key Findings

Habitats within the Western Section consist of dense vegetation which stretch along the banks. Species were common and macrophyte species were scarce. The phytobenthic community was represented by 53 species of algae and 49 species of diatoms. Species recorded were synonymous, with high nutrient load which reflects the eutrophication caused by agricultural run- off and from likely waste effluent from the town of Fier.

Sampling of macro invertebrates was not possible within the Western Section. However, 5 fish species were recorded at Topoje (Sampling point 13) where eel ( A. anguilla) (CR) was one and toothcarp ( A. fasciatus) another. Due to the Lower Semani River and its tributaries being brackish and directly linked to the coast, a further 8 species were listed as being potentially present although none were confirmed. Some of these species are of high conservation interest including Adriatic sturgeon ( Acipenser naccarii) (CR).

The Semani River is heavily polluted and highly managed by anthropogenic activity throughout its lower reaches; therefore, it can be evaluated to be of Low quality. However, it is still a major conduit for fish species within southern Albania and, as such, both sampling points within the Western Section can be evaluated to be of High Importance to nature conservation.

6.5.2.4.3 Aquatic Ecology Survey and Desk Study Limitations

The following limitations were encountered during the study of aquatic habitats and flora:

• There are few other studies on the aquatic and riparian flora in flowing waters of the area;

• Due to rainfall at the time of the initial 2011 summer surveys and the geological nature of the land in the watershed, the water was turbid in many localities which prevented observation of aquatic plants present in the river channel; and

• Due to the seasonality of certain plant species in their life-cycle and flowering time, a number of plant species present in the survey sites are likely not to have been present during the 2011 survey period (June and August).

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For Phytobenthos, the information collected in the field survey campaign in November 2011 (low flow) has served to complement currently collected data, as this is the optimal condition for identifying suitable substrata for sampling and to have high concentrations of substances in river water.

Additionally, during the August 2011 field trip in the Eastern Section, 2 stations (Stropani Stream [Sampling point 3] and the Ventroku Channel [Sampling point 4]) could not be sampled due to limited water flow or because conditions were too dry, as was also the case during November 2011 when only 8 sites were sampled (see Annex 5 ).

The following limitations were encountered during the study of macro invertebrates:

• Optimal sampling would have been from the end of April to early May, when the aquatic insect larvae become adults. However the first sampling period was in June, when the presence of insect larvae was limited. This was still thought sufficient enough to provide details on community composition required for the impact assessment;

• Similarly, the second and third sampling was done at the end of August and in November 2011, respectively, during a very dry period and the low flow period, when the water level in some sites was almost 0 and eutrophication levels high (e.g. Stropani and Ventroku). While sampling at low and high states was possible in the Central Eastern/Western and Western Sections, for the Eastern Section High Flow sampling was not possible due to the route refinement, so surveys were only possible during low flow conditions as undertaken in August 2011; and

• 2 sites at the Semani River i.e. Mbrostar (Sampling point 12, FE-1) and Topoje (Sampling point 13, FE-1), could not be sampled for macro invertebrates due to thick mud on the channel banks that made access to the water impossible.

Additionally, no specific samplings were conducted for the aquatic environment in the Potom area during the July 2012 field work. These watercourse crossings and other water bodies potentially affected by the pipeline route located between Kp 76 to 91, could not be fully assessed due to the time of year (low flow) at the time of the field work.. 6.5.3 Designated Areas

The following subsection describes the protected and designated areas identified within or in close proximity to the 2 km corridor of the pipeline route. This section should be read in conjunction with Annex 4.2 and Annex 6.2.3. The location of the protected and designated areas described below is presented in maps included in Annex 4.2, and additional details on designated areas and Nature Monuments are provided in Annex 6.2.3 – Section 6.2.3.1.

A protected area is defined as an area with legal protection status, either through national and/ or international legislation. A designated area by contrast can be legally protected (internationally or nationally) or not protected at all. Designated areas are areas that have been identified to be of significant scientific, environmental or cultural value however may not necessarily be officially

Page 273 of 382 Area Comp. System Disc. Doc.- Ser. Code Code Code Code Type No. Project Title: Trans Adriatic Pipeline – TAP AAL00-ERM-641-Y-TAE-1008 ESIA Albania Section 6 - Environmental, Document Title: Rev.: 03 Socioeconomic and Cultural Heritage Baseline protected. Examples of protected areas in Albania include Ramsar sites (international level), National Parks and Nature Monuments (national-level) (see Annex 6.2.3 – Section 6.2.3.1 ). Examples of designated areas which are not legally protected in Albania include Important Bird Areas (IBAs), Important Plant Areas (IPAs) as well as Areas of Special Conservation Interest (ASCIs) under the Emerald Network and CORINE biotopes (also referred to as Areas of Conservation Interest, ACIs). 6.5.3.1 Natural Environment Protected Areas Overview

In Albania, the total number of biological protected areas is 797 (including nature monuments), covering an area of 378,478.7 1 ha, representing 13.17 % of the territory of Albania (MoEFWA, 2010). In addition to this, a further 25 potential ASCIs have been identified between 2002 and 2008 under Albania’s obligation to the Bern Convention, which will eventually form part of the wider Emerald Network which includes Europe as well as parts of Africa and Eurasia (see Annex 6.2.3 – Section 6.2.3.1 ). These proposed sites are in Phase II of the selection process, having been accepted by the Council of Europe, although it has not yet been established whether the current network is sufficient to provide coverage of those qualifying interest species and habitats which are present in Albania. Proposed Landscape Protected Areas are also included within this network which includes a large proportion of the country with at least 14 areas identified.

According to the Map of the Pan-European Ecological Network (PEEN) for Southeast Europe (ECNC, 2006) the study area is defined as an important region which may support ecological corridors linking habitats that maintain the natural connectivity of internationally important species throughout the Balkan Peninsula. However, no specific studies have yet been undertaken to identify and preserve potential wildlife corridors.

The table below is an overview of all the protected areas or proposed protected areas located within or adjacent to the 2 km pipeline corridor (see also Figure 6.5-17 ).

(1) The figure 375,947.7 ha was stated in the main body of the MOE report. However, the figure shown here also appeared in the Annex of the same report. This figure is used based on the upward trend of protected areas coverage in Albania in recent years.

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Table 6.5-21 Protected Areas and Areas of Conservation Interest within the 2 km Pipeline Corridor Study Area

Name International National 2 km Ram- ASCI IBA/ ACI Cat I Cat II Cat Cat Cat V sar IPA III IV Eastern Section Cangonji X X Poplar of Piluri X X (NM-A) Voskop Spring X X (NM-B) Hotova’s Fir-Dangelli X Morova (Cangonji – X (X) X Bredhi Drenoves – Nikolice) Prespa (X) Mali Thate X X X Central Eastern Section Forest of Markeza X X (NM-C) Forest of Lirza X X (NM-D) Forest of Helmesi & X X water reservoir (NM-E) Vithkuq-Ostrovice X X (X) Central Western Section Bogovë X X The canyon of Osumi X X (NM-G) Oriental plane of X X Vershezha (NM-H) Tomori X (X) X Tomorr X X X Western Section Cave of Shahinova X X (NM-K) Crown Forest of the X X Semani River (NM-M) Pishe-Poro X Pylli Divjakes e Zona X Perreth Karavasta Lagoon X (X) X X Keneta e Rosko X X vecit Viosa-Narta (X) wetlands Grykederdhja X X Semanit-Pishe Poro Grykederdhja e X X Semanit

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Name International National 2 km Ram- ASCI IBA/ ACI Cat I Cat II Cat Cat Cat V sar IPA III IV 6.5.3.2 Grykeder X X dhjia e Vjoses- Pishe Poro (Vlore) The Semani Old X X Sand Dunes (NM-N) Source: ERM Options Appraisal 2009; Fourth National Report to the CBD (2010); List of candidate Emerald Sites (proposed ASCIs) Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats T-PVS/PA (2011) 6. Consultation undertaken with MoEFWA on the 8th February 2012 and October 2012.

It should be noted that 4 additional Nature Monuments including; Holy Oak trees of Osoj (NM-F), the Old growth Chestnut Trees of Therepelit (NM-I), the Oak Tree of the Munishtir village (NM-J) and the Oak of Pashallise (NM-L) were all surveyed in April 2012 following consultation with the MoEFWA, and it was confirmed that none of these historic trees still remain, having mostly been lost during storms during the last 15 years (see the following figure, and data sheets Annex 6.2.3 – Section 6.2.3.1 ). Based on this information, these NM are not included in the maps developed for Annex 4.2 showing environmental protected and designated areas.

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Figure 6.5-18 Designated Nature Monuments near the Study Area and those that no longer Exist

Source: HDA Field Survey (April 2012), ERM (2012)

6.5.3.3 Cultural Heritage Protected Areas Overview

In contrast to environmental areas, cultural heritage areas are comparatively numerous although discrete, not tending to extend over wide areas. Also, unlike environmental protected zones, the protection status for cultural heritage is often more ambiguous. Cultural heritage is not always handled clearly in national legislation and many cultural heritage sites are archaeological in nature, meaning that their boundaries are subsurface and challenging to define. Additional maps are provided in Annex 4.6.

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Field and desktop studies have identified 126 cultural heritage sites within or near the study area. 1. Of these, only 3 areas are under official protection from the Albanian government; military areas which consist of military installations including bunkers, buildings and trenches that date back to the Socialist Era in Albania. Although the Albanian government does not establish protected cultural heritage reserves or archaeological zones, Albanian legislation is explicit on the protection of cultural heritage. The “Cultural Heritage Act” (Law 9048), approved on July 4 th , 2003, provides legal protection to Albanian cultural heritage, including tangible and intangible, movable and immovable elements. The tangible, immovable cultural heritage covered under Article 4 includes, but is not limited to: 1) archaeological sites; 2) historic structures (including places of worship); 3) historic towns and neighborhoods; 4) cemeteries and graves; and, 5) historic landscapes. Under this definition, all 126 of the cultural heritage sites identified in the desktop review and field investigations are considered protected sites under Albanian legislation. These sites are presented in Annex 6.4 – Section 6.4.5 . 6.5.3.4 Eastern Section

6.5.3.4.1 Nationally Protected Areas

National Parks and Nature Reserves

The current alignment of the pipeline does not pass through any nationally protected areas within the Eastern Section. However, approximately 92 ha of the Cangonji Managed Nature Reserve (MNR) fall within the 2 km pipeline corridor, and the central alignment of the pipeline passes at its closest at approximately 360 m from it at Kp 17.

The Cangonji MNR (IUCN Category IV) is situated at the foothill of Morava Mountain, 17 km from Korca city to the northeast and 10 km from Bilishti town to the southeast. The size of the Cangonji MNR is approximately 500 ha. Cangonji is characterised by a rich and ecologically interesting flora with species such as J. communis , Large-leaved lime ( Tilia platyphyllos ), Chestnut ( Castanea sativa ), O. vulgare, H. perforatum , and in peripheral parts J. excels is encountered (MoEFWA, 2008). Oak woodland is natural by its origin, while other trees species, such as C. sativa are introduced. The area was initially proclaimed as a hunting reserve for S. scrofa and C. capreolus and it has had a protection status dating back since 1960, being 1 of the first protected areas in the country.

1 Reported site counts exclude number of independent areas of high archaeological potential (AHAP) listed in tables, as these are areas which have not been confirmed to contain resources.

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Biodiversity Strategy and the Action Plan - Albania of 1999 proposed that Cangonji MNR along with other existing protected areas such as Drenova’s Fir National Park, and Nikolica Reserve be put together under 1 enlarged protected area (approximately 30,000 ha), named “Cangonj – Drenova’s Fir –Nikolice – Gramoz”, having the status of Landscape Protected Area (IUCN Category V). This would be a Transboundary Protected Area of particular importance for exchanging floristic and faunal elements between Albania and Greece.

Nature Monuments

Two Nature Monuments (IUCN Category III) were recorded within the Eastern Section (see Annex 6.2.3) : Poplar of Piluri (640 m away at Kp 16) and Voskop Spring (260 m away at Kp 51) (distances are according to GIS analysis only). Surveys undertaken in April 2012 identified that the former of these sites consisted of two large white poplar ( Populus alba ) with religious significance located some 600 m from the central alignment. The exact location of the Voskop spring was difficult to establish (from survey) however it is thought that it will be at least 100 m from the route alignment (see Nature Monuments datasheets Annex 6.2.3 – Section 6.2.3.2 ) and a further potential location for the site was in excess of 600 m from the central alignment. Each site should be treated as of High importance and avoided by the pipeline route.

Cultural Heritage Sites

In the Eastern Section, a combination of desk study and field survey identified a total of 39 cultural heritage sites and within the 2 km wide corridor centred on the base case route and/or within 50 m of a Project component or access road. Of these, 18 archaeological sites are located within 50 m of the pipeline route or a Project component (access roads, block valve stations, and pipe yards). Known protected sites in the Eastern Section are listed in Annex 6.4 . More information on cultural heritage sites identified in the Eastern Section can be found in Section 6.7.3.2 of this ESIA .

6.5.3.4.2 Proposed Protected Areas

Areas of Special Conservation Interest (ASCIs)

Morava Proposed Protected Landscape, also known as Cangonji – Drenova’s Fir –Nikolice – Gramoz Landscape Protected Area is located within the pipeline 2 km corridor between Kp 12 and Kp 27 and the pipeline route directly crosses the site between Kp 13 and Kp 17 and again between Kp 22 and Kp 23 (see maps in Annex 4.2).

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This area is one of the candidate Emerald sites for Albania and is 29,155 ha in size and is to be designated as a large Landscape Protected Area (IUCN Category V). The area is noted for being an important centre of biodiversity and bio-corridor for large mammals ( U. arctos, C. lupus, R. rupicapra, C. capreolus and potentially F. lynx ) and is of regional interest and importance. It also supports many sub-endemic or rare species (BSAP 2000). The proposed Morova site also includes 2 nationally protected sites (Cangonji Managed Nature Reserve and Hotova’s Fir- Dangelli National Park).

The area has also been identified as a CORINE biotope (see below) although the boundary of this area is different from that of the ASCI.

The Lakes of Prespa also known as Mali i Thate (IUCN Category II) is a Proposed Transboundary Protected Area whereby in the north lies the Galiçica National Park in Macedonia. The site at its closest lies 3.1 km away from the pipe route at kp 19. Megali Prespa is an important IBA, particularly due to the presence of the globally threatened species P. pygmeus . It is an area of occurrence of other globally threatened species which include L. lutra, Rhinolophus sp., M. capaccinii, P. crispus , and P. onocrotalus . The Dry Mountain (Mali i Thate) possess slopes facing the lakes that are covered by degraded scrubland (Quercetum), beech forests, and subalpine/alpine pastures where rare taxa are found. Within the area’s borders is the Treni’s cave, which is very important from an archaeological and biospeleogical point of view. This area possesses landscape of high visual value and potential for ecotourism development. Similar to Morova, this site is listed as a CORINE biotope as well as including a number of other Nationally Protected Areas within its boundary including Prespa National Park (IUCN Category II).

Areas of Conservation Interest (ACIs)

One CORINE biotope has been identified in the Eastern Section, with another immediately to the north of the study area.

The Cangonj – Bredhi Drenoves – Nikolice biotope is approximately 26,000 ha in size and represents an area around which the pipeline has been generally re-routed (as the candidate Emerald Site boundary was not available until late summer 2011). The biotope is passed to the north by the pipeline. However, between Kp 16 and Kp 27 the pipeline 2 km corridor passes through the biotope, with the sections between Kp 16 and Kp 17 and at Kp 22 and Kp 24 being the locations where the pipe route passes through the biotope directly. It is a large area up to 30 km long and 18 km wide. The site supports a large range of habitats, the most sensitive of which are broadleaved and coniferous woodlands and alpine meadows and none of these habitats are passed through by the pipe route and minimally within its 2 km corridor. Within this biotope the Hotova’s Fir-Dangelli National Park (Bredhi i Drenoves National Park) is located as well as the Cangonji Managed Nature Reserve.

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To the north of the pipeline corridor, the Mali I Thate CORINE biotope is located. This site is included within the Prespa Lakes ASCI although a large area is located outside of this site including the section closest to the pipe route which is located only 1.37 km from the central alignment at Kp 21, which is under 0.5 km from the edge of the 2 km pipeline corridor. This site is also in part listed as an Important Plant Area (IPA) also known as Mali I Thate. Limited information is currently available for this site although it will be likely to correspond to areas included within the CORINE biotope.

It should be noted that immediately to the south of the Cangonj –Bredhi Drenoves – Nikolice biotope lie the Gramoz biotope. Together these 2 sites form the Cangoni – Bredhi Drenoves – Nikolice complex. The location of these 3 sites is shown in Maps of Annex 4.2.

Proposed Protected Landscape Areas

The area of the Morova or Cangonji – Drenova’s Fir –Nikolice – Gramoz Proposed Landscape Protected Area is thought to be the same as that of the Cangonj – Bredhi Drenoves – Nikolice ASCI (see above for further details). 6.5.3.5 Central Eastern Section

6.5.3.5.1 Nationally Protected Areas

National Parks and Nature Reserves

There are no National Parks or Nature Reserves present within the Central Eastern Section of the pipeline route.

Nature Monuments

Within the Central Eastern Section, three Nature Monuments (IUCN Category III) are located within the 2 km corridor. Data provided on the locations of these sites consisted on single point locations for the forest known as the Forest of Markeza (95 m south of the central alignment at Kp 60), Forest of Lirza (at Kp 81), and Forest of Helmesi and water reservoir (at Kp 84) (see maps in Annex 4.2 for locations – distances are according to GIS analysis only).

Surveys undertaken in April 2012 and July 2012 identified that these sites in fact consisted of entire forest areas. Furthermore, consultation with MoEFWA (8th February 2012) identified that Nature Monuments can be up to 50 ha in size and are best identified as an area 400 m in radius from a central set of coordinates.

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The Forest of Markeza was confirmed as a (Sub)-Mediterranean pine forests with endemic black pine ( Pinus Nigra ). It was observed that the current alignment would result in some loss of the forest between Kp 59 and Kp 61 (although no exactly boundary for the site is known). The forest is highly fragmented consisting of patches within a grassland mosaic. There are also two small reservoirs which will support faunal species.

The Forest of Lirza is a historically managed, high quality beech forest located approximately 500 m from the pipeline route at Kp 80. This forest is known to support key species such as the brown bear ( U. arctos ) and is dominated by trees 3 – 5.5 m high, and up to 3 - 7 m diameter. Stands of ‘high forest’ >15 m in height still remain in this forested area which are of key biodiversity value. The Forest of Lirza also contains a large grazed hay meadow which contains a National Monument as well as a naturally supplied freshwater spring.

The Forest of Helmesi is dominated by black pine ( P. nigra ) (although listed as beech forest in datasets) and is located approximately 400 m from the pipeline route at Kp 84 and was created to protect the water reservoir, located 200 m from the pipeline route at Kp 84. The perimeter status of this forest is unknown, although it should be noted that no forest will not be crossed by either access roads or the pipeline.

The further nature monument within the Central Eastern Section was the Holy Oak trees of Osoja or Lisat e Osojes (E 439466; N 4484586). These trees at the time of survey in 2012 had fallen down during a storm some 15 years ago (according to locals). The remaining trunks sit 800 m from the central alignment (see field datasheets Annex 6.2.3 – Section 6.2.3.2).

Cultural Heritage Sites

A combination of desk study and field survey in the Central Eastern Section identified a total of 16 sites within or near the 2 km wide corridor centred on the base case route and/or within 50 m of a Project component or access road. Of these, 4 sites are located within 50 m of the pipeline route and 4 sites are found within 50 m of access roads. Known protected cultural heritage sites in the Central Eastern Section are identified in Annex 6.4. More information on cultural heritage sites identified in the Central Eastern Section can be found in Section 6.7.3.2 of this ESIA .

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6.5.3.5.2 Proposed Protected Areas

Areas of Special Conservation Interest (ASCIs)

There are no ASCI sites within the Central Eastern Section.

Areas of Conservation Interest (ACIs)

Within the Central Eastern Section corridor the Vithkuq-Ostrovice biotope (13,693 ha in size) is the only biotope identified. It is crossed directly by the pipeline corridor between Kp 61 and Kp 68. It supports a good example of broadleaf deciduous woodland dominated by Beech ( F. sylvatica ) (EEA Website, 2011). The only other biotope present within the wider area is the Tomorr-Kulmak biotope which will be further expanded in the Central Western Section.

Proposed Protected Landscape Areas

Within the Central Eastern Section the mountain massifs that include Ostrovice Mountain, Vithkuq and Rungaja, is listed as the proposed the Vithkuq-Ostrovice Protected Landscape (IUCN category V) with an area of 9,000 ha. This area is characterised by very broken terrain with high mountains up to 2,383 m.a.s.l (Ostrovice peak), karst, vast alpine and sub-alpine pastures and mainly Beech forests ( F. sylvatica ). To date there has been no further initiative for proclaiming this proposed protected area or any ecological field study that would promote it, and there is no certainty about its ultimate border or size. However, it should be taken into consideration that the recent trend of Albanian government towards new protected areas seems to aim towards proclamation of larger and more complex areas encompassing different habitats and natural features. This could also be the case in the future proclamation of the Vithkuq- Ostrovice Protected Landscape. The potential territories of this proposed protected area lie within the 2 km corridor which preliminarily (as a good reference) could have a similar size and location as the Vithkuq-Ostrovice CORINE Biotope (see maps in Annex 4.2).

6.5.3.6 Central Western Section

6.5.3.6.1 Nationally Protected Areas

National Parks and Nature Reserves

There is only one Managed Nature Reserve (MNR) located within the study area for the Central Western Section. This is the Bogovë MNR (IUCN Category IV) located well within 500 m from the base case route between Kp 119 and Kp 121, and at it’s closest at 170 m at Kp 121.

The Bogovë MNR (IUCN Category IV) was proclaimed in 1977 (Rregullore MB No. 1. 27.7.1977) (MoEFWA 2008). The reserve is 330 ha in size and supports a range of Mediterranean oak (Quercus ), woodland and macchia habitats in a hilly area close to the Osumi River. The reserve was initially designated as a hunting reserve for S. scrofa however has since been managed as a nature reserve and supports some areas of mature Q. ilex woodland. The base case route of the

Page 283 of 382 Area Comp. System Disc. Doc.- Ser. Code Code Code Code Type No. Project Title: Trans Adriatic Pipeline – TAP AAL00-ERM-641-Y-TAE-1008 ESIA Albania Section 6 - Environmental, Document Title: Rev.: 03 Socioeconomic and Cultural Heritage Baseline proposed pipeline passes within 500 m of the reserve. Its location, together with the other national protected areas within the study area, is shown in maps in Annex 4.2.

Within the 2 km corridor in addition to the Bogovë MNR, recent consultation conducted with MoEFWA in October 2012 has revealed that the boundary of the Tomori National Park (IUCN Category II) has been updated and expanded as of July 2012 (Decision of the Council of Ministers [DCM], Nr. 472 18.07.2012). The new boundary of the site is located approximately 2 km from the pipeline between Kp 130 – Kp 135.

It has been expanded from 4,000 ha to 24,723 ha and includes the most important area in the south continental part of the country in terms of biodiversity richness, hosting the highest number of endemic and subendemic species. Hosting a variety of habitats such as alpine and subalpine pastures and meadows as well as pine and beech forests, this area is an important IBA and biocentre for big mammals such as U.arctos, C. lupus , and others. Besides its nature, landscape, and scientific values, the area has cultural, historical, and religious values which together offer great opportunities for sustainable tourism or ecotourism development.

Nature Monuments

In the Central Western Section 2 Nature Monuments are located within the 2 km corridor. The first, identified from GIS analysis is located 1.95 km north from the central alignment at Kp 105. This consists of a single tree known as the Oriental plane of Vershezha (maps in Annex 4.2 ) which will not be affected by the project..

The further Nature Monuments identified in the Central Western Section include Kanioni i Osumit -The canyon of Osumi, this site (newly identified following consultation with the MoEFWA in February 2012) consists of a canyon system of the Osumi River which is approximately 13 km long and between 70-80 m deep and is the largest canyon in Albania. The central alignment passes to the north of the canyon system and crosses the Osumi River some 350 m from the canyon entrance, which is up river (see Annex 6.2.3 ). Mediterranean Arborescent Matorral and white willow ( Salix alba) and white poplar ( Populus alba) galleries are regularly present with Vertical walls are partly covered by macchia vegetation such as Strawberry tree ( Arbutus unedo ), Narrow-leaved phillyrea ( Phillyrea angustifolia ), Prickly juniper ( Juniperus oxycedrus ), Evergreen oak ( Quercus ilex ), Judas tree ( Cercis siliquastrum ), and along the Osumi river by riparian vegetation dominated by oriental plane (Platanus orientalis).

Other Nature Monuments as provided by the MoEFWA during consultation were found to have been destroyed (see data sheets Annex 6.2.3 – Section 6.2.3.2 ) including the Oak tree of the Munishtir village (E 20 11.141; N 40 29.819) and Old growth Chestnut Trees of Therepelit (E 425604; N 4485751).

Cultural Heritage Sites

Desktop review and field reconnaissance identified a total of 52 sites in the Central Western Section within the 2 km wide corridor centred on the base case route and/or within 50 m of a

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Project component or access road. Of these, 20 sites are located within 50 m of the pipeline route and/ or Project components including access roads and a block valve station. Known protected cultural heritage sites in the Central Western Section are identified in Annex 6.4. More information on cultural heritage sites identified in the Central Western Section can be found in Section 6.7.3.2 of this ESIA.

6.5.3.6.2 Proposed Protected Areas

Areas of Special Conservation Interest (ASCIs)

Tomori ASCI candidate Emerald site ) as submitted to the Council of Europe in 2011 is directly crossed by the central alignment of the route between Kp 130 – Kp 135. However, consultation with the MoEFWA conducted in February 2012 revealed that the boundary of the ASCI will be updated and resubmitted and it is currently understood that the boundary of this site will follow the recent update of the Tomorri National Park from July 2012 (as expanded above) which is located 2 km from the pipeline alignment.

Areas of Conservation Interest (ACIs)

The Tomori National Park also includes part of the Tomorr-Kulmak CORINE biotope for its nature conservation interest. As stated previously it is located outside of the 2 km pipeline corridor.

The Tomori site in part is also listed as an IPA known as Tomorri Mountain IPA. The exact location of this site is currently unknown. It is stated however (Radford et al, 2011) that this site is largely important for plants due to its high mountain environment and the plant species present in this environment in Albania. It is therefore unlikely that this site will be located within the works area which does not consist of any such habitat.

Proposed Protected Landscape Areas

There are no proposed Protected Landscape Areas within the Central Western Section.

6.5.3.7 Western Section

6.5.3.7.1 Internationally Protected Areas

Ramsar Sites

The Karavasta Lagoon Ramsar Site is located some 10 km to the north of the pipeline route, at its closest location between Kp 207 and Kp 209. The site is some 20,000 ha in size and consists of a lagoon ecosystem and a pine forest to the west. The lagoon is an enclosed brackish water system connected by 3 artificially maintained channels. The area in the south of the Ramsar site is subject to fishing and drainage for artificial agriculture.

The Karavasta Lagoon was designated as a Ramsar site in 1995, and when the citation was completed the site was listed as a unique area in Europe with a largely virgin flora and fauna rich in species. At the time, the site supported up to 5% (700 – 1000 individuals) of the world breeding

Page 285 of 382 Area Comp. System Disc. Doc.- Ser. Code Code Code Code Type No. Project Title: Trans Adriatic Pipeline – TAP AAL00-ERM-641-Y-TAE-1008 ESIA Albania Section 6 - Environmental, Document Title: Rev.: 03 Socioeconomic and Cultural Heritage Baseline population of P. crispus although more recent records suggest this has decreased significantly. The site also supports a significant proportion of the European breeding population of S. albifrons and G. pratincola . The adjacent pine forest is of particular ecological interest due to the characteristic Mediterranean native forest of P. pinea . The area is also listed as a non-statutory IBA by Birdlife International for the bird interests listed above.

In addition to this site, a further IBA classed as less important is listed in the MoEFWA (2011) report to the CBD known as the Grykederdhja e Semanit. The exact location of this site is unknown. However, from the limited mapping presented in the MoEFWA (2011) report this site appears to be on the coast at the mouth of the Semani River (see maps in Annex 4.2 ). This would place it within 3 km of the landfall site. If this site includes the lagoons present within this area, it could be as close as 1 km. However, it should be noted that this site is not listed on the Birdlife International data zone where all IBAs are generally listed, and it will not be directly crossed by the current base case pipeline.

A non-statutory IPA is also found within the 2 km corridor of the pipeline between Kp 174 and Kp 176 known as Keneta e Roskovecit. The site is currently not a nationally protected area and limited data is currently available regarding this site.

6.5.3.7.2 Nationally Protected Areas

National Parks and Nature Reserves

None were recorded within the 2 km pipeline corridor, although the Karavasta National Park (IUCN Category II) (see Section 6.5.3.7.1 above) is located within 10 km of the central alignment to the north along the Adriatic Coast. The Karavasta National Park is slightly larger than the Ramsar site and covers some 22,230 ha (see maps in Annex 4.2 ).

Nature Monuments

In the Western Section, 3 Nature Monuments (IUCN Category III) were present within the 2 km corridor. Of these, the closest to the current pipeline alignment is the Cave of Shahinova - Shpella e Shahinoves (E 404379; N 4513560) which is 400 m north from the central alignment at Kp 162. This site is heavily degraded due to quarrying activity. It will be unaffected by the current alignment (see data sheets Annex 6.2.3 – Section 6.2.3.2 ).

The Crown Forest of the Semani River Nature Monument (Kurora e lumit të vjetër, Seman (Libofshë-Adriatik)), which is located approximately 1.69 km to the north of the pipeline route, at Kp 197 (see Libofshe- Adriatik, Semani River Nature Monument is the best preserved riparian forest in Albania with old forest or virgin forest, dominated by P. alba , often surrounded or accompanied by Ivy ( Hedera helix ). In shallow and slow moving sections of watercourses, stands of emergent vegetation dominated by P. australis or T. angustifolia are present. This habitat is important habitat for bird species, including breeding as well as wintering species. It also provides a valuable habitat for amphibian and reptile species ( Figure 6.5-19 ).

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Libofshe- Adriatik, Semani River Nature Monument is the best preserved riparian forest in Albania with old forest or virgin forest, dominated by P. alba , often surrounded or accompanied by Ivy ( Hedera helix ). In shallow and slow moving sections of watercourses, stands of emergent vegetation dominated by P. australis or T. angustifolia are present. This habitat is important habitat for bird species, including breeding as well as wintering species. It also provides a valuable habitat for amphibian and reptile species.

Figure 6.5-19 Nature Monument of the Crown Forest of the Semani River (Kurora e lumit të vjetër, Semani)

Source: Field Surveys (October 2009), ERM (2009) The Semani Old Sand Dunes (E 363157; N 4518691) is an additional Nature Monument identified during consultation (with MoEFWA in February 2012) and it is located 1.5 km north of the central alignment at the landfall. These dunes are located on the north side of the Semani River and are unlikely to be affected. The Nature Monument consists of extended sand dunes, old and pioneer that create a slightly undulating landscape at the Semani coast. Old dunes up to 3.5 m high. In front of them there are found embryonic shifting dunes up to 1 m high.

One further Nature Monument identified during consultation was the Oak of Pashallise - Lisi i Pashallise. It was found that this tree had fallen during storms in January 2012 and no longer existed. It was 400 m from the central alignment at Kp 163.

Cultural Heritage Sites

In the Western Section, a total of 17 sites were identified through desk research and field investigations as within the 2 km wide corridor centred on the base case route or within 50 m of an access road. Of these, 3 sites are located within 50 m of the Project footprint – 2 sites within 50 m of the pipeline route and 1 site within 50 m of an access road. All known protected sites in the Western Section are identified in Annex 6.4 – Section 6.4.5 . More information on cultural heritage sites identified in the Western Section can be found in Section 6.7.3.2 of this ESIA .

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6.5.3.7.3 Proposed Protected Areas

Areas of Special Conservation Interest (ASCIs)

The Vjose-Narte wetland complex is present from Kp 197 – Kp 209 of the pipeline corridor, to the south of the proposed pipeline route.

The Karavasta Lagoon is also listed as potential ASCI (see Section 6.5.3.7.1 above). The current area of this site is 19,677 ha which encompasses the entire proposed Ramsar site as listed above, as well as wetland habitat stretching all the way down the coast to the mouth of the Semani River where it is only 3 km from the proposed landfall location. Further details of the sites are described below.

Areas of Conservation Interest (ACIs)

The Grykederdhja Semanit-Pishe Poro (Fier) CORINE biotope lies on the Adriatic coast and stretches from the mouth of the Semani River in the north to the mouth of the Vjosa River in the south (see maps in Annex 4.2 ). The site supports a range of habitats including sand dunes, lagoons, salt marshes and coastal P. halepensis woodland. The site also supports a diverse assemblage of birds including breeding terns and wintering raptors (including the globally threatened A. clanga ). At present, parts of the biotope have been designated as the Pishe-Poro MNR, which is located some 8 km south of the pipeline route. The pipeline currently crosses directly through this site between Kp 207 – Kp 209. Additionally, an existing road will be upgraded south of Kp 208 which is also within the boundary of the CORINE biotope.

The Grykederdhjia e Vjoses-Pishe Poro (Vlore) biotope lies immediately to the south of this biotope, which coincides with part of the Vjosa-Narta Landscape Protected Area. The site has been designated because of the large Narta Lagoon as well as the associated coastal habitats including sand dunes and P. halapensis woodland. In addition, the Pylli Divjakes e Zona Perreth lies directly to the north of the Grykederdhja Semanit-Pishe Poro boundary only 3.2 km away from the central alignment at the landfall site. This site is also listed as part of the Karavasta Ramsar Site and National Park as previously expanded.

Proposed Protected Landscape Areas

Within the vicinity of the pipeline route there are currently no proposed Protected Landscape areas. As stated above, the closest area, Vjose-Narte is located to the south of the route over 10 km away. This area is listed as a potential Emerald Site (IUCN Category V) due to its landscape character.

6.5.3.8 Key Summary of Protected Areas

The current base case pipeline route passes directly through 4 designated sites including Morova, Vithkuq-Ostrovice, Tomori and Grykededhja Semanit-Pishe Poro. None are fully protected, and only Morova and Tomori (which will be updated to be located outside the pipeline) are listed as a candidate Emerald sites or ASCI (which are equivalent to Natura sites). A further

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11 sites (15 in total) are present within the 2 km pipeline corridor and of these sites, 8 are fully protected at a National level.

No internationally protected sites are located within the 2 km pipeline corridor in any of the sections. However to maintain consistency between elements of the TAP Project in Albania, Greece and Italy a further assessment to a European legislative standard has been carried out for those designated sites which could be affected by the project.

Of the sites through through which the pipeline route will directly pass, the Morova site is the only one located in the Eastern Section. The majority of the habitat area of this site is designated as a candidate Emerald Site and also as a CORINE biotope and will be avoided by the current base case route. However, the pipeline route directly crosses the site between Kp 13 and Kp 17, and again between Kp 22 and Kp 23. Within this site the Congji MNR is also passed, at its closest approximately 360 m away at Kp 18. Both sites are considered of High importance from a nature conservation perspective.

The Vithkuq-Ostrovice site is passed through the base case route directly in one location within the Central Eastern Section of the pipeline between Kp 61 and Kp 68 where the pipeline passes directly across the site causing potential severance of the northern portion of this site from the southern. Additional new road building and road upgrading as well as camp construction will also be required in this proposed protected area. This site is of High importance and quality for nature conservation and areas outside of the CORINE biotope are of even higher importance from a biodiversity perspective than those crossed within it (see Section 5.6.1.2 ). Along the current alignment, records of species of high conservation concern have been made in the field surveys including U. arctos and C. lupus . Three Nature Monuments, the Forest of Markeza, the Forest of Lirza and the water reservoir, and forest of Helmes, will be affected by the proposed pipeline route and associated works. although only the Forest of Markeza will be directly crossed. The pipeline passes within 200 m of the water reservoir and forest of Helmes at Kp 84 and adjacent to the Forest of Lirza between at Kp 80.

The Tomori candidate Emerald and National Park site located within the Central Western Section is crossed directly by the pipeline route between Kp 130 and Kp 135, although recent updates to this site (see Section 6.5.3.5) have now confirmed that the National Park will not be crossed by the pipeline and only the existing candidate Emerald site boundary will be crossed and the MoEFWA has indicated this will also be updated to be outside of the pipeline corridor. This site is of high quality and supports a number of key species and habitats. However the area through which the pipe route crosses is not included in any of those qualifying interests listed for the site. It does however provide an important linkage to the Osumi River which is an important wildlife corridor that passes through the region.

Grykededhja Semanit-Pishe Poro is a CORINE biotope through which the last 2.7 km of the pipeline passes before the landfall in the Western Section. This site links further nationally and internationally protected areas to the north and south of the pipeline route including Karavasta

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Lagoon which is listed as a Ramsar Site as well as Grykederdhja e Semanit IBA. Within this complex of sites, a variety of habitats are present and the current alignment of the route passes through a relatively degraded section which is of medium quality. However, due to its location and the species it supports, this site is still considered to be of High importance for nature conservation. The upgrading of the access road and the new grid connection to CS03 south of Kp 208 are located within the Grykededhja Semanit-Pishe Poro CORINE biotope extending approximately 1 km from its eastern boundary.

Of the other nationally listed Protected Areas which are within the 2 km corridor, the Bogovë (located 170 m away at Kp 121) and Cangonji MNRs (located 360 m away at Kp 18) lie within 500 m of the current pipeline base case route as does the Nature Monuments of Voskop Spring, Symizë and the Forest of Markeza. All these sites are evaluated to be of High importance given their national protection status.

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6.6 Onshore Socioeconomic Environment 6.6.1 Introduction

This section provides an overview of socioeconomic conditions in Albania at a national level and provides a more detailed description of the socioeconomic environment of settlements situated close to the 209 km pipeline route. Information is presented in this section at a settlement, commune and district level, with reference to other levels (i.e. regional and national) where relevant. This section should be read in conjunction with the detailed socioeconomic maps provided in Annex 4.5 and traffic data sheets provided in Annex 6.3.

The socioeconomic study area includes all the settlements totally or partially within a 2 km corridor (1 km either side of the centreline) running the entire length of the pipeline from the Greek border to the landfall site on the Adriatic coast. Additionally, the study area includes a number of settlements outside the 2 km corridor along the pipeline route but close to temporary facilities such as the main pipe yard south of Durres, grid connections in Fier and Devoll districts and access roads in Korça, Skrapar, Berat,Fier and Durres districts.

The socioeconomic context of the planned location of temporary facilities (compressor stations and block valve stations, access roads, campsites and lay down areas) is provided in the supporting maps in Annex 4.5 for further reference in the impact assessment.

Information at a national and regional level has been gathered from secondary sources using publicly available information. Data presented for the socioeconomic study area has been gathered from publically available secondary sources along with primary data gathered during a field visits to the study area in June and September 2011, and July 2012.

The field work undertaken in June and September 2011 included a settlement survey, a household survey, key informant interviews and focus group meetings encompassing 67 settlements within the 2 km corridor as proposed at that time. Due to rerouting and definition of Project infrastructure subsequent to September 2011 an additional 19 communities have entered into the study area (see Box 6.6-1 ). Out of these 9 are within the pipeline study area and the remaining 10 are within the infrastructure study area, mainly pipe yard, grid connections and access roads outside of the 2 km corridor of the pipeline route. None of these were part of the household survey and complementary engagement process (focus groups, key informant interviews and community meetings), but 13 were visited and surveyed at a settlement level.

Box 6.6-1 presents an overview of the new settlements that entered into the study area subsequent to the 2011 baseline surveys and confirmation of the source of primary data that has been drawn up on developing this baseline. A list of all settlements that formed part of the ESIA data gathering and their population is provided in Annex 6.3. Additional information on primary and secondary data sources can be found in the Reference List (at the beginning of the ESIA) and in Annex 5 .

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Box 6.6-1 Study Area Changes and Source Data for the Socioeconomic Baseline

Reroutings and definition of project infrastructure since September 2011 have resulted in 2 new regions, 3 new districts, 3 new municipalities/communes and 19 additional communities being included within the study area:

• Minor re-routings: Route refinement that occurred subsequent to socioeconomic baseline data collection conducted in June and September 2011 resulted in 6 new settlement falling within the 2 km pipeline corridor and therefore being included in the study area. These are within districts and communes already surveyed: Mançurisht (Proger Commune), Korça; Plase (Pojan Commune), Korça; Floq (Mollaj Commune), Korça; Kodras (Roshnik Commune), Berat; Imesht (Bubullime Commune) Fier; and Vajkan (Mbrostar Commune), Fier;

• New Potom Route: A rerouting in the Potom commune (Skrapar District) as an alternative to the construction of the Mali Ostrovice tunnel resulted in 3 new settlements (Potom, Staraveck, and Helmesi) being included in the study area. These were surveyed in July 2012 and local authorities consulted about the changes, including changes to the related access roads.

• Main pipe yard area south of Durres : The settlement of Rrakull in Synej Commune (Kavaja District, Tirana) in the vicinity of the main project pipe yard was included in the study area and surveyed in July 2012 .

• New roads and compressor station grid connections : The definition of a number of project infrastructure features that fall outside of the 2 km corridor, including 6 new access roads located along the pipeline route and two grid connections for CS02 and CS03, resulted in 9 new settlements being included in the study area. These were also surveyed in July 2012 and include: Kapshtice (Bilisht Qender Comune), Devoll; Sthylle (Vithkuq Commune) Korça; Jagodine (Roskovec Commune); Marinez (Kuman Commune), Berat; Sheq Marinas and Gjokalli (Topoje Commune), Fier; Durres town, Durres; Arpaj and Shkallnur (Rrashbull Commune), Durres, During the July 2012 survey the town of Berat was also visited to complement the assessment undertaken in June 2011.

The main source of primary data used within this baseline arethe settlement and household surveys. For clarity the terminology in Box 6.6-2 is used to confirm the source of information presented in this report. Due to the homogeneity of the socioeconomic characteristics in different parts of the study area, it is considered that the results of these surveys can be considered broadly representative of neighbouring areas not surveyed and areas outside of the 2 km corridor but close to the pipeline route. When a significant difference has been identified references to this particular settlement have been included.

Box 6.6-2 Study Area Changes and Source Data for the Socioeconomic Baseline

• Households surveyed: Refers to the household survey conducted in June and September 2011 along the 2 km corridor of the pipeline route encompassing 67 settlements as proposed at that time.

• Pipeline Surveyed settlements: Refers to the 67 settlements surveyed in June and September 2011 and located within the 2 km pipeline corridor

• Surveyed settlements: Refers to the 67 pipeline surveyed settlements and the 7 settlements surveyed in July 2012 located in the new Potom Route (Potom, Helmesi and Staravek in Potom Commune) and the northern section of the study area (Durres town, Arpaj and Shkallnur and Rrakull.

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As the study area crosses Albania east to west, it passes through varied landscapes, from wide, open valleys, through mountains to increasingly flatter land before reaching coastal plains. As the landscape changes, so do settlement size, economic activities, infrastructure and services. In the districts of Korca and Devolli in the east, settlements are larger with good access to infrastructure and services and land used for both permanent and seasonal crop production. In the Districts of Skrapar and Berat, in the centre of the study area, settlements range in size, infrastructure availability and services. Seasonal crop production is practiced by isolated settlements with permanent crops and mixed economic activities as the corridor travels west towards the District of Fier. Seasonal crop production dominates the west of the study area where settlements are generally large with good quality infrastructure and easy access to services. In the northern area, Districts of Durres and Kavaja, settlements are larger and have access to better services. The presence of Durres, the second largest town in Albania, and the combination of seasonal crops and mixed economic activities characterise the area. An overview of the socioeconomic characteristics found throughout the study area is presented in Annex 6.3.1 . This Annex also contains an inventory of the settlements within the study area ( Table 6.3.1-1 ). .

This section is supported by a series of general overview figures and a set of detailed walk down the route maps showcasing settlement level socioeconomic information including land use, livelihoods, infrastructure, education, health, irrigation type, water access, quality of access roads and means of transport. Additionally key sensitivities have been identified close to the pipeline route and associated facilities (within approximately 30 m of the proposed pipeline route) that should be considered as the pipeline route is finalised. These sensitivities have been identified though desk-based review of satellite images, field ground truthing and stakeholder feedback and encompass specific agricultural land uses, infrastructure, irrigation systems, industrial areas, land development areas, isolated buildings, cemeteries and sacred places. These detailed maps are presented in Annex 4.5 and referred to throughout this section.

The remainder of the socioeconomic environment baseline is presented in the following sections:

• Historical and Political Overview;

• Demographics;

• Economy and Livelihoods;

• Land Use and Ownership;

• Infrastructure and Public Services;

• Education and Skills;

• Health;

• Vulnerabilities; and

• Limitations.

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6.6.2 Historical and Political Overview

6.6.2.1 Historical Overview

The Illyrian, an ancient and highly developed civilisation, ruled Albania for over 3,000 years 1, before defeat to the Romans in 168 BC led to the start of a long period of foreign occupation and rule. Following the Romans, various groups have occupied Albania including: the Byzantine Empire, Bulgarian and finally the Ottoman Empire who ruled for over 500 years. Independence was granted from the Ottomans in 1912 and the countries modern borders were drawn the following year. Uprisings throughout the subsequent years meant the first Albanian government was not formed until 1920 under the rule of King Zog.

In an attempt to modernise the country, King Zog signed a series of unpopular economic and military accords with Italy. This led to a high level of dependence on Italy and, when the Second World War began in 1939, Mussolini invaded Albania and subsequently occupied the country until 1943 when power was transferred to Germany. In 1944 a group of Albanian partisans established a resistance army to fight the German occupation and liberated the country. The group was largely made up of communists whose leader, Enver Hoxha, became the leader of the Republic of Albania in 1946 and ruled as dictator until his death in 1985. During this period all land was collectivised, foreign travel was banned and the population was strictly controlled.

After Hoxha’s death, the Communist Party began to relax some of their policies and in 1990 Albania’s borders opened to foreign travel for the first time. The Communist Party won the election in 1991, although a general strike and urban opposition forced them to form a coalition cabinet in 1992. This soon collapsed and resulted in additional elections, which were won by the Democratic Party of Albania led by Sali Berisha. The country then began to introduce economic reforms and build national institutions. Since then, apart from a period of unrest between 1996 and 1997 resulting from the collapse of the pyramid scheme 2, Albania has remained stable and seen strong economic growth. In 2009 Albania become a full member of NATO and applied for EU membership.

6.6.2.2 Modern Political Context

Since becoming a parliamentary democracy in 1991, Albanian politics has been dominated by 2 main parties: the Democratic Party of Albania (DPA) and the Socialist Party of Albania (SPA). Box 6.6-3 provides a brief outline of the main political parties in Albania.

1 Albanian Science Academy (see link http://historia.shqiperia.com/) 2 In a typical pyramid scheme, a fund or company attracts investors by offering them very high returns; these returns are paid to the first investors out of the funds received from those who invest later. Typically companies involved in pyramid schemes have no real assets. Pyramid schemes are a form of fraud and have now been made illegal in Albania.

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Box 6.6-3 Political Parties in Albania The centre-right DPA (Democratic Party of Albania) is traditionally anti-communist, pro-market and more openly nationalist than the SPA (Socialist Party of Albania). Mr Sali Berisha has led the party since 1991. The SPA is the successor to the Albanian Workers’ Party (AWP), which ruled Albania during the Communist era. Mr Edi Rama has been the leader of the party since 2004. The party’s greatest support has traditionally come from the south of the country. The Socialist Movement for Integration (SMI) emerged as a third force in Albanian politics after Mr Ilir Meta, a former prime minister, broke away from the SPA in 2004 to form a new party. Source: EIU (2009)

The latest parliamentary elections were held in June 2009, and Prime Minister Sali Berisha was re-elected by obtaining 70 seats for the coalition he formed between the DPA (68 seats) and SMI (4 seats). The SPA took 65 seats and the Greek Minority Party (PBDNJ) won 1 seat.

6.6.2.3 Local Administrative Structure

Albania is composed of 12 regional administrative divisions (Qarku or Prefekturë), which are divided into 36 districts (Rrethe), each of which has a capital city. Each district is formed of municipalities and communes. A municipality is the local administrative unit governing a town or city 1, and there are a total of 65. A commune is the local administrative unit governing several rural villages and, in some cases, towns; there are a total of 306. The municipality or commune is the first level of local government responsible for functions such as health, education and law enforcement in the area . Figure 6.6-1 below is a diagram of the different administrative units in Albania. It is followed by Figure 6.6-2, which presents an overview of the administrative units crossed by the pipeline route.

Figure 6.6-1 Administrative Units in Albania

Source: ERM (2012)

1 During the Communist era some settlements gained the status of municipality even though the share of non-farming jobs was small.

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Figure 6.6-2 Study Area Communes and Municipalities

Source: ERM (2012)

Regional, municipal and commune heads are elected every 4 years and each elected head sits on a regional council. Local government in a district is comprised of civil servants who manage decentralized state services, such as public order, education, health care, employment services and justice.

Local level elections were held in May 2011, which saw the re-election or new posting of heads of villages, communes and municipalities. The Office of Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (OSCE/ODHIR) found the May elections to be free and fair, however violence in some municipalities and communes and disputes over vote counting resulted in a high number of complaints.

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Pursuant to the European Charter of Local and Regional Autonomy, the Albanian government is implementing a reform to decentralise the executive branch. In doing so the Albanian government is increasing municipality and commune responsibility for public services. Box 6.6-4 provides an overview of the independent responsibilities held by the municipalities and communes as well as those they share with the central government.

Box 6.6-4 Functions of the Communes and Municipalities

Independent Responsibilities: The municipalities and communes have legal authority over administration, services, investments and regulations, including: - Infrastructure and public services: drinking water, sewerage, local roads, sidewalks and public squares, lighting, urban public transport, parks and greenery, waste disposal, urban planning, land management, etc. - Services of a social, cultural and sports character: local, cultural and historical monuments, sports events, leisure and entertainment, social services and the administration of day-care centres, senior citizens’ homes, kindergartens, etc. - Local economic development: economic development programmes, commercial infrastructures, small business, veterinary services, forests, pasturelands and natural resources of a local character. - Public order and civil defense. All of these functions must be carried out in accordance with national and regional policies. Joint Responsibilities: The municipalities and communes carry out joint functions with central government in the following areas: - Pre-school and pre-university education - Primary health care services, public health and environmental protection - Social assistance and poverty mitigation - Public order and civil defence Laws and regulations control responsibilities and relations between the local government units and central government institutions. Additional Responsibilities: Municipalities and communes are obligated to carry out functions delegated to them by central government institutions pursuant to specific implementation and control procedures. Source: Human Development Report, Challenges of Local Government and Regional Development, UNDP-HDPC Human Development Promotion Centre, Albania 2002

6.6.2.4 Local Decision Making

Within every settlement in Albania there is an elected head of settlement who is responsible for speaking on behalf and representing the settlement at the commune level. The settlement and commune heads meet formally on a monthly basis to discuss local issues and share news on local, regional or national level developments.

It is the responsibility of the settlement head to decide how regularly to hold meetings with the community, which means formal meetings, vary from place to place with some meeting regularly and others only meeting when there is an issue to discuss. When meetings are held it is generally the men of the village that gather to discuss settlement issues. Every man represents his household at a settlement level with women receiving information passed down to them by their husbands, fathers or brothers.

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6.6.3 Planning and Development 6.6.3.1 National Strategy for Development and Integration

Since 2003 Albania has been working towards integration into the European Union, which has required commitments to political, economic, trade and human rights reform with the aim of better alignment with other EU countries. In 2008 the European Council entered into a European partnership with Albania and in April 2009 a Stabilisation and Association Agreement (SAA) came into force, which is seen as the final process before full integration. A key element to the reform process is the Integrated Planning System (IPS), a set of operating principles to assist government policy planning and implementation and adopted by the government in November 2005. One of the cornerstone processes of the IPS was a medium- to long-term strategic planning process, the National Strategy for Development and Integration (2007-2013), published in March 2008, which establishes national strategic priorities and goals.

The main aims for 2013 are the following:

• Integrate the country into the European Union and NATO (objective met in April 2009).

• Develop and consolidate the democratic state based on the fundamental liberties and rights of individuals. Exercise good governance, fight corruption and other negative phenomena that obstruct the development and integration of the country, and guarantee the functioning of the rule of law.

• Achieve rapid, balanced and sustainable economic, social and human development.

The National Strategy for Development and Integration has 20 areas of focus as outlined in Box 6.6-5 .

Box 6.6-5 National Strategy for Development and Integration

National Strategy for Development and Integration Areas of Focus: The transport infrastructure, in particular road transport, will be improved. About 6.000 km of rural roads will be rehabilitated. The energy system will be developed, and the capacity to produce energy will increase in order to cover the aggregate demand for energy at a minimal social and environmental cost. By 2013, more than 8.500 GHz of electric energy will be generated domestically per year. The water supply and sanitation sector will be developed pursuant to European Union standards. By 2013, the share of the population covered by the following services will be: 95% for water supply, 83% for sewerage and 45% for wastewater treatment. The environment will be protected from pollution and degradation. By 2013, the average air quality in Tirana and major cities will meet European Union standards. An average economic growth rate of more than 6% per annum will be maintained and will tend to reach 7%. Macroeconomic stability will be maintained through fiscal consolidation, continuous reduction of domestic debt, improvement of the current balance and fiscal policy design in agreement with monetary policy. The main tax rates will be lowered while maintaining public revenue collection rate at 27 - 28% of GDP through the reduction of informality and good management of the fiscal system. A favourable business climate will be created for the dynamic development of private enterprise and the attraction of foreign investment. The operation of the labour market will be facilitated through improvements in the employment services, the implementation of active and passive programmes and vocational education and training. The unemployment rate will be below 10% by 2013.

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The headcount poverty rate will be reduced below 10% by 2013 1. A full social policy legal framework will be designed which will ensure the social protection of all citizens. Equal opportunities will be promoted. The current public pension system will be restructured and reformed and will move gradually towards a multi-pillar pension system. The public health system will offer a basic, good quality and effective service for all. By 2013, the infant mortality rate will be reduced to 5 per 1000 live births. A good quality, inclusive, flexible education system will respond to the demands of the market economy. By 2013, the secondary education net enrolment rate will increase to 76% A new, comprehensive and integrated model of spatial planning will be implemented. An integrated and coherent policy will be implemented aiming to achieve balanced regional development and to reduce inequalities between regions. The public programmes that support agricultural and rural development will be consolidated in accordance with EU practices. A modern system of food safety will be introduced gradually, and the institutions that guarantee its standards will be consolidated.

In line with the IPS a new law was passed in September 2011 by the national government, which will impact development plans at every level of government. Details of Law No 10 119 and its implications for local level development planning are outlined in detail in Box 6.6-6 below.

Box 6.6-6 Territorial Planning Law

Law No.10 119, Territorial Planning Law: On September 31st 2011 the Albanian national government approved Law No.10 119, which is aimed at addressing illegal development by tightening national and local planning laws and empowering local authorities to act against illegal building owners. Anyone found building without the appropriate permission will be fined and could be taken to court. All communes will be required to revaluate and submit their development plans in line with this new legislation.

6.6.3.2 Regional and Local Development Plans

Regional development plans must comply with the National Strategy for Development and Integration as outlined above. Regional authorities are required to develop plans in line with the 20 areas of focus for the IPS and issues of particular relevance to the area, which are then transferred to the national government for approval. Funding for development plans will be sourced from various government bodies, national and international organisations and donors. There are no set time frames for development plan submissions; however, they usually align with political processes such as elections and changes in political leadership.

1 Poverty rate is anyone earning less than 4891Lek (€35) a month. See http://www.instat.gov.al/graphics/doc/downloads/New/Living%20Standard%20Measurement%20Survey%202008.pdf

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Under the old law, at the local level, it was the responsibility of the head of the commune or municipality to work with settlement heads to agree on and propose a development plan for the elected time in office. The commune or municipality development plan was then passed to the regional office for approval and allocation of funds. Both the regional and communal authorities reported issues implementing development plans due to a lack of funding and it is not uncommon for plans to be approved, however never implemented as a result of this. According to the new 2011 territorial planning law, all Communes and Municipalities are expected to develop plans that will be evaluated by central government to ensure a consistent development approach across Albania. Communes and Municipalities have been given until end of October 2012 to submit their development plans for approval.

Table 6.6-1 below outlines the current development plans at a regional and communal level within the study area. The information is not conclusive and many development plans will need to be rewritten in line with changes in the planning laws. The table includes information on the plan location, current status in the approvals process, whether the plan is at a regional or communal level and whether the plan will require resubmission in line with Law No 10 119.

Table 6.6-1 Regional and Communal Development Plans

District Location Approval Responsible Law No Comment Status Authority 10 119 Devolli Bilisht Approved Municipality No Municipality plan focuses on upgrading the Municipality change piped water system and sanitation. Due to start this year. Second area of focus is road upgrades centred in municipality not in the rural areas. Progër Planned Commune No Plans to upgrade roads, water system and Commune change sanitation. Plans date back to 2007 when they were written, however have not been approved/published yet. Korca Korca to Planned Regional N/A (see Area along Korca to Pogradec road planned Pogradec Rd comment for development. s) Regional government awaiting enactment of new law before finalising plans. Building already commenced outside of Bulgarec and Ciflik. Drenovë Planned Commune No Piped water system to be installed from Commune change Turan to Ravonik. Devolli Bilisht Approved Municipality No Municipality plan focuses on upgrading the Municipality change piped water system and sanitation. Due to start this year. Second area of focus is road upgrades centred in municipality not in the rural areas. Progër Planned Commune No Plans to upgrade roads, water system and Commune change sanitation. Plans date back to 2007 when they were written, however have not been approved/published yet.

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District Location Approval Responsible Law No Comment Status Authority 10 119 Skrapar Corovode Approval Regional Resubmis Draft town development plan approved in Town No Longer sion 1987, Valid Plans have not been updated since original approval. No longer valid due to time elapse since first approval Berat Berat City Awaiting Regional Resubmis Town development plan yet to be approved. Approval sion Fier Lushnjë – Awaiting Regional No Development of highway between Lushnjë Fier Highway Verification change and Fier Lushnjë-Fier Awaiting Regional Resubmis The regional government has sent plans to Highway Approval sion national authorities to approve development along the Lushnjë-Fier Highway in the commune of Mbrostar. Building as already commenced, only some of it legally. Coastal Area Approved Regional Resubmis Development of tourist area along the coast Fier (Topojë sion between the Vjosa and Semani Rivers. Commune) Government has approved plans. Awaiting funding. Verri, Under Regional N/A Regional landfill site planned Mbrostar Study Unclear if waste will be buried or burnt Commune Collated by ERM (2012)

To assist regional and communal authorities with implementing changes resulting from the new planning laws, the national government has been conducting meetings with key stakeholders to discuss the new law in addition to developing a series of manuals for communes on how this should be completed, which are due to be completed in November 2011.

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6.6.4 Demographics 6.6.4.1 Population and Settlements

Based on the preliminary results of the 2011 Albanian census, the total population of Albania is 2,831,741. According to the 2001 Population and Housing Census, the population of Albania was 3,069,275. The comparison of the figures shows that the population of Albania has decreased by 7.7% in about ten years..Large scale emigration and fertility decline are supposed to be the main causes of the observed population decrease 1.

There are 85 settlements within the study area (see Annex 6-3 ). As summarized in Table 6.6-2, 66 settlements were included in the household survey conducted in June and September 2011 across 3 regions, 6 districts and 35 communes that were partially or totally within the 2 km corridor of the study area. Reroutings and definition of project infrastructure that occurred subsequent to socioeconomic baseline data collection conducted in 2011 resulted in 19 new settlements being included in the study area. 13 of these (see Box 6.6-1 ) were visited in July 2012 but were not included within the household survey.

The total population within all settlements in the final study area is 343,965 which accounts for approximately 10% of the estimated national population. The districts and communes crossed by the study area in each region is presented in Table 6.6-2 . It is noted that 1 of the districts (Lushnjë) and 7 communes do not have any settlements that were surveyed within the 2 km corridor. Consequently data will only be presented on these areas in the analysis of land use.

Table 6.6-2 Settlements within the Study Area and Associated Population

Korca Region Berat Region Fier Region Tirana Durres Region Region Districts Korca Devolli Skrapa Berat Fier Lushnje Kavaje Durres Total r Communes & 6 4 6 9 9 1 1 2 35 Municipalities Settlements 13 9 17 26 15 1 1 3 85 Population 12,339 17,835 13,358 102,524 35,563 N/A 1,984 160,362 343,965 Average 1,017 2,280 292* 1,623** 1,558 N/A 1,984 4,426** N/A Settlement Size * Excluding the city of Corovode, population 8,907 ** Excluding the city of Berat (population 65,000) and city of Durres (population 115,510)

Figure 6.6-3 presents an overview of population distribution in the communes and municipalities along the pipeline route.

1 Albania Preliminary Results of Pipulation and Housing Census 2011, INSTAT

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Figure 6.6-3 Population Distribution in Communes within the Study Area

Source: ERM (2012)

There are 4 large population centres either within or in close proximity (2 km corridor) of the study area, the towns of Berat, Fier, Korca and Corovode, and one large population centre to the north of the pipeline corridor, the town of Durres. Each centre is a focus of administration, employment and commerce, and both Berat and Durres are important tourism centres. Box 6.6-7 presents a description of each large population centre relevant to this study.

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Box 6.6-7 Population Centres

Berat: The city of Berat is the administrative centre of the Berat Region and District. In 2009 cities population was estimated as 71000 people 1. Berat has been inhabited since 6BC and the old town was classified as a World Heritage Site in 2008. The city has a mixed economy, where the surrounding areas are known for the production of wine, olives and fruit. Fier: The city of Fier has a population of approximately 85,000 people and is 2 km south of the study area. Fier was an important industrial centre during the communist era and the centre of the oil, bitumen and chemical industry in Albania. During the communist era Fier was the second largest city in Albania behind Tiranë, however it has since been surpassed by Dürres and Elbasan making it the fourth largest city. Korca: The city of Korca is found in the southwest of Albania and has an estimated population of 105,000 people 2. The city has a university, which specialises in humanities, business and sciences. Korca is an important city for both the Orthodox Church and Sunni Muslims as it is the seat of the Orthodox metropolitan bishop and the site of the oldest mosque in Albania. The surrounding area is known for crop production and is Albania’s main wheat growing areas. Corovode: The city of Corovode has a population of over 7,000 and is the main centre for the District of Skrapar. Two rivers pass through the city, the Corovode and Osum. Durres: Durres is the second largest city in Albania. It has a population of 115,550, while the metropolitan area has a population of 265,330 (INSTAT 2011). It is one of the most ancient and economically important cities of Albania and an important touristic place. The city is located in the Albanian central coast and only about 25 km from Tirana, the capital. The Port of Durres is the largest and most important port in Albania. Collated by ERM (2012)

Outside of the large population centres, surveyed settlements within the study area vary greatly in terms of size and population. Generally this variability is as a result of geographic factors including whether the settlement is located in a mountainous or lowland area, accessibility and distance from a larger population centre. As a consequence many of the small settlements in the study area are found in the District of Skrapar and in the east of the District of Berat, with larger settlements in the lowland areas of Korca, Devolli, Fier, Durres and Kavaja. 6.6.4.2 Migration and Population Change

During the communist era all internal migration was centrally planned and managed by the government and all external borders were closed and heavily guarded. Albanians were not allowed to leave the country and attempting to leave was seen as an act of treason punishable by 10 years imprisonment and possible death.

In 1990, due to political reforms and increasing pressure from the population, the borders were opened and, for the first time in 45 years, Albanian’s were able to leave the country. This led to a mass exodus of the population to Western and Southern Europe, the USA and Canada, in addition to large-scale internal rural to urban migration. The number of people that have left Albania since 1990 is not known due to the number of illegal migrations. However, it is estimated that between 700,000 and 1 million (25%) 3 of the population have moved abroad, permanently, temporarily or seasonally.

1 INSTAT (2009) 2 INSTAT (2009) 3 Barjarba. K. (2004) Migration and Ethnicity in Albania: Synergies and Interdependencies. Accessed at: http://www.watsoninstitute.org/bjwa/archive/11.1/Essays/Barjarba.pdf

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In addition to mass external migration, there has been equally dramatic internal rural to urban migration. People have relocated from the northern interior and mountainous regions searching for improved employment opportunities in the centre and coastal regions. In 1989 the urban population represented 35% of the total population. By 2001 this had risen to 42% and continued to rise reaching 49% by 2009. Tirana is a focus for much of the internal migration and between 1989 and 2001 the city experienced a population increase of 43% (from 238,057 to 343,078). Dürres, the second city, followed by Fier and Elbasan are also popular destinations.

Since 2008 and the global economic crisis, villages have begun to experience reverse migration as people begin to return to their village of origin or to a large population centre due to worsening economic situations in the host countries. The economic crisis has also seen people returning to Albania to work during the summer before returning to the host country. In the District of Korca people have returned from Greece to work in agriculture during the summer months.

Within this picture of migration there is however some variability in the study area. Since 2001 the populations in most study area communes in Korca and Fier have increased whereas some communes in Berat have seen dramatic reductions in population (Terpan, Berat District, lost almost half its population). Settlements in the study area in the District of Skrapar have lost between 5 and 50% of the population. The largest population losses can be seen in communes that are situated in mountainous areas with poorly accessed isolated settlements (e.g. Potom Commune in Skrapar District). Some of these population losses are accounted for by internal migration. Surveyed households 1 in Skrapar reported higher numbers of family members living elsewhere in Albania than those living abroad (total of 24 people elsewhere and 9 abroad). This was also the case in Berat (24 people elsewhere and 0 abroad), whereas in Devolli more family members are currently living abroad than elsewhere in Albania (8 people elsewhere and 14 abroad). Surveyed respondents in Fier and Korca (which have large population centres and good infrastructure and services) reported low numbers of household members living elsewhere in Albania or abroad. 6.6.4.3 Age

Life expectancy in Albania is currently 72.1 years for men and 78.6 years for women 2. At a national level, the largest age group is between 20 and 24 years old followed by 15-19 years old. Figure 6.6-4 below provides the age distribution by sex in Albania in 2009.

2 Institute of Statistics, Institute of Public Health [Albania] and ICF Macro. 2010. Albania Demographic and Health Survey 2008-09. Tirana, Albania: Institute of Statistics, Institute of Public Health and ICF Macro.

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Figure 6.6-4 Age Distribution by Sex in Albania (2009)

Source: INSTAT (2009)

The age profile of surveyed settlements within the study area is similar to the national profile with the largest age group between 16 and 40 (29%), followed by 41-60 (29%), under 15 (21%) and 60 plus (18%).

There are several surveyed settlements that stand out as exceptions to this pattern due to a higher number of elderly people. In the rural settlements of Sqepur and Probrat (Kutalli Commune, Berat District), and the isolated settlements of Backe, Helmesi and Staravek (Potom Commune, Skrapar District), elderly residents account for 30% of the population. In the District of Korca, the settlements of Zemblak, Pendavinj and Terrovë (Pojan Commune) close to the Greek border all have between 30 and 50% of the population aged over 60 years old due to high levels of permanent and seasonal migration.

6.6.4.4 Gender

There are approximately equal numbers of men and women in Albania. Legally women are afforded the same legislative rights as men, and women and girls are provided with the same access to education and healthcare. However, gender relations vary greatly between regions and rural and urban areas. In general, society remains patriarchal, with urban women becoming increasingly independent and increasingly participate in higher education, the workplace and politics. In contrast, women in rural areas generally continue to focus on the home.

The focus group meetings with women revealed differences in how they perceive their status and ability to influence decisions. Whilst all women reported that there is equal decision-making power within the home, some women within Berat and Fier districts considered that they are unable to take part in communal decision-making, and there remains a degree of discrimination. Some women even reported that they have difficulty leaving the house without the consent of

Page 306 of 382 Area Comp. System Disc. Doc.- Ser. Code Code Code Code Type No. Project Title: Trans Adriatic Pipeline – TAP AAL00-ERM-641-Y-TAE-1008 ESIA Albania Section 6 - Environmental, Document Title: Rev.: 03 Socioeconomic and Cultural Heritage Baseline their husbands. In contrast women in focus group meetings in Korca and Devolli Districts reported that they had equal decision making powers both within and outside the home and stated that the area around Korca has a tradition of equal opportunities, with women and men receiving the same education and health services before, during and after communism. Although women reported equal decision-making, they were not attending public meetings; therefore, they are still reliant on male household members to participate in public life.

In every district crossed by the pipeline route it was reported that although men are the main income earners, with only approximately 10% of women engaged in waged employment, women control household finances. Women stated that female-headed households struggle to support themselves financially due to the limited opportunities for women to generate income.

Women in every district crossed by the pipeline route believe they work harder than men by taking on the responsibility of working alongside their husbands in the fields, managing the household and raising their children. Women in all districts stated that they do not have any leisure time and there are no leisure activities in which women can participate. It was reported that gender relations had changed since the end of communism when women were less isolated and bound to the home. Women believe that the situation is slowly improving, girls are being pushed to stay in higher education, however the younger generation still needs to struggle for increased independence and freedom.

6.6.4.5 Ethnicity 1

There are no official figures on ethnicity in Albania, so information provided in this section is based on estimates from several sources with limited quantitative support. Albania has a relatively homogeneous population with 3 national minority groups: Greeks, ethnic (Slavic- speaking) Macedonians and Serbo-Montenegrin and 2 ethno-linguistic minorities 2, the Vlach (Aromanianas) and Roma. The socioeconomic survey identified 5 main minorities within surveyed settlements in the study area; Vlach, Roma, Egyptians, ethnic Serbians and ethnic Macedonians.

Interviews were held with members of Roma, Egyptian, Serbo-Montenegrin and Macedonian communities and findings are presented in Box 6.6-8 below. The level of integration reported by those spoken to differ markedly between groups: Vlach consider themselves fully integrated; Serbo-Montenegrins and Macedonians report past prejudices, however now experience high levels of integration; Egyptians do not experience prejudice, however lack some basic services; and Roma are not integrated and do not feel represented by their own leaders or the local Albanian authority. Roma consulted reported high levels of illiteracy, unemployment and difficulty accessing health care.

1 Albanian State Committee for Minorities – Council of Ministers (see also http://www.kshm.gov.al/v1/?cat=10) 2National minorities are groups that have a territorial framework around which they base their identity. Ethno-linguistic groups share language and culture, but do not necessarily pertain to any country framework to preserve their identity and may not have a country of origin.

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Box 6.6-8 Minority Groups in the Socioeconomic Study Area Vlach: Vlach families were reported living in the communes of Pojan (Korca District), Kutalli and Vertopi (both Berat District). Interviews with Vlach families were conducted during the route refinement process and every family reported feeling fully integrated into Albanian society. Serbo-Montenegrin and Macedonian: An interview was conducted with a Serbian community identified in Libofshë (Fier District) and a Macedonian community living in Bilisht (Devolli District) and interviews were held with both communities. There are similarities between these communities in terms of levels of integration and access to employment and services, including the following: Both communities have an elected leader at national and commune level and communicate with other members of their ethnic group in Albania regularly. It is the responsibility of the settlement leader in both groups to have regular contact with the local authorities in order to liaise on behalf of the people in each settlement. Both communities experience high levels of paid employment. In the case of the Serbo-Montenegrins, seasonal migratory employment and for Macedonians, high levels of permanent paid employment, including working as professionals such as doctors, police and judges. Serbian and Macedonian is spoken at home and there is a Serbian school that children attend every afternoon. Children from both groups are encouraged to stay at school and there are increasing numbers of young people attending university. Both communities reported that they are integrated, and intermarriage with Albanians is common. However it was reported that they have experienced prejudice. The Macedonian community felt that the government has not invested in their settlement because they are Macedonian. The Serbians were not allowed to join the communist party during communism, which excluded them from attending university. Egyptians: An Egyptian community living in the commune of Pojan was interviewed during the socioeconomic survey. There are approximately 100 people in the community living in 20 families. The community spokesperson stated that the community had been in the commune for so many generations that he did not know the reason why the first settlers arrived in the area. All families received land at the end of communism; however, a large proportion of the community has sold their land and immigrated to Greece leaving just 5% owning their own land. Agricultural production is the main economic activity, although the majority of produce is consumed within the home. The Egyptian community has access to education, however it does not have insurance, which limits its ability to access basic services such as health care. The community stated that it does not feel any form of discrimination. Roma: There are 2 Roma communities reported to be living in the study area, 1 in Poshnjë (Berat District) and the other in Mbrostar (Fier District). An interview was held with the community in Mbrostar, which reported the following: The community is stationary, it owns its own land, although it is separated from the Albanian community by a railway line. Roma communities maintain contact with each other and there is a Roma community leader for the area, however he was not elected, and the community feels that he does very little for them. The community does not have contact with the head of the commune or village, and issues are dealt with internally as they do not feel represented or supported by local Albanian leaders. Employment and education are 2 major problems for the community. People work their land, however no one is formally employed. People earn money by selling second-hand clothes or collecting cans for recycling. High illiteracy levels exacerbate the issue, especially in the younger generation amongst whom school attendance is low, partly due to schooling being conducted in Albanian (Roma is spoken at home). The government has begun a new initiative to provide Roma with vocational training including mechanics, carpentry and electrician courses. All courses are taught verbally, and the community is happy that their children could speak Roma and Albanian. There is no health care centre in the community, and residents reported that the majority of money is spent on food, medicine and washing powder to clean clothes. Community members often must take out loans in order to pay for medicines. Collated by ERM (2012)

6.6.4.6 Religion

The Communist Party banned religious practice in 1967, and Albania became the first official atheist state. Churches and mosques were demolished or turned into warehouses or sports halls, and the practice of religion remained an offence until May 1990.

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Albania is now a secular society with all religions deemed equal under the country’s constitution. The main religions found in Albania are Muslim (Sunni), Bektashi (a Sufi order of Islam founded in the 13th century), Orthodox and Catholic. In addition to the main religious groups there are also members of protestant denominations and other religious groups, including Baha'is, Jehovah's Witnesses, and members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons). Religion is not included in the national census so there is no way of knowing how many people classify themselves as belonging to each. Each religion is recognised with official public holidays during holy days.

As shown in Figure 6.6-5 the majority of respondents to the household survey 1 reported being Muslim, with responses ranging from 97% in the District of Devolli to 49% in the District of Fier. The District of Skrapar is predominantly Muslim (64%) or Bektashi (31%), whereas the District of Fier has the largest Orthodox and Protestant population (23% and 26% respectively). Some respondents referred to their religion as Suqiptar (or ethnically Albanian). This refers to people who are nationalistic and hold their nationality above all organized religions. This originates from the time of Albanian independents from the Ottoman Empire and is based on an Albanian expression "the religion of an Albania is Albanian"( 2).

Figure 6.6-5 Religion in the Pipeline Surveyed Settlements (%)*

* Data from settlements surveyed in June and September 2011 and located within the 2 km pipeline corridor Source: Household Survey, ERM (2011) Albanian Catholics are generally concentrated in the north of the country and there were no reported Catholics in the settlements where the household survey was undertaken.

1 The household survey was only undertaken among the 66 settlements within the 2 km corridor along the pipeline route that were surveyed in June and September 2011. Household level data for Kavaja and Durres districts is therefore not available. 2 In Albanian the country is referred to as “Republika e Shqipërisë “ and ethnic Albanians are referred to as Suqiptar.

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6.6.5 Economy, Employment and Income 6.6.5.1 National Level Overview

During the Communist regime, the private sector was repressed and foreign trade was strictly controlled by the state. Albania began its transition to a market economy in 1991. With the exception of 1997, when the collapse of pyramid investment schemes caused the economy to contract by approximately 10%, real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) grew by more than 7% every year between 1993 and 2001. Growth slowed between 2002 and 2007, however remained around 5%. After a temporary bounce back in 2008 to 7.7%, GDP growth fell to 3.3% in 2009 and 3.5% in 2010 1 following the global economic crisis. Albania has been affected by the economic crisis both directly and indirectly through the country’s reliance on remittances from Greece and Italy.

The services sector, which includes transport, trade, hotels and restaurants, is the biggest contributor to GDP (21.2%). However, the economy remains heavily reliant on agriculture, which accounted for an estimated 18.5% of GDP (at current prices) in 2009. The farming sector has been dominated by small private holdings since the collapse of the communist state in 1991, when collective farms were disbanded. Small scale and subsistence farming levels remain high, especially in the mountainous regions and within isolated settlements.

With regard to employment, agriculture remains the most important sector, accounting for almost 55% of total employment. The public sector also remains an important employer in terms of number of employees and is represented in Figure 6.6-6 below in the ‘Other Services’ category.

1 INSTAT (2009)

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Figure 6.6-6 Employment by Economic Activity in Albania

Q $`1H%C %`V5
`Q`V `75
`1.V`7
6 `:H 1J$
1JR% `7 Q Q :J%`:H Q`1J$
1JR% `7 Q CVH `1H
]Q1V`5
1: V`
1JR% `7 Q QJ `%H 1QJ `:RV Q VC5
`V :%`:J 
Q Q `:J]Q` 5
HQII%J1H: 1QJ

Q R%H: 1QJ Q V:C . Q Q  .V`

Source: INSTAT (2009)

Formal unemployment figures are difficult to obtain due to the high level of private agricultural activity and subsistence farming. Residents who are not formally employed will often be involved in subsistence agricultural activities; therefore, unemployment is often only registered in urban centres. Official unemployment has declined slightly in recent years from 14% in 2004 to 13% in 2008, mainly as a result of increased job creation in the private, non-agricultural sector. The unemployment rate is dominated by long-term unemployment, which accounts for 90% of the total unemployment figures (EIU, 2009).

According to national statistics, the average monthly income per household in Albania in 2009 was 40,874Lek (€294), which is an increase of 30% since 2006 (28,822Lek (€207)) 1. Correspondingly, according to the World Bank Databank, the levels of poverty 2 in Albania have dropped dramatically from 25% in 2002 to 12.4% in 2008 3. However, there remain big gaps between the urban and rural population, with poverty in rural areas three times higher than in Tirana and twice as high as other urban areas 4. Indeed official monthly income in urban areas is on average €100 more than in rural areas, with urban incomes recorded in 2009 as 45,053Lek (€324) compared to rural incomes of 31499Lek (€227).

The poorest regions in Albania are found in the mountainous area to the north, followed by the Central region, which includes the Districts of Berat and Skrapar in the study area. According to

1 INSTAT 2009 2 The poverty rate referred to in these statistics is anyone earning less than 4891Lek (€35) a month. See http://www.instat.gov.al/graphics/doc/downloads/New/Living%20Standard%20Measurement%20Survey%202008.pdf 3 http://data.worldbank.org/country/albania?display=graph 4 Hoti. E., (2009) Remittances and Poverty in Albania. Department of Economics at the University of Lund

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Incidence of poverty is linked to family size, illiteracy rates, lower education levels and unemployment. The risk of poverty is higher amongst the self-employed, which in 2001 accounted for 89.9% of the rural population. In addition, poverty amongst younger heads of households is rising, which is linked to issues of land distribution as outlined in Section 6.6.6 below. Incidence of poverty is reportedly lower amongst female-headed households, which could be linked to patterns of migration and income from remittances 2. 6.6.5.2 Economy and Livelihoods in the Study Area

Information on economic activities as provided by the heads of the settlements in the study area are presented in Figure 6.6-7 and Figure 6.6-8 below 3. The main economic activity in each settlement surveyed is also shown in the Maps in Annex 4.5. Although not included in Figure 6.6-7, the settlements in the districts of Durres are predominantly mixed economy and the settlement in Kavaje district is mixed agriculture.

Figure 6.6-7 Economic Activities in Settlements Surveyed (by District)

Source: Settlement Survey, ERM (2011-2012)

1 WB (2007) 2 WB (2007)

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Figure 6.6-8 Economic Activities in Surveyed Settlements within the Study Area

Source: Settlement Survey, ERM (2011, 2012) As shown, the vast majority of surveyed settlements reported that agriculture (crop production, animal husbandry or a mix of agricultural activities) is the main economic activity for the settlement. All of the surveyed settlements in the Districts of Devolli, Skrapar and Fier reported mixed crop production as the main economic activity, as did 91% and 79% of the surveyed settlements in the Districts of Korca and Berat. The remaining 9% and 21% of surveyed settlements in Korca and Berat reported having a mixed economy, with activities including stone masonry, textiles, construction and food processing. All of the surveyed settlements with a mixed economy have a large population (Berat, Uznovë and Durres) or are situated close to a large population centre (Kutalli in Berat and Ciflik in Korca). Ura vajgurore (Ura vajgurore Commune) is a large settlement positioned next to a limestone quarry and the only settlement reliant on a single economic activity (stone masonry). Berat City and Ura vajgurore, are the only 2 settlements considered during the June and September 2011 household survey to state that residents do not undertake any form of crop production.

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Income sources for households surveyed are shown in Figure 6.6-9 illustrating the importance of self-employment, predominantly in agriculture, as the main income source. With regard to waged employment, there are a small number of residents working for the state in each commune (average 5-10 employees), and several people working in coffee shops, stores or in light industry (bakery or dairy). Reported participation in waged employment varies between districts. Skrapar has the largest proportion of surveyed households reportedly receiving income from waged employment (29%) followed by Berat (25%), Korca (21%), Devolli (18%) and finally Fier (12%).

Figure 6.6-9 Household Income Sources (% contribution of each source) by District

Source: Household Survey, ERM (2011) Income levels from the different sources listed above vary across the districts with a high number of respondents reporting a low income, as shown in Figure 6.6-10 . Although it is noted that reported income levels may have a high degree of inaccuracy due to the sensitivity of income related questions and the high incidence of subsistence farming, the findings do support the picture emerging from the socioeconomic survey which link income levels with crop production type, availability of infrastructure and access to markets, as follows:

• The majority of surveyed households in the Districts of Korca and Devolli (60%) reported an income of between 20,000 and 50,000 Lek (€140-€350), with the remaining population split between the low income (less than 20,000 Lek) and high-income (more than 50,000 Lek) wage brackets. Within the study area, both these districts have the fewest number of people in the lowest wage bracket and the largest proportion of people in the high-income wage bracket.

• Berat has more mixed income levels with 26% surveyed households reported an income of less than 10,000 Lek (€70) per month, 23% reported an income of between 10,000 and 20,000 Lek (€70-€140) a month) and 42% earning between 20,000 and 50,000 Lek (€140- €350).

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• Surveyed households in Fier also reported having mixed income levels, with 31% reported an income of less than 10,000 Lek (€70) per month, 24% reported an income of between 10,000 and 20,000 Lek (€70-€140) a month) and 40% earning between 20,000 and 50,000 Lek (€140-€350).

• Surveyed households in Skrapar reported low income levels, with 33% of surveyed households reporting an income of less than 10,000 Lek (€70) per month, 15% an income of between 10,000 and 20,000 Lek (€70-€140) and 21% an income of between 20,000 and 30,000 Lek (€140-€210 per month. Only 25% of surveyed households reported earning between 20,000 and 50,000 Lek (€140-€350).

Figure 6.6-10 Total Household Income in the Pipeline Surveyed Settlements* (`000 Lek)**

**1 EUR = 142.302 Lek Source: Household Survey, ERM (2011)

Poverty in the study area is difficult to measure as the majority of the population is rural, with high levels of land ownership and reliance on subsistence farming. The household survey attempted to address this through asking the question “has anyone in your household gone hungry?” In Fier 4% of respondents stated that they had gone hungry in the last year, and in Berat and Skrapar this number dropped to 1%. In Korca and Devolli every respondent answered no to this question.

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Official employment figures for the study area were not available. However, the household survey undertaken in settlements within the 2 km corridor along the pipeline route provides insight into employment levels and the different sources of livelihood. Figure 6.6-11 below presents the reported occupations of the head of surveyed households. The majority of respondents reported undertaking some form of farming (seasonal, permanent or animal husbandry) as their main employment; however, there were also a high number of retired respondents, especially in the Districts of Devolli (30%) and Skrapar (24%). Waged employment outside of farming is low with the main activities being trading/market seller, transport/driver, construction worker then teacher. The number of household heads stating they are unemployed ranges from 5% in Devolli to 13% in Berat, which is in line with levels of national unemployment.

Figure 6.6-11 Occupations of Household Heads in the Pipeline Surveyed Settlements*

Source: Household Survey, ERM (2011) Lack of employment opportunities was widely reported to be an issue for the younger generation within the study area, a driving factor behind migration. This was reported to affect the younger generation more acutely as they do not have access to land. This is linked to not only the availability of land for sale, also the small land parcels to be shared amongst siblings and the lack of land title documents restricting the sale of land (see Section 6.6.6 ). 6.6.5.3 Working Practices and Labour Rights

The National Labour Code regulates all employment contracts and working conditions in Albania and includes measures on safety and health protection, working time, holidays, child labour, maternity protection, wages, compensation for occupational accidents, redundancy and collective bargaining. The National Labour Code was developed in line with the ILO Conventions, of which Albania has ratified 44, including minimum age requirements, conditions at work, contractual agreements, rights of association and collective bargaining (See Section 3 regarding Legislation).

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Labour and working conditions in Albania are assessed by the national government through labour inspections conducted by the regional authorities and all findings are presented to the national government in addition to the ILO. Albania is reported to have achieved real progress in improving labour and working conditions in the last 10 years and increasing employment opportunities. However, the national government is still working closely with the ILO to address issues in a number of areas that require close monitoring.

Child labour is reported to be a significant and deep-rooted problem in Albania with many underage people working in hazardous occupations and dangerous conditions in the agricultural, construction, shoe and clothing factories and services sector. In May 2011 a survey was completed on the labour market and child activities, which found that in the 7,123 enterprises inspected, 503 children under the age of 18 were reported, 457 of whom were in the production sector. A total of 6 enterprises were fined for employing children. Trafficking of children for labour and exploitation is reportedly an issue and one that the government is focused on addressing. Street children and children of minority groups are said to be at special risk with most children involved from Roma or Egyptian communities. During the socioeconomic survey it was reported that children assist their parents with agricultural work, however only when they have finished school or during the holiday.

The labour code addresses all forms of discrimination including protection from anti-union discrimination. In 2010, the ILO requested improved support from government bodies in administering issues related to union-related discrimination. Focus group meetings with a range of stakeholders at settlement, commune and regional levels found trade unions and collective bargaining are not common. Respondents reported that due to collective working practices during communism, people negatively associate trade unions with a lack of freedom. People have been forced to work together, therefore now they are, “proud and protective of the right to work as individuals” (Farmer Focus Group, Ravonik, Drenovë Commune, Korca District).

In 2008, the ILO committee commended the Albanian government for establishing several programmes to encourage and promote employment. Women have been targeted, in addition to young people and the long-term unemployed. Within the study area the regional labour authority in Fier has established a three-year program to build relationships with employers and understand where there are gaps in the labour market in order to deliver training programmes aligned with these gaps. A total of 1300 people have found employment as a direct result of this initiative. Women and the Roma have been a focus of some of this training as a lack of employment opportunities for both groups has been identified as an issue in the area. Every two years the regional labour authority in Fier holds an employment fair, which is attended by businesses all over the region. Two years ago 300 businesses attended the fair and 425 found employment. In Korca the regional government has contracted outside consultants to deliver targeted training, for example business related training to farmers and others who are self- employed; and advice to those seeking employment.

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6.6.5.4 Agricultural Production

The range of agricultural activities as reported in the household survey undertaken by settlements within the socioeconomic study area (2 km corridor only) is presented in Figure 6.6-12 .

Figure 6.6-12 Agricultural Activities Undertaken by Households in the Pipeline Surveyed Settlements (by District)*



 ds Fier % of

Househol Berat  Skrapar ize t Olives a Devoll Wheat M Frui tables l feed e yards N/A e Korça Veg Anima Vin

Type of Agricultural Production

Source: Household Survey, ERM (2011)

Dairy farming is a key economic activity for surveyed settlements within the study area and there is at least 1 dairy factory in every commune. Milk is either sold directly to dairies for processing and the production of cheese is sold on a door-to-door basis by individual farmers. Residents reported that the majority of families keep at least 1 cow and some sheep for personal consumption, even if they are not reliant on animal husbandry for economic purposes. Each member of the household has a different role with regard to animal husbandry. Women are responsible for feeding and milking; children are responsible for grazing and taking the animals to shelter after school and in the holidays; and men are responsible for selling the produce.

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Figure 6.6-13 Animal Husbandry in Skrapar

Photograph taken during Settlement Survey, ERM (2011) Wheat is also a crop grown by most families either for sale or use in the home to make bread, along with maize, which is used as animal feed.

In addition to the staple agricultural produce found throughout the study area, there are specific areas along the proposed route that specialise in certain produce. This includes:

• Apple and soft fruit production in the districts of Korca and Devolli;

• Olive production in the district of Berat; and

• Vegetables grown in greenhouses west of Berat city and in the district of Fier.

Each of these activities is described in more detail in Box 6.6-9 to Box 6.6-11 below. Additionally the detailed walk down the route maps presented in Annex 4.5 shows overall agricultural land use within the study area, allowing for the identification of areas of permanent crops and mixed agricultural land use at the settlement level. A number of these areas, mostly concentrated in Devolli and Berat districts, have been identified as key sensitivities to the project because of its high productivity and concerns raised by stakeholders during consultation (see Section 7 ).

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Box 6.6-9 Fruit Production in Korca and Devolli

Fruit Production in Korca and Devolli: The Districts of Korca and Devolli are known throughout Albania for the production of apples and soft fruit such as plums. The settlements of Bilisht (Bilisht Commune), Cangonj and Vranisht (Proger Commune), Zëmblak and Plasë (Pojan Commune) and Mollaj are all reliant on apple production. The commune and settlement of Mollaj comes from the Albanian word mollë, which means apple. When land was distributed in the 1990’s farmers increased the amount of money invested in apple production by erecting complex piped irrigation systems, buying machinery and using pesticides and insecticides. Initial investment in a 1 hectare plot was reported by farmers in Canjoni (Progër Commune) to require €17,000, with each family investing between €4,000 and €5,000 on irrigation alone. Investment costs are high, however farmers reported an expected to turnover €25,000 per annum. It was reported in focus group meetings that families have been able to invest such large sums of money due to money received as remittances from family members working abroad. The apple trees are productive all year round, with the most intensive period of work occurring between October and January. Farmers reported that the fruit is collected by a middleman who then sells the produce within Albania and abroad. The government have established a subsidy/subvention scheme to encourage farmers to plant more apples in Devolli. Farmers are required to write to the Ministry of Agriculture stating their intention to purchase more than 200 apple saplings. Once the documentation is received farmers can buy the apple saplings and ask the government for a full refund of the money.

Figure 6.6-14 Apple Production in Devolli

Source: ERM (2011)

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Box 6.6-10 Olive Production in Berat

Olive Production in Berat: Olives have been produced in Albania for thousands of years. At the end of communism there were 5.9 million olives trees on over 45,000 ha. This number fell to 3.9 million trees in 1996 following a period of unrest, however has since increased following planting of on average 160,000 trees annually between 2000 and 2006. The sector is dominated by small family-owned olive groves, and there are a total of 180 producers in the country. The majority of olives (80%) are used to produce oil with the remaining used for table olives (20%), which are preserved 1. Berat is an important olive growing region and the “Kokermadh i Beratit” variety is named after the region and accounts for 20% of all olives grown. In 2008, Berat accounted for 22% of the olive market in Albania and specialised in the production of table olives. Focus group meetings with olive growers in Berat indicated that this is a very important crop for the settlements in the Berat District. It takes 5 years for trees to produce fruit and an additional 5 years (total 10) for trees to reach full production. Productivity levels vary annually. Each family owns various plots of land on which they grow olives, and, if needed, families help each other to harvest the fruit. 2

Figure 6.6-15 shows an olive tree plantation crossed by the pipeline route near Otllak in Beart district.

1 Bujqesor K. (2011) Olives and olive oil in Albania. (Online) Available at: http://keshilluesibujqesor.al/?p=1788 (Accessed 15 th September 2011) 2 Leonetti L. et al. (2009) The Olive and Olive Oil Value Chain in Albania, prepared on behalf of Development Solutions Associates. (Online) Available at: http://www.eastagri.org/files/Oil-Albania.pdf (Accessed 15th September 2011)

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Figure 6.6-15 Satellite Images of Olive Trees Plantation in Otllak, Berat District (pipeline in yellow)

Source: VHR Orthomosaics provided by Astrium

Box 6.6-11 Vegetable Production in Berat and Fier Vegetable Production in Berat and Fier: 25% of all surveyed settlements reported growing vegetables as an ‘other’ livelihood activity during the socioeconomic survey. For the communes of Otllak, Kutalli and Poshnje in the District of Berat and the communes of Mbrostar and Libofshe in the District of Fier, vegetables are grown in large greenhouses, which have been erected throughout the settlement. The construction and use of greenhouses to grow vegetables was reported as an increasingly popular economic activity. During focus group meetings, farmers in these areas stated that farming practices are becoming more advance with the introduction of new machinery and technology. Growing vegetables in greenhouses is a lucrative business with produce such as tomatoes, cucumber and lettuce grown and sold. The detailed maps presented in Annex 4.5. identify the location of all greenhouses found within the 60 m corridor along the pipeline route.

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Farmers do not use middle men to sell their produce, they transport goods either to the nearest city (Berat or Fier) or to a large wholesale market in the District of Lushnje, which is north of the socioeconomic study area. The produce is then sold throughout Albania or transported abroad. Farmers reported wanting to produce more fruit and vegetables, however they believed that the market is saturated and they would have difficulty selling any additional produce. Farmers felt that a middleman selling their crops would result in increased sales of their produce at better prices.

In addition to the key economic activities outlined above, some households reported undertaking a number of other activities in order to earn extra income. Bee keeping is the most popular activity followed by collection of firewood (between 1% and 17% of respondents) and collection of medicinal plants (between 1% and 5% of respondents). Bee keeping is outlined in more detail in Box 6.6-12 below and Annex 4.5 where information on settlements that reported undertaking bee keeping has been included. Box 6.6-12 Bee Keeping Surveyed households reported bee keeping as the most popular additional livelihood activity. Households use traditional box hives and bee keeping is important not only as an additional income source, but also as a method of pollination for agricultural crops. The highest number of respondents reporting bee keeping is in Devolli (39%), followed by Berat (38%), Skrapar (22%), Korca (14%) and Fier (6%). The average income from this activity varies between districts with respondents in Berat reporting keeping 100% of the produced honey for personal consumption with other districts selling between 48% and 75% of their produce. The contribution this makes to the household depends on the sale price, which ranges from 800-1000 Lek (€5-€7) per kilo, although the price is reported to be higher in the mountain regions of Berat and Skrapar due to the quality of the honey produced in these areas. Source: ERM Household Survey(2011)

6.6.5.5 Industry and Commerce

Every surveyed settlement in the study area has at least 1 coffee shop and a grocery store selling domestic products and packaged food (biscuits, crisps etc). The number of shops in each surveyed settlement increases proportionally to the size of the population. Coffee shops are an important focal point and meeting place for men within the community. Information and news is shared and discussions are held on the latest issues and politics. Generally, women do not enter coffee shops, although these are usually family run businesses, so a female relative will serve customers and clean. Grocery shops are also important to the community and in several settlements it was reported that poor families are able to purchase items on credit and only have to pay off part of their bill when they have money.

Industrial and commercial activities in the study area are currently on a small-scale family run or medium scale in the cities. Activities mainly include food processing plants, textile factories, construction businesses, mechanics, etc. Durres, the second largest city in Albania after Tirana and it is well known for its industrial activities, mainly focused on the production of leather, plastic and chemichals.

There are several new developments planned in the District of Korca, Kavaje and Fier as shown in Figure 6.6-16 which would increase the size and number of commercial and industrial activities in the study area.

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Figure 6.6-16 Satellite Images of the Development Area in Fier (in Blue)

Source: VHR Orthomosaics provided by Astrium In the District of Korca there is an area of major development planned along the main road from the city of Korca to the town of Pogradec, which currently crosses the proposed pipeline corridor. The regional planning office has designated this area as urban, and it is now the focus for all major development in the Korca Region. Businesses have already begun to build along this road and once the new planning laws (see Section 6.6.3 ) have been implemented, the Regional office will finalise mapping the planned development and commence attracting businesses to the area.

Similarly, in the District of Fier a new industrial zone has been designated along the main road that crosses the proposed pipeline route in the commune of Mbrostar. The regional government is waiting for final approval from the central government before it can officially begin building.

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Several large car businesses and mechanics have begun to open along the road, although some are not legally registered. The detailed walks down the route maps presented in Annex 4.5. identify these specific locations as key sensitivities to the project.

The commune of Synej (Kavaja District) is experiencing rapid development both residential and commercial as shown in the figure below. Similary the town of Durres and its neighbouring commune, Rrashbull, are also very dynamic areas where urban development is happening at fast pace.

Figure 6.6-17 Residential and Commercial Developent Sorrounding Main Pipe Yard south of Durres (Kavaje District)

Source: VHR Orthomosaics provided by Astrium; ERM Field Survey (2012)

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6.6.5.6 Fishing and Hunting

Fishing in Albania is primarily undertaken on a small scale by individuals as an additional livelihood activity. Within the study area, between 2% and 4% of household survey respondents reported fishing as a livelihood activity. Individuals living in the communes of Topojë and Dermanas in the District of Fier reported fishing as an additional livelihood activity. It was reported that there are 25 families who own small boats in the area and fish along the seashore close to the mouth of the Semani River. Fishing from boats is conducted throughout the year depending on the weather. In addition, teams of fishermen also fish along a 4km stretch of the Semani River using nets, however this is only conducted in the summer months. Fishermen reported that only people from Topojë Commune fish in the river and along the seashore in this area, however other families all along the coast are involved in similar activities. Once caught, the fish is sold door-to-door using motorbikes to travel to each village. Fishermen reported that they would like to catch more fish, as fish is popular and there is never an issue selling the produce; however, the technique used takes time and the catch is always small.

Hunting in Albania is mainly undertaken as a leisure activity with few families hunting as a livelihood activity. Hunting is strictly controlled through licensing of weapons, controlling numbers of hunting licenses dispatched each year and only allowing it in certain areas at certain times of the year. People mainly hunt rabbit, pigeon, fox and a variety of wild birds. The household survey found between 3% and 14% of respondents reported hunting, with the highest response rate found in Devolli District (14%) followed by Skrapar (6%). No households surveyed reported that hunting contributed to income as all catches are consumed within the home.

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6.6.5.7 Tourism

Tourism is a relatively undeveloped, but growing industry in Albania. Tourist numbers are predominantly made up of Albanians travelling within the country; however, visitor numbers are growing, with the total number of tourists from outside Albania growing from 750,000 in 2005 to 2.8 million in 2010. 1 Within the study area, Berat is the main tourist destination for Albanians and visitors to the country followed by Durres. The city of Berat is a UNESCO world heritage site and attracts approximately 500,000 visitors a year from inside and outside Albania, which is a significant contributor to the city’s revenue. The coast of Durres is an important destination for foreign and national tourism that contributes significantly to the region’s economy. Tourim has prompted the construction of secondary residences and tourism facilities like hotels and rental apartments both in Durres municipality and Rrashbull Commune (Durres District).

Figure 6.6-18 Touristic and Residential Area in Durres town

Source: ERM Field Survey (July 2012)

The landfall site is located approximately 100 m from an area used for tourism by people living in the local area. Tourism is currently small scale and includes approximately 8 caravans, 5 small holiday homes and a small café. Two small holiday homes are located within approximately 50 m of the landfall site. A key informant interview with the head of development for the commune of Topojë found that land use restrictions currently prohibit the building of permanent structures, so the buildings situated along the coast by the landfall site have been built without building permits.

Tourist development is planned along the Adriatic coast in the commune of Seman, in Fier District as marked in the walk down the route maps in Annex 4.5 . Plans to develop the coast have been approved by the national government, however are currently waiting for funds to be made available. Once found, funds will be used to develop a road running from the city of Vlore in

1 Arrivals of non resident tourists/visitors, departures and tourism expenditure in the country and in other countries taken from the World Tourism Organisation. Accesses online from http://data.un.org/DocumentData.aspx?q=Albania+Tourism&id=261

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Income from remittances has had a significant impact on the Albanian economy since the 1990s. In 2007, a total of over US$1 billion in remittances were sent to Albania, which represents an estimated 15% of the GDP 1. Remittances to Albania are three times higher than foreign net direct investment and nearly twice as much as official development aid received by Albania. A high proportion of emigrants (68,6%) send remittances back to Albania with 90% of these remittance inflows originating in European countries (UNDP, 2009).

The household survey found that between 5% (Skrapar) and 18% (Devolli) of respondents are reliant on remittances as their main income source. It was reported throughout the study area that there have been changes to the level and frequency of remittances since 2008 as a result of the economic crisis. Between the early 90’s and 2008 relatives were regularly sending remittances to family members, which were used to build houses, invest in the land and as a day- to-day income. Since 2008 remittances have either stopped all together or reduced in amount and/or frequency. It was reported that this is primarily for those with relatives in Greece and Italy, which have both been hit hard by the economic situation. Residents reported that the loss of remittances has had a big impact on their quality of life, as many people now struggle to afford basic necessities.

Social assistance to households in need is provided by the municipal or communal administration. Families or individuals eligible for social assistance must fall into one of 4 categories:

• A household with insufficient income;

• unemployed orphans, over 25 years old;

• orphans aged 18 to 25 who are not placed in social services institutions or under guardianship; or

• parents with more than 2 children.

Families are eligible for a maximum €60 (7500 Lek) per month regardless of the number of children in the family. Families living outside of urban areas are also subject to a scale of eligibility depending on the land and number of livestock owned. According to INSTAT calculations, the average social assistance per household varies between 159 and 300 Euros per month. Official data reports that the average amount of social assistance for the region of Korçë is around 166 Euros and 230 Euros per month for Berat (INSTAT, 2006-2007). However,

1Hoti. E. (2009) Remittances and Poverty in Albania. Department of Economics at the University of Lund

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During the settlement survey in June and September 2011 it was reported that the number of recipients receiving social assistance is low as land and livestock ownership is high. It was reported that there are approximately 1 or 2 families in each surveyed settlement that receive social assistance from the government. This is supported by the household survey results (presented in Figure 6.6-9 above), which found 10% of respondents in the surveyed settlements in Skrapar District are reliant on social assistance as their main income source, however in all other district this number drops to between 4% and 2%.

Every elderly person is eligible for a state pension due to the contributions they made during communism. However, the amount received varies depending on employment roles. People who worked in the fields, for collectivised farms or cooperatives receive €60 a month and people who worked directly for the state in the public sector receive €115. Pensions are an important income source for elderly residents and also seen as additional assistance for those that live with their families. Elderly residents living alone reported difficulty surviving on their pensions especially if they are too old to work in their fields and produce their own food.

6.6.6 Land Use and Ownership 6.6.6.1 Agricultural Land Tenure

During the communist era, all land was collectively owned by the State. In 1991 a new law was enacted (Law 7501/1991 On Land), which has led to a complete reform of the tenure system. Some major issues remain open and create uncertainties and obstacles in the land tenure system and transactions. The main issues and challenges identified in a World Bank report (2006) on the status of land reform in Albania are summarized below ( Box 6.6-13 ).

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Box 6.6-13 Land Tenure Issues

Land Property Fragmentation: The relatively equitable distribution of agricultural land to rural households in the 1990s has resulted in an extreme fragmentation of landholdings. The high number of landowners complicates decision- making on developments as well as on large-scale agricultural utilization of the land. Some plots of land are poor quality for agricultural purposes, and families who have emigrated have abandoned others. The government is currently encouraging landowners to consolidate small, disjointed plots of land into larger, contiguous, more productive agricultural fields. Restitution of Property Rights: The issue of restitution/compensation of property rights is still unresolved. The restitution of agricultural land has been debated since 1993 when the original Law 7698 on Restitution of Property to Former Owners exempted this category. The law provided that former owners whose grant under Law 7501/1991 was not equal to their ancestral property rights could be compensated either by an alternative land grant or by a financial entitlement. The complementary legal acts for actual implementation of this compensation were approved in 2004, but associations of former owners still remain unsatisfied and have undertaken legal and constitutional challenges. Implementation of this law continues to be incomplete. This in turn is hindering completion of the process to determine restitution parcels and private parcels. Illegal Building: During the 1990s many parcels were subdivided, and structures were built on land without legal authorization. These actions resulted in informal urban districts on the periphery of cities, concentrated hotel and tourist service areas on the seacoast, scattered trade and service buildings on highways, and houses on agricultural fields outside the village centres. Such unauthorized land parcels and illegal buildings now constitute a large share of all immovable properties. Land and Properties Disputes: This context of transition is creating a large number of disputes, with which the judicial system of the country is struggling to cope. Conflicting claims to land and properties made by pre-1945 owners and current occupants cannot be resolved until a method of compensation has been approved. Specific projects were undertaken by the government to help civil courts address these issues. Registration of Property Rights: As a consequence of the above-mentioned issues, cadastral registers are incomplete. The registration of property rights has required a huge effort by the country in recent years and is still on going. In addition a large number of land parcel and immovable property transactions do not make use of civil law and market mechanisms, but rather of customary informal relationships. For example, the cadastre registers show no records of subordinate rights or obligations such as leases, use rights or servitude agreements, although these are in fact largely used. Collated by ERM (2012)

Land ownership is high throughout the study area and between 80% and 100% of respondents to the household survey reported owning their own land.

In line with land distribution in the early 90’s all agricultural land has been privatised with each family owning between 1.5 and 5 ha spread over several different plots. There are several areas of highly productive land within the study area which have been divided into a large number of very small land parcels. This was found in the apple growing region in the communes of Pojan, Proger and Bilisht in the Districts of Korca and Devolli where plots are approximately 400 m long and 50 m wide.

Issues relating to land ownership documentation and land titles were found throughout the study area. Land tenure was discussed in 12 focus group meetings with farmers in addition to being raised as an issue in community meetings. Findings varied with some respondents reporting possessing land title documents and an equal numbers reporting issues related to obtaining the correct documentation particularly in Fier, Berat and Skrapar. This was further supported by the household survey, which found just under a quarter of respondents in Berat and Skrapar do not have their land title documents.

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When asked why people have experienced difficulty obtaining documentation, every respondent cited the same reason regardless of their location within the study area: whilst they received a certificate of usage in the 1990’s, multiple payments to local government officials, which can add up to over €400, are required to obtain the full land title documents. In Fier it was reported that some people have obtained their documents in order to sell their land and found the title document does not correspond with the land they had thought was theirs. This was reported as an issue and a source of conflict amongst neighbours.

Six focus group meetings were held with farmers in the districts of Korca and Devolli and all respondents reported having their land title documents. Farmers in Ravonik (Drenovë Commune, Korca) stated that during communism the land in this commune had been a cooperative, not a state run farm, which meant the area had undergone a different land distribution process. Respondents stated that cooperatives were large independently run farms, not directly managed by the state. In the early 1990’s local residents worked with the government to manage the land distribution process, which meant all residents received their land title documents relatively quickly. Residents are now required to register their documents on an annual basis for tax purposes, which costs money and is not undertaken as required. Farmers reported that by managing the process locally they have avoided many of the issues experienced in other parts of the country.

In addition to issues relating to land title documents, many surveyed households reported owning land prior to 1945, which was taken away during communism, but not returned in the 1990’s. Surveyed households reported still having original land title documents from pre-1945 and have since tried to reclaim back the full amount of land previously owned, with varying degrees of success. Figure 6.6-19 below presents information on households that have owned and tried to reclaim land owned prior to 1945.

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Figure 6.6-19 Surveyed Households Land Ownership Prior to 1945

Source: Household Survey (June and September 2011), ERM (2011)

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The highest number of surveyed households who reported owning land prior to 1945 was found in Skrapar (68% of surveyed households) followed by Devolli (50%), Berat (38%), Korca (36%) and Fier (31%). In Berat, Fier and Korca only 18% of surveyed households have tried to claim back the land they had prior to 1945. In Skrapar 55% have tried to claim land back and of these 31% have been successful. In Devolli 26% of surveyed households have tried to claim this land back, however none have been successful.

It was reported that land is becoming increasingly pressurised around the more populous areas, and the young are acutely affected, as they do not have access to enough land to support themselves. Many young people are forced to live with their parents or migrate as there are limited employment opportunities and not enough land to enable distribution amongst siblings.

Land rental was reported in several communes, with farmers renting land from families who have emigrated or elderly residents who are unable to work their land. Residents reported rental amongst residents of mountain villages who rent land in the low land areas where productive land is more abundant. Rental agreements are often verbal and can involve an exchange of money and/or goods. In Korca it was reported that people have moved into the area where they rent land in addition to keeping the land they own in their place of origin. It was reported that people have been attracted into the area, as Korca is well connected with access to water and markets in addition to services for families. 6.6.6.2 Forested Land Tenure

Forested land in the study area is a mix of publically owned (i.e. owned by the state, but managed by the commune), privately owned or protected. Publically owned forest is used by local residents who pay a fee to collect firewood for fuel or in the construction of houses. The commune can issue a permit for larger scale logging if the applicant can prove that they have adequate equipment, insurance and prove that the forest will not be exploited. Privately owned forest was reported in the District of Korca and Devolli at the base of the Morava Mountain. Over exploitation and illegal logging was reported as an issue in privately owned and protected areas throughout the study area, due to a lack of resources available to address and monitor the issue. In Korca and Devolli an NGO has been established to try to tackle this issue (see Box 6.6-14 below) with private forest owners.

Box 6.6-14 The Association of Private Forestry and Pastures (Korca & Devolli)

The Association of Private Forestry and Pastures: The purpose of this NGO is to work with people who own forest and encourage people to work together to manage the forest and protect it from over exploitation. The NGO provides forest owners with information on legislative requirements and raises awareness. The Morava Mountain forest has 3 types of users: people using the wood to make furniture; people using the wood for fuel; and people from outside the area who rent the forest to use for wood and furniture. It was reported that the main issue is with those that rent the forest as they do not live in the area and have less knowledge or incentive to protect the trees. The area around Drenovë and Pojan Commune (Korca District) is affected the most by logging as these are the areas with roads and easy access into the forest. Collated by ERM (2012)

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6.6.6.3 Land Use

Over half of Albania is forested and mountainous with only a quarter of all land able to support Crop production. The study area transitions through various types of land use as it passes from the Greek Border, through valleys, over mountains and into low-lying land before reaching the sea. The Districts of Korca and Fier are dominated by seasonal cropland, whereas Berat and Devolli are an equal mix of seasonal crops with high intensity permanent crops. Skrapar is the exception as the main land use in this district is forest and grassland with small areas of seasonal cropland. The District of Kavaje is also dominated by seasonal cropland while significant land use in Durres is urban and industrial in particular in the coastal area and along the main road leading to Tirana. Table 6.6-3 below presents the different land uses found in each district in addition to key hot spots or areas of interest. Detailed maps are provided in Annex 4.5.

Table 6.6-3 Land Use by District

District Land Use Key Sensitivities Korca Predominantly seasonal crops interspersed with Korca to Pogradec road passes south of Ciflik areas of permanent crops (apple trees). and Bulgarec. Numerous small business The settlements of Turan-Ravonik (Drenovë situated along the road. An urban zone has been Commune) and Bulgarec-Ciflik (Qendër designated either side of the road and is the Commune) are rural, but fast growing into semi- focus for regional level urban development. urban areas. High intensity apple plantations surrounding the Area of forest in the mountains joining the districts settlement of Zemblak (Commune of Pojan) and of Korca and Skrapar. west of the settlement of Mollaj (Mollaj Commune). Devolli Mixed seasonal and permanent crops. Highly productive apple plantations surrounding Where the district meets Korca (Proger the settlement of Cangonj (Progër Commune). Commune) the land is mountainous forest and permanent crops (apples) in the valleys. Semi urban land use around settlements (Vishocicë, Kuç and Vranisht). Skrapar Mainly forested and grassland. Limited areas of seasonal crops surrounding Small areas of seasonal crops surrounding each settlements in the Commune of Potom (high settlement and in the lowlands. reliance on limited land). Some small areas of permanent crops (grapes) Two mining concessions in the commune of along the Osmai River in the Commune of Vendresh. Qendër. All settlements are rural, except Corovode, which is urban and Vendresh, which has 2 areas of mining. Berat Mixed land use. High intensity permanent crops (grapes and fruit Forested in high and mountainous areas. trees surrounding Berat and in the Communes of Mixed permanent and seasonal crops in lowlands. Ottlak, Poshnjë, Velabisht and Vertop. Urban areas around Berat and Uznovë. Mining concessions in the communes of Ottlak and Ura vajgurore. Mining and oil extraction Fier Mainly seasonal Crop production. Large greenhouse complexes in settlement of Small area of permanent crops in Petovë Petovë (Mbrostar Commune) and Rreth libofshë (Mbrostar Commune). (Libofshë Commune). Oil extraction in Mbrostar Commune Area of active oil extraction in Mbrostar Semi-urban area around settlements of Commune Kavaklli/Seman (Topojë Commune). Landfall site situated in an area of mixed forest and marshland.

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District Land Use Key Sensitivities Kavaje Mainly seasonal crop production with areas of Fast middle-large income urban development permanent crops. areas in the Commune and in particular near the Main pipe yard situated in an area of mix main pipe yard location. agricultural crop production and fast growing Presence of commercial developments. residential use. Durres Large urban areas around Durres. Large urban area along the national road Seasonal crop production with areas of Durres- Kavaje. permanent crops in the semi-urban areas around Numerous small business, tourism attractions Durres. and hotels situated along the road. No further developments are planned in the coastal area. Collated by ERM (2012)

6.6.7 Infrastructure and Public Services 6.6.7.1 Road and Transport Infrastructure

Albania has 18,000 km of roads connecting towns and villages, fewer than 20% of which are currently paved. Secondary and tertiary networks are poor quality. National and international investments have been aimed at road network improvement in Albania in recent years. Between 2005 and 2008 Albania aimed to construct 789 km of new roads, 157 km of highway and 1948 km of road has been maintained or reconstructed 1.

Upgrading the main arterial roads remains a priority and planned investment in the national road network for period 2008-2013 includes several roads within the study area. These include:

• East-West Corridor, which includes the Lushnje-Fier road (21.5 km) the Fier-Levan-Vlore road (43 km) and the Thane-Pogradec-Korca road (64 km).

• North-South Corridor, which includes the Fier-Levan road (71 km).

• Tourist Routes including the road connecting Fier-Seman.

• Secondary roads such as Rrogozhinë-Lushnje-Fier.

• National road Durres-Kavaje is undergoing last phase of upgrading

• Maintenance of approximately 500 km of roads throughout the country.

The type and quality of road differs between settlements and districts within the study area. Figure 6.6-20 presents information gathered during the socioeconomic survey on access road type by district. This information is presented in detail in the route maps provided in Annex 4.5.

1 Albania Business Guide 2006/2007

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Figure 6.6-20 Access Road Type in Surveyed Settlements within the Study Area

Source: Settlement Survey, ERM (2011-2012) All of the surveyed settlements in Korca 1 have road access, and in 4 settlements (37%) all the roads leading to each settlement are asphalt. A further 5 settlements (45%) have access roads that are a mix of asphalt and gravel and/or dirt and only Terrovë in Pojan Commune does not have an asphalt access road. In Devolli 86% of settlements have either partially or totally asphalt access roads with Trestenik in Bilisht Commune the only settlement to have a dirt access road.

Skrapar is the only district that has settlements within the 2 km corridor not connected by roads (Qafë, Helmesi, Staraveck-Sulejmana and Backë in Potom Commune) and none of the settlements are completely asphalt. The majority of settlements are connected via gravel or dirt roads (78%).

All of the surveyed settlements in the Berat District are connected to a road and only 2 settlements have a dirt road (Protoduar and Drenovë in the commune of Kutalli). Half of the

1 Surveyed settlements‘ in this section refer to settlements surveyed during June and September 2011.

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The roads in the surveyed settlements in Fier District are good, with 90% asphalt, including every road leading to each settlement. Internal settlement roads are mixed with some remaining gravelled, although there is a motorway connecting the city of Fier to the north of the country and the city of Vlorë.

The roads in the surveyed settlements in Kavaja and Durres districts (4 in total) are in good condition and 100% asphalt. Internal settlement roads are mixed with some remaining gravelled.

As shown in Figure 6.6-21, there is some variability in the access to transport across the districts. Amongst respondents to the household survey access to a household vehicle as their main source of transport was highest in Fier (65%). Skrapar reported the lowest number of respondents with access to a household vehicle (29%), the highest number of respondents utilising a horse or donkey (40%) and the only district to use walking as their main source of transport. Use of public transport as a main form of transportation is 27% in Fier, lower than in other districts where it is between 52% and 40%.

Figure 6.6-21 Main Form of Transport in the Pipeline Route Settlements by District

Source: Household Survey, ERM (2011)

6.6.7.2 Water and Sanitation

The water supply infrastructure in Albania is in a critical state and suffering from an old network, massive leakage in all parts of the system, illegal connections, unstable supply pattern, uncontrolled rural to urban migration, and low maintenance due to lack of funds 1. The percentage

1 Albanian: Water supply and sanitation sector strategy. Report for the World Bank 2003.

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The sanitation coverage in urban areas is similar to drinking water, with only a small portion of rural areas connected to sewer networks. Historically, sanitation has been overlooked, and upgrade of sewer networks has not kept pace with the general development of infrastructure, materials and technology. Urban areas have mostly combined sewage and storm water collection networks that discharge into nearby surface water bodies (CEHAPE, 2006).

As shown in Figure 6.6-22 the household survey found that the majority of surveyed households within the Districts of Korca and Devolli (close to Korca) have piped water from the mains system within their homes (over 80%). Settlements in the northern section of the study area also reported having access to piped water. Those that do not have mains water inside their homes access water either via a pipe inside their building (but not their dwelling) or from a well. Berat also has a high proportion of households accessing water from the mains system piped into their homes (80%), whereas in Skrapar only 55% of households access water from a piped source inside their house. Of the remaining households in Skrapar 12% have access to water inside their building (but not their dwelling) and 27% have access water outside their house. Fier has the lowest number of households connected to a piped water source inside their house (29%), with the majority of respondents reporting accessing water from a pipe connected to a well (49%).

Figure 6.6-22 Water Sources in the Pipeline Surveyed Settlements by District

Source: Household Survey, ERM (2011) . A number of settlements reported having an intermittent water supply as shown in Figure 6.6-23 below. This includes: Zgërbonjë (Poliçan Commune, Skrapar), Guri i bardhë (Ura Vajgurore Commune, Berat), Verri, (Mbrostar Commune, Fier) and Kavaklli (Topojë Commune, Fier). When water is not available residents must use bottled water. Detailed information obtained during the settlement survey is presented in Annex 4.5 .

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Sanitation is either dealt with on an individual basis using a septic tank or residents are connected to the municipality sewerage system, depending on the distance from the city. The majority of residents interviewed in the household survey in Korca, Devolli and Berat reported having a flushing toilet inside their house either connected to the public sewerage (47%, 49% and 49%) or to a septic tank (31%, 37% and 21%). Skrapar and Fier had fewer respondents connected to the public sewerage system (34% and 27%).

6.6.7.3 Irrigation

During the communist era irrigation cannels were built around fields and managed by local officials who ensured equal distribution of water. At the end of communism many communities destroyed the irrigation channels as a symbolic gesture with the aim of destroying the old and rebuilding a new country from scratch. Channels that were not destroyed became the responsibility of the new landowners following the land distribution in the early 1990’s.

Today water is generally no longer managed, channels are often not maintained or water is over- extracted upstream leaving communities downstream unable to access adequate water supplies. Consequently, irrigation has become a source of conflict between many settlements. However, along the route in both the districts of Skrapar and Berat water associations were found to be in place. The water associations manage the maintenance of channels and ensure equal distribution of water. Consequently irrigation was not found to be a source of conflict. In these areas landowners pay an annual fee which is also used to purchase pumps and other equipment, and some have built reservoirs outside the settlement.

Individual investment by land owners in irrigation is low and only found in areas where residents have the funds and incentive to invest, such as in the high-yielding permanent crop producing areas in the Districts of Korca and Devolli. In apple growing areas throughout the settlements of Zemblak (Pojan Commune, Korca) and Cangonj and Vranisht (Progër Commune, Devolli) there is a network of irrigation pipes which source water from bore holes 60-100 m deep. Figure 6.6-23 below shows the type of irrigation systems identified during the settlement surveys. Irrigation information is shown at the settlement level in the detailed maps provided in Annex 4.5 . The maps presented in this annex also spatially locate irrigation areas identified during the socioeconomic field work that are crossed by, or close to the proposed pipeline route.

Those close to the Semani River use pumps to access water, but all other settlements surveyed in the District of Fier reported water scarcity issues as users upstream over extract water.

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Figure 6.6-23 Water Sources and Irrigation in the Surveyed Settlements within the Study Area

Source: Settlement Survey, ERM (2011 / 2012)

6.6.7.4 Waste Management

Waste management is an issue throughout Albania, with organised waste collection predominantly carried out in urban areas by private companies, financed by municipalities, who collect and transport waste to landfills. In rural areas waste is disposed of by individual households or burnt. Watercourses are often used to deposit waste, which is then carried down stream.

There is no system for the disposal of hazardous waste (neither domestic nor commercial), which is deposited in domestic landfill sites, along with construction waste. The majority of landfill sites are not properly engineered, which poses an environmental risk to water and soil in the surrounding areas.

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The key types and volumes of solid wastes expected to be generated during construction activities across the pipeline route have been included in Section 4 ( Table 4.3-5 ). A desk-based study has been performed to search for Albanian waste management companies that can manage the aforesaid types of wastes.

All the companies are certified by the relevant authorities (Ministry of Environment Forestry and Water Administration), and the list has been obtained straight from the Ministry. All the companies has been checked and asked about their activities, and a complete list of companies and activities is provided in Annex 6.1- Section 6.1.7: Table 6.1-45. Annex 4.5 provides detailed maps indicating the locations of such facilities.

For general waste, ERM decided to contact local authorities of the cities of Berat, Fier, Korca and Elbasan and use their local waste management company. The election of those cities responds to the following criteria:

• They are big enough to manage big amount of waste;

• They have the capacity of manage different kinds of waste; and

• They are situated in strategic points close enough to the pipeline to manage the waste regularly without extra cost.

Only 1 hazardous waste management company with proved Albanian experience has been found. This company could provide TAP the proper solution of most hazardous waste along the route. This company is called Gesteco Spa 1, and is based in Udine (Italy), and according to the information provided by the compnay, some works in Albania were completed successfully by it.

The increased urban population and levels of consumption have resulted in changes in the amount and type of waste generated in Albania. The Albanian government is trying to address these issues by implementing several laws relating to waste management and developing a National Plan on Municipal Waste Management 2010–252.

1 www.gesteco.com 2 European Environment Agency http://www.eea.europa.eu/soer/countries/al/waste-drivers-and-pressures-albania

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Figure 6.6-24 Waste Collection in Korca

Photograph taken during Settlement Surveys, ERM (2011) In the study area the method used for managing waste varies between settlements and communes. Over half of all surveyed settlements in Berat and Fier (58%) have waste collected and disposed of by the commune. The Fier regional government is planning to develop a new waste disposal site that will service the whole region and will be located outside the settlement of Verri in Mbrostar Commune. Waste collected by the commune is high amongst surveyed settlements in the Districts of Devolli and Korca (86% and 73%). Each household pays a small fee for their waste to be collected every week, when it is taken to a designated area and burned. Figure 6.6-25 below presents the different methods of waste disposal in the study area by district.

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Figure 6.6-25 Waste Disposal in the Pipeline Surveyed Settlements by District

Source: Settlement Survey, ERM (2011) Settlements in Skrapar reported being almost solely reliant on dumping (93%), with a small number of settlements burning waste (13%) or using a landfill site (7%). Settlements in the Northern section of the study area, Durres and Kavaje districts, reported that waste is collected and disposed of by the commune, only in Arpaj settlement in Durres District residents burn waste.

Energy

Energy production in Albania is dominated by hydroelectric power plants, which accounts for almost half of Albania’s energy consumption. Despite Albania’s hydropower production, within the study area, households reported wood, electric and gas power as the main source of domestic energy use. Figure 6.6-26 presents the different energy sources used by households for heating, cooking and lighting.

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Figure 6.6-26 Household Energy Sources for Heating, Cooking and Lighting within the Pipeline Surveyed Settlements (by District)

Lighting !Q`M: #V0QCC %@`:]:` 'V`: (1V` % of% Households

Source: Household Survey, ERM (2011)

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The majority of surveyed households reported using wood as their main source of heating and cooking. The majority of respondents stated that they have electrical lighting, which was installed throughout Albania during communism.

Bottled gas is currently used for cooking by between 45% (Skrapar) and 82% (Devolli) of households in the study area. During the socioeconomic survey, 25% of all settlements surveyed requested information regarding whether the project would enable Albanian communities to access gas supplies. Stakeholders stated that they would like to see an increase in gas supplies within Albania, which they see as an important outcome of the project, as a form of compensation for disruption caused, but also so that people have a constant and more stable supply of fuel.

6.6.7.5 Telecommunications

During the communist era Albania had the lowest telephone density in Europe with just 1.4 units for every 100 inhabitants and the majority of these were based in the urban areas. During the land distribution in the 1990’s there was on average 1 phone per village, however, many lines were cut so telephone wire could be used for fencing. Since the end of communism Albania has invested heavily telecommunications, and by 2009 there were 363,000 land lines in Albania. This still remains the lowest in Europe and has since been dwarfed by mobile phone connection, which in 2009 reached over 4 million subscribers. Internet connection is increasing and in 2009 there were 1.3 million users 1.

Every surveyed settlement in the study area, including those in the northern section of the study area, reported having access to mobile phones. This was supported by the household survey, which found that between 68% and 93% of respondents have access to a mobile phone. This is in contrast to land telephone lines, which were only recorded in just 30% of settlements in the study area.

Internet connection at a settlement level is relatively high in Korca, Devolli and Fier with between 73% and 86% of surveyed settlements having public access to the internet. This figure drops to 13% and 15% in Skrapar and Berat.

At a household level, every respondent in Devolli and Berat reported having access to some form of telecommunications. In Korca just 1% reported having no access to telecommunications, whereas in Berat and Skrapar this number increases to 5% and 6% of respondents. Annex 4.5. provides detailed maps indicating the locations of telecommunications.

1 https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/al.html

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6.6.8 Traffic and Transport

Road infrastructure has been and remains one of the most important priorities of the Albanian Government, until the year 2015, and the evidence of this is the continuation of major investments, and the beginning of new road projects. The National Road Network in Albania is approximately 18,000 km long including approximately 3,719 km of National Roads: the primary road network is approximately 1,200 km (the main corridors), with 9 main junctions which make up the basis of the network. The total length of the secondary network is approximately 2,500 km; 10,500 km are inter-urban roads, and the rest of 4,000 km is under the jurisdiction of autonomous units, enterprises or companies. The Road Code of the Republic of Albania defines 6 categories of road: Highways, primary inter-urban roads, secondary inter-urban roads, primary urban roads, secondary urban roads and local roads. These roads are further divided, according to their ownership, into state roads, district roads, internal roads (roads under the jurisdiction of several special enterprises such as miners or forestry) and community roads (all roads inside the territory of communes or municipalities). 1 Annex 4.5 provides detailed maps indicating road types and transport means along the route.

6.6.8.1 Traffic Study

For the purpose of the ESIA process, TAP has commissioned a traffic study to gain a better understanding of traffic conditions in the study area with the view to minimise impacts on traffic and transportation along the pipeline route. No overnight or weekend surveys have been considered and therefore site selection has been carried out to ensure that a wide range of conditions are considered in the investigation (population densities, road conditions, type of traffic, etc.). Site identification and selection has been based on preliminary desktop information and local knowledge of the area (i.e. through previous phases of the project as well as through local experts). Provided its length (200 km) traffic conditions along the corridor are quite diverse and therefore site selection has been carried out to ensure that a wide range of conditions are considered in the investigation (population densities, road conditions, type of traffic, etc.).

1 http://www.comcec.org/UserFiles/File/ulastirma/%C3%9CLKE%20RAPORLARI/Albania.pdf)

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Figure 6.6-27 Traffic Survey Locations

Source: Traffic Survey, ERM (2012)

The above figure outlines the eleven locations where traffic surveys were undertaken (Daullasi, Topoje, Drenovice, Ura Vajgurore, Uznove, Polican, Rruga Bargullas, Kakrruke, Corovode, Vithkuq and Kamenice). The surveys were undertaken between 21st and 28th January 2012 and each site was surveyed for 1 day between 06:00 and 22:00.

6.6.8.2 Summary of Traffic Survey Carried Out

The traffic survey results were analyzed and the total number of vehicles in each direction at each location on a weekday can be estimated. Table 6.6-4 shows the overall summary of the traffic flow for both directions for all locations surveyed between the hours of 06:00 and 22:00 hours. The full traffic data collected during the survey is presented in Annex 6.3.

Table 6.6-4 Summary of Traffic Flow at Surveyed Locations Between 0600 & 2200 hours

Location Code Location Name Vehicle count both directions 1 146 Daullasi 6699 2 147 Topoje 742 3 149 Drenovice 1830 4 150 Ura Vajgurore 5529 5 133 Uznove 1438 6 143 Polican 849 7 144 Bargullas 397 8 135 Kakrukke 285 9 136 Corovode 281 10 137 Vithkuq 85 11 139 Kamenice 742 Source: Traffic Survey, ERM (2012)

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Daullasi carries the largest traffic volume with the highest count being 6,699 vehicles on a working day or 35 % of the total traffic of the 11 locations. It can be seen that in the morning traffic flow increase with the highest count being between 10:00 and 11:00 while in the afternoon the highest traffic flow is between 15:00 and 16:00. The breakdown for Daullasi, in terms of the traffic count, is provide in Annex 6.3 – Table 6.3.3-5 :

Figure 6.6-28 shows that private cars, sedan, van and microbuses are approximately 75% of the total number of counted vehicles; trucks are approximately 22% of the total number of counted vehicles and buses the remaining 3%.

Figure 6.6-28 Traffic Survey Results – Traffic Composition for Daullasi

Source: Traffic Survey, ERM (2012)

Ura Vajgurore represents the second important location for traffic movements with the highest count of 5,529 vehicles on a working day or 29% of the total traffic of the 11 locations. In the morning, there is an increase in traffic flow with the highest count being between 09:00 and 12:00 noon for the direction from Berat to Ura Vajgorure and with the hour between 09:00 a.m. and 10:00 receiving the highest traffic flow, while in the afternoon there is a decrease in traffic volume for both directions. Figure 6.6-29 shows that private cars, sedan, van and microbuses are approximately 80% of the total number of counted vehicles; Trucks are approximately 13% and buses approximately 6% of the total number of counted vehicles and motorcycles make up the remaining 1%.

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Figure 6.6-29 Traffic Survey Results – Traffic Composition for Ura Vajgurore

Source: Traffic Survey, ERM (2012)

Vithkuq is one of the remote areas in the mountains. Figure 6.6-30 shows that private cars, sedan, van and microbuses are approximately 53 % of the total number of counted vehicles. Trucks are approximately 41 % of the total number of counted vehicles and buses the remaining 6%. We can see that there is a greater count of trucks here, than at Dallausi and Ura Vaigurore for example.

Figure 6.6-30 Traffic Survey Results – Traffic Composition for Vithkuq

Source: Traffic Survey, ERM (2012)

Drenovice and Uznove had the highest traffic counts of 1830 and 1438 vehicles respectively on a working day or 10% and 8% of the total traffic of the 11 locations, whilst Topoje; Polican; and Kamenice had the highest traffic counts of 742, 849 and 742 vehicles on weekdays or an average 4%, 5% and 4% of the total traffic of the 11 locations. Bargullas, Kakrruke and Corovode had the highest traffic counts of 797, 285 and 281 vehicles on weekdays. Vithkuq carries the lowest traffic volume with a highest count of 85 vehicles on weekdays.

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6.6.9 Education and Skills 6.6.9.1 Education Infrastructure

The structure of education system in Albania is as follows:

• Preschool education (kindergarten): the duration of this phase is between 1 – 4 years (for children up to the age of 6);

• Primary education (9-year school): the duration of this phase of education is 9 years and includes the pupils’ aged 6 - 15. This phase of education is legally compulsory.

• Secondary (high school) education:

• Comprehensive (general) High School (shkolle e mesme or gjimnaz): 3 years;

• Vocational or Technical (teknike): 2 – 5 years;

• Tertiary education:

• Undergraduate: 4 – 5 years

• Graduate: 1 – 3 years

• Quaternary education (PHD doktoratë): 3 years

There is free, compulsory education in Albania for children between 6 and 15 years of age; however, attendance is relatively low particularly beyond primary education (see Box 6.6-15 ). Albania spends just 3% of the annual budget on education, which is the lowest for the region (average for Southern Europe is 4.4%). However, as an applicant to the EU, Albania has focused on implementing standardised educational reforms which has included teacher-training, provision of better sources of information, increased access and literacy rates. It is not clear at this time how these reforms have affected the education system, but continued improvements remain a priority for the government and a requirement of EU membership. Box 6.6-15 Migration and Education in Albania

Impacts from Migration on Education: Large-scale migration, predominantly from rural areas, means there are fewer children requiring secondary education in smaller villages. Many rural secondary schools have closed so children from smaller villages have to travel to larger population centres. Poor infrastructure and a lack of transport mean walking long distances along poor roads, which discourages many children from continuing secondary school education. ERM (2012)

As presented in Figure 6.6-31 below, every district in the study area has a range of education facilities from kindergarten through to secondary school. However, at a settlement level many students must travel to a nearby settlement to attend school. According to the household survey results, within the 2 km corridor along pipeline route, 43% of students who travel to school must travel 4 or more kilometres. This information is presented in more detail in the route maps provided in Annex 4.5.

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Figure 6.6-31 Education Facilities in Surveyed Settlements within Study Area

Source: Settlement Survey, ERM (2011 and 2012)

Among the 5 districts crossed by the pipeline route, only 15 settlements have schools from kindergarten through secondary education. These settlements are:

• Berat District: Berat, Drenovicë, Poshnjë, and Mbrakull;

• Skrapar District: Çorovoda;

• Fier District: Mbrostar ura, Verri, Strum, Kavaklli, and Topojë;

• Devolli District: Vishocicë, Bilisht, Vranisht and Progër.

A small number of settlements have no schools, or only a kindergarten. These are:

• Berat District: Guri i bardhë, and Bregas;

• Skrapar District: Helmesi, Ustië, Valë, Buzuk, and Orizaj;

• Korca District: Malavec.

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There are 3 universities within the study area, in Berat City (Berat District), in Durres city and in Pendavinj, which is in Pojan Commune (Korca District). 6.6.9.2 Education Levels

Education levels vary across the country and depend on a variety of factors including gender, geographic location and economic status. National literacy rates are high (95%), although this has dropped slightly since 1998 (98%). Primary school enrolment and attendance rates are relatively high, although numbers dropped from 99% in 2001 to 94% in 2008. However, secondary school enrolment rates fall to 74% with half as many children from rural areas attending as in urban areas. Enrollment in tertiary education is just 19% 1.

Across the 2 km corridor along the pipeline route, household survey results found literacy rates to be relatively high, ranging from 89% in Berat District to 95% in Devolli District. Between 22% and 42% of the surveyed population in all districts has completed secondary-level education. Technical and vocational training is generally high across the study area, with 25% to 29% of surveyed households in Korca, Skrapar, Berat and Fier reporting this as the highest education level. Post secondary education is highest in Devolli and Berat Districts, and lowest in Fier. Despite the existence of the university in Berat, as well as the highest number of schools in the region, post-secondary education in that District is only 4%. Table 6.6-5 illustrates education levels across districts crossed by the pipeline route.

Table 6.6-5 Highest Level of Education Achieved in Households in the Socioeconomic Study (by District) (2 km corridor)

Korca Devolli Skrepar Berat Fier No Education 3% 2% 3% 3% 1% Primary Education 2% 13% 1% 0% 0% Jr. Secondary 9% 34% 9% 6% 6% Education (Middle) Sr. Secondary 34% 20% 29% 32% 35% Education Technical- 25% 3% 25% 25% 29% Vocational Post-Secondary 2% 9% 3% 4% 1% Education

Source: Household Survey, ERM (2011)

1 UNICEF Country Profile: Education in Albania

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Education levels for boys and girls are equal at primary school; however these girls usually have better attendance, achieve higher grades and stay at school longer. Female tertiary education rates are 50% higher than male rates 1. Throughout the study area, stakeholders report that women have equal access to education. Women are considered more likely to achieve higher education than men, who are more likely to drop out of school in search of employment.

In focus group meetings, economic factors were reported as a factor that limits children’s ability to continue secondary education. Schooling is free, but money must be found for books and other necessary materials. The gap between rich and poor children’s enrolment in primary school at a national level is just 1%; however, at the secondary school level only 7.9% of the poorest children are enrolled compared to 27.8% of the richest children. This was reported as an issue during key informant interviews with education workers in the study area. Teachers reported that many children have the ability to stay on to secondary and tertiary education, but their families cannot afford to keep them, therefore they must start work as soon as they have completed middle school.

Education levels for the Roma population are particularly low with only 48% of the primary school age population enrolled in school. Only 25% of the Roma population complete primary school education and 4.3% complete secondary school education. Roma is the first language of the Roma people and all schooling is conducted in Albanian, which is said to be a contributing factor to the high drop-out rate 2. A Roma community in the District of Fier supported this, by reporting that children prefer not to attend school, partly as a result of the language of instruction is Albanian and they speak Roma at home. Very few people within the Roma community in Fier have obtained higher education, although some vocational training programmes (such as construction, mechanics, and others) are pursued where available.

6.6.9.3 Vocational Training

Before democratic changes took place, vocational schools prevailed in the secondary education structure. Most vocational schools were for agriculture careers, reflecting the ratios of the main national economic activity. In 1990, 78% of all students pursuing secondary education were enrolled in vocational schools. These ratios were inverted completely during the ensuing years to reach 85% general education and only 15% vocational education 3

There are 40 technical and vocational schools in Albania. The main subject areas are the following:

• electro-mechanical - 18 schools,

• economic - 9 schools,

• construction and upholstery - 4 schools,

1 UNICEF Country Profile: Education in Albania 2 UNICEF Country Profile: Education in Albania 3 European Training Foundation, 2000

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• agriculture / forestry / veterinary - 9 schools.

In addition, there are 9 public vocational training centres in Albania providing courses on finance, business and management in addition to sector-specific training. Courses last for several weeks up to 4 months for vocational school students, employed people and registered job seeking unemployed people. The training centres are situated in the districts of Vlorë, Shkodra, Tiranë, Durrës, Elbasan, Korçë, Tepelenë and Fier. According to recent data, 7,574 students are enrolled in public vocational training centres. The regional labour authority in Fier reported initiating several training programmes aimed at certain sectors of society including women, Roma and school drop-outs.

6.6.10 Health

6.6.10.1 Facilities

Health care is free in Albania, and the government is responsible for managing the public health care system with private health care predominantly focused on provision of pharmaceuticals and dental treatment. Facilities are divided into primary health services, which acts as the first contact for health care and is located within settlements and hospital services, which are further divided based on the level of services available. All hospitals offer basic services (accident and emergency etc) with district level hospitals offering 4 additional services (Paediatrics, Obstetrics- Gynaecology, Surgery, and Pathology), and regional hospitals offer specialised services in Ophthalmology, Orthopaedics, Trauma, Neuro- Psychiatry and Infectious Diseases.

The World Bank 1 reported that facilities and medical personnel capacity varies throughout the country. This is reported to be a result of the Albanian Government investing in new facilities with the aim of improving primary health care services, but with little prior analysis of where facilities are most needed in terms of population or suitability of functions. Improvements to primary health care are reported, but skill levels remain low, and there is a lack of drugs, supplies, equipment and infrastructure.

Provision of facilities and medical personnel varies depending on location, population size and distance to urban areas. Hospitals are found in each of the large population centres and offer basic services in addition to different levels of specialisation depending on whether they are regional or district facility. Settlement health centres offer basic levels of care provided by a single nurse or doctor. Health centres are able to provide the following: diagnosis or referral, prescriptions, vaccinations, treatment of non serious ailments and health advice. As shown in Figure 6.6-32 Devolli has the highest number of hospitals due to the large number of settlements with a population over 1,000 people. All medical facilities identified within the study area have been mapped in Annex 4.5.

1 Albania Health Sector Note (2006) Report No. 32612-AL

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Figure 6.6-32 Medical Facilities in the Surveyed Settlements within the Study Area

Source: Settlement Survey, ERM (2011 / 2012)

The majority of residents in the Districts of Korca, Devolli, Berat and Fier (91% to 99%) have a health care centre or clinic within their settlement. Ullinjas (Ottlak Commune) in Berat and Fushë (Topojë Commune) in Fier are the only 2 settlements in these districts that do not have a health care centre. However, Ullijas is close to other settlements (Ottlak, Duhanas etc) that do have health care centres and Fushë has a nurse living in the village who provides permanent medical care to residents.

In Skrapar 48% of surveyed settlements do not have a health care centre or clinic, and only half of these have a permanent nurse living within the community. The remaining half are provided with medical care by a temporary nurse and doctor who work for the commune travelling between settlements a number of times a week.

Access to permanent medical personnel also varies between settlements and districts. As stated above, settlements without health facilities will often have a nurse living within the community who provides the community with permanent medical care. Figure 6.6-33 below presents the

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Figure 6.6-33 Provision of Health Professional in Pipeline Surveyed Settlements (by District)

Source: Settlement Survey, ERM (2011) Skrapar stands out as having the least access to medical professionals; a third of all settlements in this section of the study area are served only by a mobile nurse.

The majority of respondents to the household survey reporting use public health care (between 92% and 100%). Private health care use is low in Korca (1%), Devolli (0%), Skrapar (1%) and Berat (2%). The highest number of respondents reporting using private health care was recorded in Fier where 10% access private health care, which is primarily dental treatment and pharmaceuticals as there are no private health care facilities in the study area.

In addition to conventional medical practices, medicinal plants are used by household survey respondents in Devolli (1%), Skrapar (13%) and Fier (10%). Medicinal plants are generally used to treat colds and fevers, but do not take the place of conventional medical treatment.

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6.6.10.2 Access to Healthcare

The Albanian Institute of Public Health conducts an annual Demographics and Health survey (ADHS) 1, in order to access changes in the population and monitor any health-related trends. The latest report found that 87% of women and 80% of men in the 15-49 age range stated at least 1 problem in accessing health care. The main issues are “getting money to go for treatment”, “concern that no supplies or equipment are available”, “concern that no drugs are available” and “concern that no provider is available”. It was reported that informal payments for health care are common, with 72% of women and 68% of men stating that they have paid for medical care that they could have received for free. The most common reason for this was cited as receiving better quality of service.

Information on access to health care was not discussed during the household survey outside of the context of distance and type of medical care available to individuals and settlements.

6.6.10.3 Health Issues

The main health issues in Albania are lifestyle-related conditions. Non-communicable diseases (NCD) account for 89% of all deaths in Albania with cardiovascular disease the number one cause of death (52%), followed by cancer (14%) and other NCD (9%). Communicable, material, perinatal and nutritional conditions account for 5% of deaths and 5% are a result of injuries.

Deaths from NCD predominantly affect older or elderly people with 82% of NCD deaths in men and 88% in women found in the over 60 age group. Hypertension is a major underlying health issue affecting 20% of women and 28% of men, and this figure increases dramatically to 44% of women and 49% of men between 45 and 49 years old. In addition to the incidences of cardiovascular disease and cancer there is a high percentage of people who are overweight or obese (49% of women and 61% of men) 2. Smoking in women is rare (4%) compared to men (43%), which is similar to the figures for alcohol consumption with 1% of women stating they drink more than 5 times a week compared to 16% of men. The World Bank highlighted tobacco, fatal car accidents and changing diets as the major health risks facing Albania in the future. 3 In 2007 there were 384 recorded traffic fatalities across the entire country; 40% of which were pedestrians and 24% were driving 4 wheel drive vehicles.

1 Institute of Statistics, Institute of Public Health [Albania] and ICF Macro. 2010. Albania Demographic and Health Survey 2008-09. Tirana, Albania: Institute of Statistics, Institute of Public Health and ICF Macro. 2 World Health Organization - NCD Country Profiles , 2011. 3 Albania Health Sector Note (2006) World Bank Report No. 32612-AL

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Overall, rates of infectious diseases are decreasing, although Albania has a higher rate when compared with the rest of Europe. This is mainly related to diarrhoea, caused by poor sanitation, and higher levels of Hepatitis A and B. Incidences of HIV/AIDS are low (82 AIDS cases and 237 cases of HIV in both sexes since 1996 1). Other risks include an outbreak of west nile fever, which has been reported in Greece and is likely to have spread throughout the region, and malaria, which was successfully eradicated in local transmission by 1967, but faces insecticide-resistance and increasing densities of mosquitoes.

Child and infant mortality rates are also declining, but found to be higher in rural areas. Health issues related to poverty remain an issue, although one which is being addressed by the government. In 2009 19% of children were reported as suffering from malnutrition, a figure that has decreased from 32% in 2000. In addition, the number of children reported as malnourished has dropped from 11% in 2000 to 7% in 2009. A total of 22% of children were found to be overweight or chronically overweight 2.

Key informant interviews were held with health professionals at various points along the study area. Cardiovascular disease was reported as the most common cause of illness and was reportedly on the rise due to changes in lifestyles. This was supported by the household survey, which found that for the people reportedly suffering from illness in the last 3 months, high blood pressure was the most common cause, and 20% of those with a chronic illness suffered as a result of high blood pressure. Figure 6.6-34 below presents different ailments suffered by respondents to the household survey in the last 3 months.

1 UNAID/WHO (2008) Epidemiological Fact Sheet on HIV and AIDS: Core data on epidemiology and response. Albania 2 Albania Health Sector Note (2006) World Bank Report No. 32612-AL

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Figure 6.6-34 Ailments Suffered in the Last 3 Months in Household in the Pipeline Surveyed Settlements (by District)

Source: ERM Household Survey Skrapar reported the highest number of respondents having suffered from an infectious disease. Health care professionals throughout the study area reported that incidences of sexually transmitted diseases and child and maternal mortality are uncommon.

Duhanas near Berat and Uznovë is the site of an old battery factory, which was forced to close due to high levels of air pollution. This has reportedly resulted in an increase in levels of asthma and respiratory disease. Residents in Duhanas also complain that their soil is contaminated with high levels of lead, which is getting into their food. This cannot be confirmed, but the doctor for Uznovë confirmed that residents of Duhanas and the surrounding area receive monthly medication to treat respiratory problems.

6.6.11 Vulnerable Groups

6.6.11.1 Vulnerability

Vulnerability to socioeconomic impacts is understood as the ability of receptors to adapt to socio- economic or bio-physical change. Vulnerable individuals and groups are potentially more susceptibile to negative impacts or have a limited ability to take advantage of positive impacts. Vulnerability is a pre-existing status that is independent of the project and may be reflected by an existing low level of access to key socio-economic or environmental resources or a low status in certain socio-economic indicators.

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This section identifies individuals and groups in the study area that are differentially more vulnerable than the general population, whether this is due to a specific characteristic, or as a result of a broader range of factors. The understanding of vulnerabilities provided here is drawn on in the Assessment of Impacts in order to evaluate whether impacts are more significant for specific population groups and, where necessary, to develop additional targeted mitigation measures. Further information on the underlying methodology for the socioeconomic impact assessment is provided in Annex 5.2.4.

Within every vulnerability assessment there are some population groups that are automatically considered due to their positioning within society and/or inherent characteristics that make them more susceptible to change. In addition, there may be other groups that are vulnerable due to the specific socioeconomic context. The main population groups that have been identified as potentially vulnerable in the context of the TAP Project in Albania and the rationale for their identification are presented in Box 6.6-16 below.

Box 6.6-16 Vulnerable Groups

Generic Vulnerability Women: Due to the nature of domestic relations women may be reliant on the male members of the family for financial support. As such they are less likely to have access to financial assets. In addition, in many settlements women may be unable to partake in community decision-making and are reliant on male members of the household to share information with them. Within this group female-headed households may be specifically vulnerable as they may be less likely to have any form of representation at a settlement level. Ethnic minorities: Some groups may be marginalised with reduced access to healthcare, education, freedom of speech, credit and other services. In most cases ethnic minority groups have their own language, which is not the language practiced by the dominant ethnic group. Children: In order to access assets/resources children are often reliant on older members of the households or community. When a child is not adequately represented by an adult, from a low income family or an ethnic minority, (s)he may be vulnerable to exploitation within the community or work place. Youth: Youth may be vulnerable in terms of access to assets, education or employment opportunities. Elderly/retired: Retired members of the community may have a minimal income and are more likely to have reduced physical or mental capacity to cope with changes to their environment. Low-income households 1: Low-income households have fewer resources on which to rely and are less likely to have savings and/or access to credit, which make them vulnerable to shocks and change. Physical/mental health and disability: Those who lack physical mobility or who have mental health issues may be vulnerable to changes and unable to participate in decision making. This also includes addicts such as those reliant on drugs or alcohol. Socioeconomic study area Vulnerability: Households with no legal right to land: Individuals or groups without legal land title or rights to land are vulnerable to land use change through eviction and loss of livelihood without compensation. Households dependent on limited land of low productivity: Households dependent on limited land of low productivity generally have a lower income and less access to resources, which lowers resilience to shocks and makes them vulnerable to changes in land use.

1 The minimum wage in Albania is defined as 20,000 Lek (€140) a month, which equates 16,760 Lek (€118) per month after tax. Households on low income are defined as those earning the minimum national wage or below. Reference: National legislation under Article 111 of Law 7961, dated 12.7.1996.

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A vulnerability framework was used as the basis of the assessment of vulnerability within the context of the study area. The vulnerability framework, which draws from policies and methodologies used by development and rights-based organisations, is based on a set of indicators encompassing access to livelihoods, resources and socioeconomic status. The impact assessment team used this framework as a guide to identify and characterise potentially vulnerable groups based on their understanding of the socioeconomic context and consultation feedback. The results of this analysis are presented in Table 6.6-6 . Where relevant and possible, the locations along the study corridor where vulnerable individuals or groups are likely to reside or work are also indicated.

In summary, the levels and causes of vulnerability for different stakeholders are as follows:

• Women , including female-headed households: Specific areas of vulnerability related to ability to participate in decision making at the commune level. This is particularly acute for female-headed households that do not have a male who can represent the household at a settlement level. Within the study area, lack of female participation in decision making is most prevalent in Fier and Berat, but may occur in households throughout the study area.

• Roma : Roma communities are considered vulnerable across a range of diverse indicators ranging from access to services (including education and health care), level of education and literacy, participation in decision-making, risk of marginalisation and access to financial resources. Within this group there are specific individuals such as children and young people who may have an increased vulnerability in terms of risk of child labour, poor working practices and limited access to education. Roma communities identified in the study area are Mbrostar (Fier) and Poshnjë (Berat).

• Children : Vulnerable children may be present throughout the study area where they are not adequately cared for and protected by an adult and are potentially participating in work that is hazardous or prevents them from continuing education. Levels of vulnerability vary greatly, and are likely to be linked to additional factors such as overall household income and ethnicity.

• Youth : Youth are reported to be potentially vulnerable in rural areas due to their lack of land ownership or other method of securing a livelihood, particularly where they have a young family. They may also be vulnerable to poor labour practices due to lack of experience.

• Elderly/retired : The elderly have specific vulnerabilities relating to income levels and limited ability to change or increase access to additional finances and access to health care. Elderly residents in settlements with limited accessibility and/or transport are particularly vulnerable and these settlements are more likely to have limited service availability.

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• Households with low income 1 including subsistence farmers : Low-income households are vulnerable. In the study area these are likely to be households reliant on their land for a small income or subsistence farming. Reliance on land makes these households particularly sensitive to land use losses or change. Low income households have fewer resources to cope with change, they are less likely to have savings and access to credit and more likely to have lower education levels. In addition, within this group, there are individuals that are additionally vulnerable including children, youth and the elderly. Low- income households can be found throughout the study area. However, they are more prevalent in Skrapar, Fier and some areas of Berat. • Physical /mental health and disability : Disabled people throughout the study area are vulnerable in terms of participation in decision-making and access to employment opportunities. Disabled people may also experience varying levels of social exclusion and community marginalisation. • Households with no legal rights to land : Vulnerability is linked to 2 specific indicators: participation in decision-making in relation to land use changes and access to land in terms of quality, availability and overall management. Households with no legal rights to land may be located throughout the study area, although it is more likely that residents from mountain villages (e.g. in Skrapar) will try to access land that they do not own in low land areas. • Households dependent on limited land of low productivity : Some households have very limited land that is adequate for production. Such households will generally have a lower income and have fewer resources available to cope with any alteration to available land.

1 The minimum wage in Albania is defined as 20,000Lek (€140) a month, which equates 16760 Lek (€118) per month after tax. Households on low income are defined as those earning the minimum national wage or below.

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Table 6.6-6 Results of Vulnerability Analysis

Indicator Specifics Relevance within the Project context Vulnerable Groups or Individuals Location in Socioeconomic Study Area Access to key socio-economic or environmental resources Livelihoods Diversity Subsistence livelihood activities Households with low income including Households in Potom Commune, Productivity subsistence farmers Skrapar. Households in mountainous areas in Berat. Principal livelihoods are relatively Households dependent on limited land of Predominantly in Skrapar and Fier unproductive low productivity Households with low income including More prevalent in households in subsistence farmers. Skrapar, Berat & Fier Resources Land Access limited to a few resources Households dependent on limited land of Predominantly in households in Skrapar Water (drinking and Available resources are poor quality low productivity and Fier irrigation) Resource shortages are frequent and Households with no legal rights to land. Tenant or squatter farmers throughout serious the study area Households with access to poor quality or Select households throughout the study irregular access to drinking water area, but more prevalent in Fier Services & Health Poor access to key services and Settlements without road access Households in Backë & Qafë, Potom Infrastructure Education infrastructure Commune, Skrapar. Roads & Transport Low availability or quality of key services Households without access to transport Households predominantly in Skrapar and infrastructure Settlements with intermittent access to Settlements in Bogove, Polican, Potom health care professionals & Vendreshe Communes, Skrapar Malinat, Velebisht Commune, Ullinjas, Ottlak Commune, Berat Elderly residents within mountainous settlements in Skrapar & Berat.

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Indicator Specifics Relevance within the Project context Vulnerable Groups or Individuals Location in Socioeconomic Study Area Settlements without any health facilities Settlements in Bogove, Polican, Potom & Vendreshe Communes, Skrapar Malinat, Velebisht Commune, Ullinjas, Ottlak Commune, Berat Elderly residents within certain settlements in Skrapar & Berat. Roma have less access to health care Roma in Mbrostar Commune (Fier) & and education. Poshnjë (Berat) Participation in Active Participation Ability to participate in governance and Women within settlements with low Most evident in Fier and Berat. Political & Civil Freedom of association decision making systems at communal acceptance of female participation in Women in select households throughout Institutions & Decision level decision making the study area. Making Ability to participate in governance and Female headed households without male Female headed households throughout decision making systems at household representation at communal level. the study area. level Households with no legal rights to land. Tenant or squatter farmers throughout the study area Disabled people Disabled people in the study area. Roma populations that have limited ability Roma in Mbrostar Commune (Fier) & to participate in settlement level decision Poshnjë (Berat) making Community and Inter and intra community Subject to marginalisation and Roma communities susceptible to Roma in Mbrostar Commune (Fier) & Social Inclusion and cohesion discrimination. marginalisation and discrimination Poshnjë (Berat) Cohesion Individual Status Knowledge, skills and Education level Low levels of knowledge skills and Illiterate individuals throughout the study Individuals present throughout the study education Vocational training education area area Low ability to participate in orthodox Roma communities experience low Roma in Mbrostar Commune (Fier) & economic and social systems. education levels and high rates of illiteracy Poshnjë (Berat) Health Short term sickness Poor health status including malnutrition, Elderly Elderly residents throughout the study Chronic illness infectious diseases, disability etc. area. Mental illness Disabled people Disabled people in the study area.

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Indicator Specifics Relevance within the Project context Vulnerable Groups or Individuals Location in Socioeconomic Study Area Individuals suffering from poor health Residents of Duhanas, Velabisht status including malnourishment. Commune Berat Individuals and households throughout the study area. Financial Resources Income Low levels of income generation Households with low income including Households throughout the study area, Remittances Low levels of savings subsistence farmers. but more prevalent in Skrapar, Fier and Credit Inability to afford pay for key services, Berat. Savings resources and infrastructure. Elderly residents/headed households throughout the study area Households without or limited access to Households throughout the study area. savings Young people throughout the study area

Households with limited ability to secure Select households throughout the study credit area. Roma communities have limited income Roma in Mbrostar Commune (Fier) & generation abilities, less likely to have Poshnjë (Berat) savings or access to credit. Labour Rights Employment practices Subject to child labour Children from low income households May be present in the study area Subject to inadequate occupational H&S working in hazardous employment or at and accommodation standards the detriment to their education Young people from low income Present throughout the study area households with limited employment experience Individuals with low education and skills May occur throughout the study area levels Roma communities more likely to be Roma in Mbrostar Commune (Fier) & employed in informal sector Poshnjë (Berat) Independent Cultural Language Desire to maintain strong independent Roma communities throughout the study Roma in Mbrostar Commune (Fier) & Identity Religious Practices cultural identity. area Poshnjë (Berat) Culture Desire to avoid socio-cultural change

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6.6.12 Limitations 6.6.12.1 Data Adequacy and Uncertainty

The socioeconomic baseline primary data collection program served to complement available secondary information and is considered to be adequate to inform the assessment of impacts and development of mitigation measures. There remain some areas where further uncertainty in the socioeconomic baseline remains. These may need to be subject to further data collection as the project progresses. They are as follows:

• Coverage of the socioeconomic survey: Route refinement activities following the completion of the socioeconomic field study resulted in the inclusion of 5 new settlements that were not surveyed within the 200-m corridor. Consequently data on these settlements is not included within this ESIA and they were not included in engagement activities to date. However, they will be included in all engagement activities going forward. In addition, of the 69 settlements included in the survey, 1 fact sheet was not completed for the settlement of Plase in Pojan Commune (Korca) but was subsequently completed by telephone with the head of the village.

• Presence and status of plans at the regional and local levels. Regional and communal level planning is conducted on an ad hoc basis by local level authorities; therefore the plans presented in the development planning section many not be fully inclusive. Timely implementation of development plans is not dependent on approval, but available funding, which results in uncertainty around when the plans will be enacted. In addition, recent changes to national urban planning legislation means regional and commune authorities must resubmit all relevant plans to include the new legislative requirements.

• Status and representation of Roma communities: An interview was conducted with representatives from a Roma community in Mbrostar Commune, Fier. However, at least 1 other community has been identified in Poshnjë Commune in Berat, that was not consulted, and there may be other communities within the study area, particularly in the northern area, which have not been identified. Data gathering on ethnic minorities will be complemented by the Human Rights Impact Assessment.

• Levels of unemployment or underemployment: Due to high levels of self-employment within the agricultural sector there is a high degree of under representation in official figures on unemployment and underemployment. Data gathering at a settlement and household level has attempted to address this issue; however, uncertainty remains.

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• Buildings and land use along the pipeline route: Land use has been assessed using cadastre data and high-resolution satellite images, which were available at the latter stages of the ESIA baseline development process. The socioeconomic survey teams visited settlements throughout the study area and where possible visited points along the route to ground truth land use. However, the socioeconomic team did not walk the entire pipeline route. As a consequence most of the buildings within the 60-m corridor of the pipeline route had not been visited at the time of baseline reporting. All buildings in the 60 m corridor are, however, shown on the detailed maps in Annex 4.5 as sensitive key locations. Only some of these buildings have been visited. Of those visited, a high percentage was inhabited. The others were abandoned or were found to be animal shelters or other agricultural buildings. The status of these buildings is consequently unknown and will need to be determined as part of the route finalisation process. Land use will be subject to additional data collection by the land and easement team.

• Level of poverty: Information in the socioeconomic baseline with regard to poverty, such as levels of subsistence farming, families receiving social assistance, and families going hungry, should be considered indicative. Information on income is always sensitive and is further complicated by the prevalence of subsistence farming in the study area.

• Disability: Data on levels of disability and status of disabled people within the study area has not been collected as it was not determined a priority area in terms of the impact assessment. Further investigation may be undertaken within the human rights impact assessment.

• Additional settlements affected by road access program: As the Project progresses and definition of access road program develops there may be the need for further data collection excercises and stakehdoler enaggement. However, current level of information is considered sufficient to inform the assessment of impacts and development of mitigation measures.

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6.7 Onshore Cultural Heritage 6.7.1 Introduction

This section addresses cultural heritage baseline conditions of the base case TAP Project within Albania and should be read in conjunction with Annex 4.6 and Annex 6.4.

The types of cultural heritage considered in the ESIA baseline include:

• Archaeological sites, defined as physical remains of ancient or historic human activity or occupation, most often including subsurface resources, and often indicated by the presence of surface artefacts or structural remains. These include ancient cist or tumulus graves, ancient settlements, and surface ceramic scatters, among others;

• Monuments, defined as above-ground structures of public interest and/or historical significance such as historic churches, bridges, war memorials, and WWII era military facilities, among others;

• Sites with Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) value, defined as sites that form part of the spiritual or cultural lives of modern populations such as roadside shrines, places of worship, and modern cemeteries, among others. Intangible cultural heritage (ICH) refers to customs, traditions and beliefs that make a people or a region distinctive and socially cohesive. Sites with ICH value often include the traditional forms of cultural heritage such as historic monuments, archaeological sites, and historic landscapes, but they may also include natural features such as flora, fauna and particular ecological zones. Sites with ICH value are not specifically protected by Albanian national legislation. However, Albania has ratified the UNESCO Convention on ICH of 2003, which means that those principles are adopted automatically in Albanian Law.

The presentation of cultural heritage findings along the base case route has been separated into 4 sections: Eastern, Central Eastern, Central Western and Western. A map of the study area showing these sections is provided in Figure 6.7-1.

6.7.2 Information Sources and Methods 6.7.2.1 Overview of Baseline Studies

The cultural heritage study area was defined by the combined area of the 2 km wide corridor centred on the base case route and a 50 m buffer area around all Project components. These Project components include compressor stations, block valves, and logistic features such as access roads, pipe yards, and constructions’ camps. This study area was chosen as a relevant unit for addressing potential heritage impacts and their mitigation. Cultural heritage sites located outside of the base case study area were also reviewed during the desk study and visited during the previous fieldwork but are not included in this presentation of baseline data for the base case route. The 2 km wide base case corridor is shown below in Figure 6.7-1 .

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Figure 6.7-1 The Cultural Heritage Study Area Divided into 5 Sections

Prepared by ERM (2012)

The cultural heritage baseline was compiled from the following sources:

• Desk-based research;

• Consultation with experts and knowledgeable individuals; and

• Walk-over field reconnaissance along the base case project route.

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6.7.2.2 Desk Review

The overall objective of the desktop study was to identify the known cultural heritage sites and areas of high archaeological potential 1, to be confirmed and further investigated by fieldwork. The specific tasks of the desk study can be summarized as follows:

• Review of literature of prehistoric and historic period cultural patterns for Albania, with the goal of understanding the context and setting of the area where the TAP Project will be implemented;

• Compilation of a list of known sites through literature review and expert consultation; and

• Identification of areas of the corridor with a high potential to contain unknown archaeological sites (often sites which were favourable to agriculture in ancient times).

The desktop study involved the collection and analysis of relevant data from government agencies, databases, archaeological and historical literature, historic and topographic maps, as well as consultation with experts and other knowledgeable individuals in Albania and internationally. Among those, Professor Skënder Aliu, an active archaeologist with forty years of experience in archaeological investigations in South-eastern Albania was a key expert. The referenced sources were found on the internet and in national, international and regional institutions such as libraries, museums, universities and research institutes. In addition, desk- based research for the ESIA baseline drew on substantial information from earlier literature review and the results of fieldwork conducted for past route selection studies.

As mentioned, the desktop review also provided a basis for identifying areas of archaeological interest for future field reconnaissance. All sites identified in the study area are listed in Annex 6.4 – Section 6.4.5. Sites identified by the study are shown on the maps in Annex 4.6.

6.7.2.3 Consultation

TAP AG conducted a face-to-face consultation on November 14th, 2011, with Mr. Roland Olli, the Head of the Albanian Archaeological Service. During the meeting Mr. Olli suggested that TAP AG present at a later stage the preliminary cultural heritage study to the National Council of Archaeology (NCA).

Mr. Olli also stated that the National Council of Restoration (NCR), which oversees monuments, would be involved in the review and approval procedure of the TAP Project.

On March 5 th , 2012, TAP AG presented the Project and the Cultural Heritage work performed during the ESIA to the NCA in Tirana.

1 Areas of high archaeological potential were determined by the judgement of archaeological specialists with respect to an area’s potential to contain undiscovered sites. This determination is based on a variety of factors, including the presence of known cultural heritage sites in the vicinity, typical ancient settlement patterns in the region, the level of ground disturbance in the area, and geographical features which would have made an area attractive to human inhabitants, such as topography, the presence of flat, arable land, water sources, and other natural resources.

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6.7.2.4 Fieldwork

Field surveys were undertaken as a follow-up to the desk and routing field studies. The immediate goals were to ground truth sites identified by the literature review and previous routing surveys in or near the alignment, gain a first-hand understanding of the field conditions in the study area, and discover possible new sites and areas of high archaeological potential which were not apparent in the earlier investigations. The field effort included 3 field surveys. The first was a general survey of the study area, from June 6th -19 th , 2011. A second survey from August 22 nd -26 th , 2011, focused on the Eastern Section of the base case route. The third survey examined the cultural heritage corridor around a series of access roads, grid connections, a pipeyard, and the Potom route, from July 16 th -29 th , 2012.

Field survey methodology was primarily concerned with exploratory reconnaissance, targeting specific segments of the corridor that were identified as areas of high archaeological potential during prior desk research and routing surveys. For the fieldwork, 2 field teams led by 2 professional Albanian archaeologists conducted pedestrian surface reconnaissance in select sections in and around the 2 km base case corridor and the 50 m buffer area around specific Project elements. The surveys involved a combination of driving and walk-over survey, targeting known sites and areas of high archaeological potential.

The survey augmented existing information by identifying previously unknown cultural heritage sites and areas of high archaeological potential along the base case alignment and associated Project elements. Data from the desk and field studies were analyzed to develop a representative understanding of the baseline conditions of the current route. No intrusive methods were used. Descriptions of field survey limitations and field methodology are provided in sections 1 and 2 of Annex 6.4.

In addition to the field surveys, site visits aimed at engaging the Albanian government were carried out between the 15th and the 18th of November, 2011. Skënder Bushi, an Albanian representative from the Ministry of Culture, Sports & Tourism, accompanied the field team in confirming the location of 19 sites previously identified for this report. No new sites or areas of high archaeological potential were recorded during these site visits. 6.7.3 Cultural Heritage Findings 6.7.3.1 Historic and Cultural Context of the Study Area

Albania is an archaeologically and historically rich country, with vestiges of both prehistoric indigenous cultures as well foreign imperial influences including the Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires. Historically, the central part of the study area has been less susceptible to foreign invasion than the eastern and western regions, primarily as a result of geophysical factors. The lowlands in the west of Albania, including the coastal plains around the mouths the Vjosa and the Seman-Osun Rivers, have traditionally been more prone to control by the central government and to invasion by colonizing powers. This seems to have been a

Page 371 of 382 Area Comp. System Disc. Doc.- Ser. Code Code Code Code Type No. Project Title: Trans Adriatic Pipeline – TAP AAL00-ERM-641-Y-TAE-1008 ESIA Albania Section 6 - Environmental, Document Title: Rev.: 03 Socioeconomic and Cultural Heritage Baseline geographic pattern as far back as the Bronze Age and was certainly the case for the successive Greek, Roman and Ottoman periods.

The Eastern region, like the Western region, has a long history of foreign influence, invasion and occupation. In particular, the strategic location of the Kolonje plateau, between the Italian Peninsula and the Bosphoros was attractive to Illyrian, Roman and Ottoman powers. The border point of modern-day Kapshtica also facilitated cross-cultural interaction by functioning as a corridor between eastern Albania and Greek prefectures such as modern-day Florina and Kastoria.

The geographical features of the eastern region, specifically the moderate elevation, regular precipitation and wide valleys, encouraged the establishment of large landholdings, which has shaped the area’s socioeconomic development. The eastern region, specifically the Kolonje district, has played a special role in the country’s history, particularly with regard to the development of the Albanian alphabet. Additionally, it has been an important religious center for Orthodox Christians for centuries and is now home to a large Sunni and Bektashi Muslim community as well.

Table 6.7-1 below presents a brief timeline of Albanian history and prehistory. The information presented in the timeline was developed as part of the desk study from standard published sources. The timeline provides a context for understanding and evaluating cultural heritage sites present in the general Project region. A more lengthy discussion of Albanian historic and archaeological periods is presented in Annex 6.4 – Section 6.4.4.

Table 6.7-1 Brief Timeline of Albanian History and Prehistory

Period Date 1 Characteristic Traits and Major Events

Paleolithic 200,000 – 8,000 BC Small mobile Pleistocene (ice-age) social groups living by a foraging economy, before the domestication of plants and animals. Mesolithic 8,000 – 6,000 BC Intensive foraging economy relying on more abundant post- Pleistocene resources. Neolithic 6,000 – 3,000 BC Emergence of village life dependant on domesticated plants and animals. Larger, permanent settlements, earliest permanent architecture, developed crafts and the beginnings metallurgy. Bronze Age 3000 – 1050 BC Beginnings of social stratification with leadership based on success in combat. Bronze tools and weapons were used. Warrior-leaders are memorialized with tumuli with grave offerings. Long-distance trade plays an important role in society. Illyrian culture develops. Iron Age 1050 – 550 BC Continuation of same bronze age trends. Forts on hill tops and other naturally fortified areas are common. Development of oral literature such as the Ilyiad and the Odyssey. Iron tools and weapons were used.

1 Dates are approximate.

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Period Date 1 Characteristic Traits and Major Events

Classical 550 BC – AD 300 Development of classical Greek civilization and later spread of Greek cultural by Alexander and his successors in the Hellenistic Period; Rise of the Roman Empire and its expansion around. Late Classical and AD 300 – 600 Roman Empire adopts Christianity; east-west split forms eastern Medieval and western empires and corresponding churches; further fragmentation of empire and rise of localized feudal economies and local Komani or Arber culture. Late Medieval and AD 600 – Present Period of sequential influence of the Byzantine, Ottoman and Modern Austro-Hungarian empires, followed by emergence of the modern Albanian nation state. ERM (2011)

6.7.3.2 Cultural Heritage Sites and Areas of High Archaeological Potential

As a result of investigations, 146 cultural heritage sites were identified within the cultural heritage baseline study area 1. An integral part of the baseline investigation of these cultural heritage sites was an assessment of their importance/quality. Evaluations of quality/importance will inform the impact assessment portion of the ESIA. Importance/quality ratings were judged by different criteria for each of the 3 site types. Identified cultural heritage sites were assigned ratings based on the criteria shown in Table 6.7-2.

Table 6.7-2 Cultural Heritage Site Importance/Quality Criteria

Low Moderate High Archaeological Limited informational value Moderate informational value High informational value Site and/or cultural significance and/or cultural significance and/or cultural significance based on content and based on content and condition based on content and condition of site. of site. condition of site. Historic Limited visual, Moderate visual, High visual, commemorative Monument commemorative or art commemorative or art historical or art historical interest based historical interest based on interest based on architectural architectural style or degree of architectural style or degree style or degree of preservation. preservation. of preservation. Site with Limited cultural or religious Moderate cultural or religious High cultural or religious Intangible significance to site users significance to site users based significance to site users Heritage Value based on user criteria. on user criteria. based on user criteria.

ERM (2011)

In addition to the inventory of cultural heritage sites in the study area, 57 areas of high archaeological potential (AHAP) were also located within the cultural heritage baseline study area. Areas of high archaeological potential are indicated in the list of sites Annex 6.4 – Section 6.4.5. Six of these areas are listed independently in the inventory, as they are areas not associated with known cultural heritage sites. The remaining 51 AHAP are associated with known cultural heritage sites and are not listed independently as they are considered part of their

1 All reported cultural heritage site counts exclude number of independent areas of high archaeological potential (AHAP) listed in tables, as these are areas which have not been confirmed to contain resources

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A total of 43 cultural heritage sites were identified and 1 independent AHAP within the cultural heritage study area in the Eastern Section. The identified sites vary in their size, type, importance and quality. Site types along this section include:

• Ceramic and tile scatters (Iron Age, Roman, Late Roman, Medieval, Post-Medieval and Modern period);

• Open-air sites (Prehistoric, Roman, Late Roman and later periods);

• Burial mound (Prehistoric);

• Religious sites (contemporary and historic Orthodox church, a Muslim tekke, and a Modern religious structure);

• Bronze and ceramic artefacts (undetermined antiquity).

The most notable sites from this region include: the Tekke of Bektashi in Turan Village (CH-341), Vashtemia Prehistoric site (CH-339), the remains of a Roman farm house (CH-332), the Church of St. Friday (CH-342), a religious place (CH-349), a Prehistoric burial mound (CH-502), the open-air archaeological site in Pulaha (CH-351) and 5 ceramic scatter sites (CH-318,CH-505, CH-517, CH-518, and CH-519).

In addition, 7 total areas of high archaeological potential were identified along the Eastern Section of the base case route. Six of these areas were adjacent to confirmed cultural heritage sites and 1 AHAP, near “Dream House”, was identified which is not associated with any known cultural heritage site.

An inventory of the (CH) sites and areas of high archaeological potential (HAP) identified in the Eastern section is presented in Annex 6.4 – Section 6.4.5. The existing data (i.e. density of archaeological sites and areas of high archaeological potential reported) suggest that the Eastern region of the base case route is a section of comparatively high archaeological potential. A relatively high number of additional undiscovered sites and archaeological resources are likely to be present within this section of the base case corridor. Cultural heritage (CH) sites and areas of HAP identified are mapped in Annex 4.6.

Of the sites inventoried in the Eastern Section of the base case study area, 18 cultural heritage sites and 1 AHAP were identified within approximately 50 m of the Project footprint, and would be subject to impacts from Project activities. All 18 of the cultural heritage sites within 50 m of the Project footprint are archaeological sites; 13 are of low importance and/or quality, 3 are of medium importance and/or quality, and 2 are of high importance and/or quality.

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These sites are: ceramic fragments and scatters (CH-310, CH-311, CH-313, CH-315, CH-316, CH-319, CH-505, CH-323, CH-336, CH-337, CH-338, CH-340, CH-343, CH-346, CH-517, CH- 518, and CH-519), open-air sites with artefact scatters (CH-344 and CH-350), a single bronze artefact (CH-345) and Vashtemis Prehistoric site (CH-339). Of these, the concentration of pottery in a large area with terracing (CH-505) is one of the most important sites, but its location outside of the regular working strip decreases its exposure to potential Project impacts. The sites most likely to be affected by Project activities are the ceramic scatters at Kp 0.8, 3.1, 3.2, 6.1, 29.8, 29.9, and 40.6 (CH-313, CH-315, CH-316, CH-323, CH-336, CH-337, and CH-343), since they are concentrations of artefacts with no evidence of erosion or displacement that lie within the regular working strip.

Sites CH-318, CH-319, CH-320, CH-505, CH-517, CH-518, and CH-519, all ceramic scatters dated to the Iron Age through Medieval Period, were identified around Grid Connection CS02 (Kp 4.5). None of these sites are within 50 m of the base case route or the grid connection. However, the identification of six ceramic scatters all dated to the same period, in the same general area, and located on either side of the grid connection suggests there is increased potential for encountering an archaeological site or sites in the area around this grid connection.

The open air site (CH-344) at Kp 43.2 and the Vashtemia Prehistoric site at kp 34.9 (CH-339) also pose constraints to the Project, as they lie within the regular working strip. In addition to these cultural heritage sites, the 1 AHAP (CH-506) not associated with another cultural heritage site lies within 3 m of the pipeline route, increasing the likelihood that undiscovered subsurface archaeological resources will be impacted at Kp 36. Central Eastern Section (Kp 52 – 99.9)

A total of 27 cultural heritage sites and 3 independent AHAP were identified within the study area in the Central Eastern Section. The identified sites vary in their size, type, importance and quality. Site types along this section include:

• Artefact scatters (Iron Age, Roman, Late Roman, Post-Medieval and Modern period); • Hill top sites and ruined fortification walls (Bronze Age and Iron Age); • Open air sites (Prehistoric, Iron Age, Roman, Late Roman, Medieval); • Churches and cemeteries; • Islamic tekkes; • A World War II memorial; • Building ruins; and • Grave monuments.

The most notable sites from this region include: the Hill fort site of Bellovoda, a large ruined stone fortress (CH-194), the ancient wall to the west of Bellovode (CH-356), the open air site of Late Roman and later periods (CH-300), the Hill-top site of Leshnja (CH-360), the Church of St. Mehill (CH-362), St. Michael’s cemetery (CH-419), the Grave of the Baptism (CH-363), an early 20 th

Page 375 of 382 Area Comp. System Disc. Doc.- Ser. Code Code Code Code Type No. Project Title: Trans Adriatic Pipeline – TAP AAL00-ERM-641-Y-TAE-1008 ESIA Albania Section 6 - Environmental, Document Title: Rev.: 03 Socioeconomic and Cultural Heritage Baseline century grave marker/monument (CH-521), a World War II memorial column (CH-522), the Iron Age hill fort site known as the Tekke of Backa, and the Helmesi Village Cemetery (CH-528).

In addition, a total of 12 areas of high archaeological potential were identified along the Central Eastern Section of the base case route. These include 9 areas adjacent to confirmed sites and 3 AHAP not associated with known sites.

An inventory of the cultural heritage sites and areas of high archaeological potential for the Central Eastern Section of the base case route are listed in Annex 6.4 – Section 6.4.5. The existing data (i.e. density of archaeological sites and areas of high archaeological potential reported) suggest that the Central Eastern region of the base case route has moderate archaeological potential. Some additional undiscovered sites and archaeological resources are likely to be present. A map of the cultural heritage sites and areas of high archaeological potential identified in the Central Eastern Section are shown in Annex 4.6Annex 4.6.

Of the sites inventoried in the Central Eastern Section of the base case study area and associated Project element, 17 cultural heritage sites and 2 independent AHAP were identified within 50 m of the Project footprint that would be subject to impacts from Project activities. The site types vary; 10 are archaeological sites, 5 are monuments, 1 is a site with ICH value, and 1 that has ICH and potential archaeological significance. Of the 17 CH sites within 50 m of the Project footprint, 4 are of low importance and/or quality, 5 are of medium importance and/or quality, and 8 are of high importance and/or quality.

These sites are: artefact scatters (CH-357, CH-358, CH-520, CH-523), a stone structure (CH- 359), an open-air archaeological site (CH-361), the historic Church of St. Mehill, or Michael, (CH- 362), St. Michael’s cemetery (CH-419), the Grave of the Baptism (CH-363), an archaeological/historic site (CH-406), an early 20 th century grave monument with two gravestones (CH-521), a World War II monument (CH-522), the Memorial of Lirza (CH-527), and the Helmesi Village Cemetery (CH-528).

The most significant cultural heritage sites that could be affected by Project activities include: the religious complex containing the Church of St. Mehill, the cemetery and the Grave of the Baptism (CH-362, CH-419, and CH-363) located within 10 m of an access road at kp 62.8; the World War II Memorial within 10 m of an access road at Kp 75.5; the early 20 th century double grave stones monument within 10 m of an access road at Kp 75.5; and the Helmesi Village Cemetery located within 15 m of an access road and 28 m from the Potom route at Kp 83.8. The small open-air site at Kp 59.2 (CH-361) is another significant resource which will be impacted by the Project. Other sites which will be directly affected by construction are the artefact scatter at kp 57.9 (CH-357) and the remains of a stone structure (CH-359). In addition to the cultural heritage sites, 2 AHAP (CH-22 and CH-116) not associated with any known sites lie within the working strip; increasing the likelihood that undiscovered subsurface archaeological resources will be impacted at Kp 68.2 and 91.6.

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Central Western Section (Kp 99.9 – 173.9)

A total of 54 cultural heritage sites and 1 independent AHAP were identified within the cultural heritage baseline study area in the Central Western Section. The identified sites vary greatly in their size, type, importance and quality. Site types along this section include:

• Artefact scatters, including ceramics and tiles (Hellenistic, Classic, Roman, Late Roman, Medieval, and Modern periods);

• A lithic artefact find from the Paleolithic period;

• Remains of stone structures and terracing (Roman, Post-Ottoman, and Modern);

• Towns and settlements (Classic, Hellenistic, Roman periods);

• Modern cemeteries;

• Remains of a tumulus cemetery (Prehistoric) and cist graves (Medieval);

• Military zones from the Socialist Era;

• A Modern place of pilgrimage/recreational area;

• Modern WWII memorials;

• Open-air archaeological sites (Iron Age, Hellenistic and Roman periods);

• Hill-top fort/ castles (Hellenistic, Late Roman, Medieval periods);

• A ruined Bektashi religious cult monument (Modern);

• The Lisi Becit pilgrimage site; and

• Bridges (Roman, Medieval, and Modern periods).

The most notable sites from this region include: modern cemeteries near Orizaj (CH-364) and Pobrat (CH-417), the Memorials of Martyrs in the Second World War (CH-368 and CH-369), the castles/hilltop forts of Vojaka (CH-379), Corovoda (CH-126) and Peshtan (CH-183), the Prehistoric open-air site at Shen Tod (CH-132), Gradishta e Peshtanit Classical-Hellenistic town (CH-133), the remains of cist graves at Bregu I Qishes (CH-378), a potential tumulus cemetery (CH-373), the remains of a farm house and terracing walls of Roman and Post-Ottoman periods (CH-374), a military area with ceramic scatter from the Late Roman period (CH-388), and numerous Hellenistic, Classical, Roman and Late Roman archaeological sites/artefact scatters (CH-377, 385, 386, 387, 390, 398, and 400).

In addition, 28 areas of high archaeological potential were identified along the Central Western Section of the base case route. These include 27 areas adjacent to confirmed sites and 1 high potential area not associated with known sites.

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An inventory of the cultural heritage sites identified in the Central Western Section is presented in Annex 6.4 – Section 6.4.5. The existing data (i.e. density of archaeological sites and areas of high archaeological potential reported) suggests that the Central Western region of the base case route is a section of comparatively high archaeological potential. This section possesses the greatest diversity of CH sites, with monuments, ancient and contemporary cemeteries, historic military zones, and archaeological sites. Furthermore, this area has a higher density of archaeological sites of greater archaeological interest and the greatest number of cultural heritage sites of high importance/quality in relation to the other segments of the base case. These factors suggest that relatively high number of additional undiscovered sites and archaeological resources are likely to be present, particularly from the Hellenistic through Late Roman time periods. The Central Western Section is generally of greater archaeological sensitivity and it is the section in which chance finds have the greatest probability of occurrence. A map of the cultural heritage sites and areas of high archaeological potential identified in the Central Western Section are shown in Annex 4.6.

Of the sites inventoried in the Central Western Section of the base case study area, 24 cultural heritage sites and 1 independent AHAP were identified within 50 m of the Project footprint, and would be subject to impacts from Project activities. The majority of these sites are archaeological. There are 18 archaeological sites, 3 monuments and 3 sites with ICH value. Of the 24 sites identified within 50 m of the Project footprint, 9 are of low importance and/or quality, 12 are of medium importance and/or quality and 4 are of high importance and/or quality.

These sites are: the modern cemetery near Orizaj (CH-364), the 2 Memorials of Martyrs of the Second World War (CH-368 and CH-369), ceramic and tile scatters (CH-365, CH-375, CH-181, CH-382, CH-386, CH -387, CH-391, CH-146, CH-393, CH-531, CH-532), archaeological finds near Bregu i Xhakes (CH-136) and Sqepur (CH-397), the remains of a possible tumulus cemetery (CH-373) and Medieval cist graves (CH-378), Roman and Post-Ottoman remains of a farm house and terracing (CH-374), the Modern church at Vodice (CH-182), the Vodice/Bregu I Xhakes Bridge (CH-135), and a place of pilgrimage/recreation at Lisi Becit (CH-141).

The most notable sites which are also at direct risk of physical impacts include the Memorial of Martyrs of the Second World War (CH-368), located in close proximity to an access road at kp 113.4, and the Second Memorial of Martyrs of the Second World War (CH-369) located adjacent to an access road at kp 116.9. Other important sites which are expected to sustain direct physical impacts are: the remains of a possible tumulus cemetery (CH-373) and Medieval cist graves (CH- 378), the Roman and Post-Ottoman remains of a farm house and terracing (CH-374), the ceramic scatters at kp 144.3 (CH-386 and CH-387). The following sites will also incur direct physical impacts, as they fall within the regular working strip: the modern church and bridge at Vodice at kp 139.1 (CH-182 and CH-135), the ceramic scatter at kp 146 (CH-532), the place of pilgrimage at Lisi Becit at kp 147.6 (CH-141), the Medieval Period ceramic scatter at kp 148.3 (CH-531) and the ceramic and artefact scatters at kp 109.8 (CH-365), kp 140.2 (CH-181 and CH- 136), kp 156.9 (CH-393) and kp 166.9 (CH-397). In addition to the cultural heritage sites, 1 area

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A total of 20 sites and 1 independent AHAP were identified within the cultural heritage baseline study area in the Western Section. The identified sites vary in their size, type, importance and quality. Site types along this section include:

• Artefact scatters, including ceramics and tiles (Hellenistic, Classical, Roman, Late Roman, Medieval, and Modern periods);

• A Roman road station;

• Site of a possible Hellenistic grave;

• Churches and cemeteries (Post-Byzantine and Modern periods);

• Protected military landscape with bunker;

• 20 th century military bunkers; and

• Modern WWII memorial.

The most notable sites from this region include: the Church of Strumi (CH-150), the Zharrez Roman road station (CH-154), a concentration of Classical and Hellenistic artefacts (CH-407), the old church and cemetery of Petova (CH-195), the old and new churches and graveyard of St. Trinity (and CH-413 and CH-411), the Memorial for the Local Martyrs of WWII (CH-412), a memorial for the local martyrs of WWII (CH-412), and a cultural military landscape with bunker (CH-415).

In addition, a total of 10 AHAP were identified along the Western Section of the base case route. These include 9 AHAP adjacent to confirmed sites and 1 AHAP not associated with known sites.

An inventory of the cultural heritage sites identified in the Western Section is presented in Annex 6.4 – Section 6.4.5. The existing data (i.e. density of archaeological sites and areas of high archaeological potential reported) suggests that, as anticipated, the Western region of the base case route is a section of relatively low archaeological potential in comparison to the other sections. Thus, the potential for additional undiscovered sites is lower in this segment of the route than in other regions. A map of the cultural heritage sites and areas of high archaeological potential identified in the Western Section are shown in Annex 4.6Annex 4.6.

Of the sites inventoried in the Western Section of the pipeline route study area, 7 cultural heritage sites were identified within 50 m of the Project footprint, and would be subject to impacts from Project activities. Three of these cultural heritage sites are archaeological. Of the 3 archaeological sites identified, 2 are of moderate importance and/or quality and 1 is of high importance and/or quality. The other three sites are building ruins, two are of moderate importance and the other is a site of high importance.

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These sites are: ceramic scatters (CH-402 and CH-403), two 20 th century military bunkers (CH- 533 and CH-534), the old Trinity Church and graveyard (CH-413), and the Zharrez Roman road station at Kp 195.3 (CH-154). The artefact scatters near the Cjapi family’s house (CH-402) at Kp 176.1 and at Strumi (CH-403) at Kp 176.4 are not of particular significance, but are located within the pipeline regular working strip and would sustain direct physical impacts from Project activities.

Two 20 th century military bunker ruins are located within 50 m of Project elements. Site CH-533 is located approximately 40 m from a grid connection within the regular working strip and would sustain direct physical impacts from Project activities. Site CH-415, a 20 th century military bunker and associated historic military landscape is located within 10 m of an access road and would also sustain direct physical impacts. The old Trinity Church ruin and associated graveyard (CH- 413) are located within the regular working strip, approximately 27 m from an access road. This site is likely to sustain direct physical impacts from Project activities associated with the construction of the access road. In addition, construction activities will restrict user access to this ICH site.

Northern Section (Durres road and main pipe yard at Kavaje)

A total of two cultural heritage sites were identified within the cultural heritage baseline study area in the Northern Section. These two sites consisted of surface artefact scatters and were identified within the footprint of a proposed pipeyard. Site CH-535 is a ceramic scatter of undetermined age. Site CH-536 is a scatter of Roman Period ceramic sherds, tile, and bricks. The presence of structural remains, in the form of tile and brick fragments, as well as ceramic sherds suggest the possible presence of a Roman Period domestic occupation with a high potential for the presence of subsurface structural remains. Based on the close proximity of the two artefact scatters, they may be part of a larger archaeological site.

6.7.4 Summary and Conclusions of Cultural Heritage Baseline

Spanning the historically and culturally rich country of Albania, the study area includes substantial archaeological sites and built heritage, including open-air prehistoric sites, hilltop forts, churches and monuments. In addition to the 145 reported cultural heritage sites, 57 areas of high archaeological potential were documented within the cultural heritage baseline study area. Of these, 51 are associated with known cultural heritage sites and 6 are independent areas not associated with known archaeological ruins or other sites.

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Of the 144 cultural heritage sites identified within the study area, 70 cultural heritage sites and 5 AHAP are located in close enough proximity to the Project footprint to potentially incur impacts from Project activities (within 50 m). Of these, 62 cultural heritage sites lie within the 38 m wide regular working strip around the Project footprint, and are thus likely to sustain direct physical impacts, nine sites intersect or are within the Project footprint and 49 sites are located within 16 m. Archaeological sites represent the majority of the cultural heritage findings which lie within the regular working strip; 47 are archaeological sites, 9 are monuments, and 6 are sites with ICH value.

The following 26 sites/area are those which pose the greatest constraints to the Project. They are highlighted for their importance/quality ratings and their vicinity to Project activities:

• CH-315, a medium importance scatter of Late Roman and Modern period artefacts near the cemetery at Trestenik, 12 m from the pipeline route, at Kp 3.1.

• CH-339, Vashtemia, a high importance Prehistoric site, 4 m from a road, at Kp 34.9.

• CH-359, a low importance Modern period stone structure, 8 m from the pipeline route, at Kp 59.

• CH-361, an Iron Age and Late Roman period open-air archaeological site of high importance, 5 m from the pipeline route, at Kp 59.2.

• CH-362, CH-363 and CH-419, a high importance religious complex comprised of the historic Church of St. Mehill, cemetery, and Grave of the Baptism monument, 10 m from a road, at Kp 62.8.

• CH-521, a grave/monument marked by two gravestones of medium importance located 6 m from an access road near Kp 75.5.

• CH-522, a medium importance Wold War II memorial column located 3 m from an access road near Kp 75.5.

• CH-528, the Helmesi Village cemetery, a high importance modern and potentially historic cemetery located 15 m from an access road and 25 m from the pipeline centerline near Kp 83.9.

• CH-368, the medium importance Modern Memorial of Martyrs of the Second World War, 12 m from a road, at Kp 113.4.

• CH-369, the medium importance Modern Second Memorial of Martyrs of the Second World War, intersecting a road, at Kp 116.9.

• CH-373, possibly a Prehistoric tumulus cemetery of medium importance, 18 m from the pipeline route, at Kp 124.1.

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• CH-374, a high importance farm house and terracing walls from the Roman and Post- Ottoman periods, 13 m from the pipeline route, at Kp 124.8.

• CH-378, the remains of Medieval period cist graves of medium importance, 3 m from the pipeline route, at Kp 127.9.

• CH-182, the Modern church at Vodice, of low importance, 4 m from a road, at Kp 139.1.

• CH-135, the Modern period Vodice/Bregu I Xhakes Bridge, of low importance, 5 m from a road, at Kp 139.1.

• CH-136, medium importance archaeological finds of uncertain antiquity, intersecting a road, at Kp 140.2.

• CH-386, large concentration of Hellenistic, Roman and Late Roman ceramics of high importance, 3 m from the pipeline route, at Kp 144.3.

• CH-388, a Late Roman Period ceramic scatter of high importance, 25 m from the pipeline route, at Kp 145.2.

• CH-389, a Palaeolithic Period lithic artefact of medium importance recovered 11 m from the pipeline route at Kp 145.5.

• CH-141, the place of pilgrimage at Lisi Becit, pilgrimage and religious ritual location of medium importance located 8 m from an access road near Kp 147.6.

• CH-397, an open-air archaeological site of medium importance from the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 12 m from the pipeline route, at Kp 166.9.

• CH-413, the old Trinity Church and graveyard is a medium importance site, located 27 m from an access road near Kp 202.6.

• CH-535, a medium importance ceramic artefact scatter, and CH-536, a high importance scatter of Roman Period ceramics, tiles, and brick. These two sites are located within the footprint of a pipeyard north of Kp 196.5.

In addition to the 62 cultural heritage sites within the regular working strip, 14 AHAP were also indentified. Of these areas, 4 (CH-506, CH-22, CH-137 and CH-116) are independent and are not located adjacent to cultural heritage sites. Further unrecorded archaeological resources are likely to exist in these high potential areas and would sustain direct physical impacts during construction.

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The density of both the known archaeological sites and areas of high archaeological potential in the 4 regions indicate that the Central Western and Eastern regions are the most archaeologically sensitive sections of the base case; they not only contain the majority of the sites identified, but they have the greatest potential to contain further undiscovered archaeological resources. The Central Eastern region shows archaeological potential, but does not have the same high density of cultural heritage sites observed in the aforementioned regions. The Western and Northern Sections of the base case route have the least number of known cultural heritage sites and the lowest archaeological potential.

In conclusion, desk-based research confirms a substantial number of known cultural heritage sites within the study area in Albania. Since the study area has not been subjected to comprehensive field reconnaissance, it is likely that the pipeline corridor possess considerable cultural heritage that has yet to be recorded, particularly archaeological sites. Development of the cultural heritage baseline and the archaeological appraisal of resources included in the corridor provide a basis for managing known and potential resources over the course of the TAP Project. Potential impacts and proposed mitigation for the cultural heritage resources identified in the baseline are discussed in Section 8.19 .

Trans Adriatic Pipeline AG – Albania (Branch Office) Torre Drin, Rruga Abdi Toptani Tirana, Albania Tel.: + 355 44 306 937 Fax: + 355 42 265 685 [email protected] www.tap-ag.com

Date 01/2013

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