Sub-Saharan Africa and the United States. United States Department of State Discussion Paper

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ED 272 441 SO 017 411

AUTHOR Cook, Philip R., Jr. TITLE Sub-Saharan Africa and the United States. United States Department of State Discussion Paper. INSTITUTION Department of State, Washington, D.C. PUB DATE Dec 85 NOTE 51p.; Photographs may not reproduce well and data tables are printed on colored backgrounds. PUB TYPE Reports - Descriptive (141)

EDRS PRLCE MF01/PC03 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Diplomatic History; Economics; Foreign Countries; *Foreign Policy; Government Role; *Human Geography; *International Education; International Programs; * International Relations; International Trade; Nationalism; Peace; *World Affairs; *World Geography IDENTIFIERS *Africa (Sub Sahara); Foreign Aid; Foreign Intervention; United States

ABSTRACT Intended to provide background for study and discussion, this publication gives updated information on development in sub-Saharan Africa and provides a basis for understanding U.S. policy toward this vital region. The strengths, problems, politics, natural resources, and language and ethnolinguistic groups of this area of the world and the international and regional organizations active here are discussed in detail. Extensive data tables include information on the population, culture, education, labor force, imports, exports, estimated U.S. economic assistance, date of independence, type of government, and chief of statt and/or head of government for each of the 46 independent countries south of the Sahara. The 55-item bibliography is divided into three sections: reference and introductory material, historical and cultural background, and contemporary sub-Saharan Africa. (AA)

*********************************************************************** * Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made * * from the original document. * *********************************************************************** 1-4 4. ti CV

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- 21,;7-Z711K- Cover: Gold pendant, Ivory Coast Design by Sally Brennan, Publishing Services

United States Department of State Publication 9112, revised December 1985 Prepared by Philip R. Cook, Jr., Bureau of African Affairs Published by the Bureau of Public Affairs, Office of Public Communication, Editorial Division Chief: Norman F Howard Editing and design: Colleen Sussman

This material is in the public domain and may be reproduced without permission except where copyright is indicated

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 (Tel 202-783-3238)

PHOTO CREDITS Front cover Muses de l'Homme (A)James Stanfield, © National Geographic Society, (B)Johnson, World Bank, (D)Ehot Ellaofon Archives, Museum of African Art 6 (A,B,D)Delores Weiss, AID, (C)Ministry of Information, Niger 9 Muses de l'Homme 10 (A,C)Musee de Nomme, (B)Volkmar Wentzel, ()National Geographic Society 12 UN 14-15 (A)Hadar, World Bank, (B,D)Richard Woltord, AID, (C)AID, (E)Ron Shaw, AID 18 Anthony Suau, ©Black Star 21 Top- Pete Souza, White House, Bottom-Cynthia Johnson, White House 23 Anthony Suau, @Black Star 25 (A)C)SATOUR, (B)David Turn*, ()Black Star 30 UNHCR 33 Eliot Elisofon Archives, Museum of African Art 44 Zimbabwe Tourist Office Muses de l'Homme 46 UN 3 Sub-Saharan Africa and the United States Contents

1 Introduction

2 Regional Profile 2 Geography 4 History 6 People 11 Political Processes 11 Economy 16 Multilateral Organizations

19 U.S. Relations With Sub-Saharan Africa 20 Elements of U.S. Policy 22 Policy Issues 30 Foreign Assistance and Economic Relations

Appendix 33 Basic Data Tables 45 Bibliography

Information in this publication is intended to provide background for study and discussion; it is not designed to be read as a formal statement of U.S. policy, except where the material is specifically described as such. The publication summarizes currently available information and raises relevant questions (some of which admittedly may be unanswerable) as an aid to public discussion of important issues in U.S. foreign policy. E

A A Young laborer in Zimbabwe. B Workmen pour molten aluminum into steel molds in Ghana. C Tsavo National Park, Kenya D Mali village. E Business district, Abidjan, Ivory Coast

5 Introduction

Sub-Saharan Africa' is the ancestral Access to the cultural exchange of It is important to understand sub- home of millions of Americans and, ac- the Mediterranean basin was impeded Saharan Africa's potential, strengths, cording to anthropological theory, the by the vast expanse of desert, causing and problems because they present op- cradle of mankindthe birthplace of the peoples of sub-Saharan Africa to portunities and challenges that no world Homo sapiens. Perhaps the earliest develop cultures distinctly their own. power can ignore. For the United development of settled agriculture Several great empires with large cultur- States, Africa represents: began in Africa on the banks of the al centers emerged but were later de- lower Nile, making possible the great stroyed by war or declined following The political force of the world's advances in technology and the arts of changes in global trade patterns. largest regional bloc; ancient Egypt. Although European traders had fre- A rich source of natural resources; From at least the first millennium quented the African coast since the late 15th century, knowledge of these em- The ancestral home of 25 million B.C. onward, elements of Egyptian, Americans; Phoenician, Greek, Roman, and Arab pires remained limited until the era of culture spread southi 'ard into Africa African exploration and colonization in A growing market for American through conquest, trade, and the dis- the late 18th and 19th centuries. exports; semination of Christianity and Islam. By the early 20th century, most of An opportunity to demonstrate, Trade in slaves, gold, copper, salt, Africa had fallen under colonial domina- through private enterprise and spices, and many other items flourished tion. In sub-Saharan Africa, only Liberia government-to-government aid, that both by sea and, following the introduc- and Ethiopia remained independent. In democratic institutions and individual tion of camels in about the 3d century the decades after World War II, how- initiative provide a wetter solution to A.D., across the Sahara. Evidence of the ever, the peoples of Africa increasingly the problems of the Third World than extent of this trade can be found in the rejected foreign rule and demanded for do totalitarianism and economic regi- presence of Chinese porcelain and other themselves the fundamental freedoms mentation; and oriental wares at archaeological sites in for which they had fought in support of Possibilities for our adversaries to ex- Africa. the Allied powers. By the mid-1960s, ploit regional tensions and foster inse- most African countries had achieved in- curity through the indiscriminate pro- 'Although the generic term "Africa" fre- dependence. Only Namibia remained in vision of arms and support for violent quently is used throughout this publication, a colonial status in 1985. solutions to local conflicts. and some datapertainto the entire conti- There are now 46 independent coun- nent, attention is focused on sub-Saharan tries in sub-Saharan Africa and the This Discussion Paper is designed to Africa and the off-shore island states, which nearby islands, and negotiations on together include the majority of countries update information on developments in Namibia's independence are underway. sub-Saharan Africa and to provide a and of the continent's population. Within the Together with the countries of North Department of State, the Bureau of African basis for understanding U.S. policy Affairs is responsible for the conduct of rela- Africa, these states play a significant toward this vital region of the world. tions with this region. Relations with North role in the world community through Africa are conducted through the Depart- the Organization of African Unity ment's Bureau of Near Eastern and South (OAU). But the process of forging Asian Affairs. cohesive national identities within boundaries drawn by European powers and among more than 1,000 ethnic groups is difficult; since independence, Africa has experienced considerable political upheaval.

6 Regional Profile

altitudes anywhere from 3,000 to 9,000 the higher parts of the inland plateaus. Geography feet in eastern and southern Africa, Air temperatures vary from hot in most while in the north and west most of the parts of the continent to cold in the The Continent of Africa covers land is between 500 and 1,000 feet 11,635,000 square milesnearly one-fifth deserts (at night), on the plateaus, and above sea level. in the mountains, where some peaks are of the world's total land surface and Massive geologic changes in the equal to the combined area of the permanently snowcapped. plateaus have produced ridges that are Africa is divided into distinct United States, Western Europe, and In- among the most conspicuous features of dia. The sub-Saharan portion of the con climatic belts. The one bounded by the the African landscape: the Great Rift 5° line on either side of the Equator has tinent is 9,312,375 square milesmore Valley of East Africa, one of the than three times the size of the con- a year-long hot-and-rainy climate, with deepest fractures in the earth's crust; some areas receiving more than 200 tinental United States. The African Con- Mt. Kilimanjaro (19,565 feet above sea tinent stretches 5,000 miles from north inches of rain annually. From 5°-15° on level) and Mt. Kenya (17,058 feet) in each side of the Equator, the climate is to south and 4,600 miles from east to East Africa are higher than any peak in west. Its 18,900-mile coastline is washed warm, with heavy rains during part of the European Alps. These changes also the year. Deserts predominate in areas by the Atlantic and Indian Oceans and produced Lake Chad in Central Africa; the Mediterranean and Red Seas. 15°-30° from the Equator, and the lakes of East Africa, including temperatures range from very hot to In addition to the continent itself, a Africa's largest, Lake Victoria; and the number of island countries also are in- very cold. Accumulated rainfall in these contment's four major rivers: the Nile areas is less than 10 inches annually, cluded in "Africa." With the exception (4,000 miles long); the Zaire (3,000 of the Canary Islands and Reunion, all and sometimes no measurable rainfall miles), the Niger (2,600 miles), and the occurs for years. More than 30° from are identified with sub-Saharan Africa. Zambezi (1,650 miles). These include Madagascar, Cape Verde, the Equator, mild, rainy winters and The continent contains the world's warm, dry summers prevail. Comoros, Seychelles, Equatorial Guinea, largest desert, the Sahara; regions of Sao Tome and Principe, and Mauritius. Africa's varied climate has affected heavy rainfall and lush forest vegeta- vegetation, river conditions, and the in- The islands of Zanzibar and Pemba are tion; and, between desert and rain part of the United Republic of Tanzania cidence of disease; it also has influenced forest, broad savanna grasslands and settlement patterns. Africans sought out woodlands. Nearly one-half of Africa's fertile lands, water, and areas suitable total area is desert, while 40% is partly Topography for grazing. Europeans settled near the forested grasslands and 10%, dense coasts on the cool eastern and southern The African Continent consists of a forests and thickets. series of level or slightly undulating plateaus and in the temperate regions of northern and southern Africa. Modern plateaus that fall away from a central cities, often former centers of colonial area of high formations to low-lying Climate administraticn and trade, usually are coastal zones averaging only 20 miles in Four-fifths of Africa lie in the tropics located in these areas. width. Many of these plateaus lie at and have either a tropical or subtropical climate. Temperate climates are found in the north close to the Mediterranean, along the southern and southwestern areas of the Cape of Good Hope, and on

2 Uganda

Kisangani. Ka ala * Kigali Zaire Rwanda * Buiumbur

8 Carthage \s, History CA RT NAGE alerrak 500 B.C. sANA.N Anthropological research and exca-ation ALMOHA 1200 in eastern Africa support the theory of ALISORAVID the African origin of the human race. 1075 Remains of a forerunner of modern Homo sapiens, Australopithecus, and of SONGHAI other creatures with hominoid 1500 characteristics, such as Homo erectus and Homo habilis, have been unearthed in various parts of the continent. Some remains may be more than 2.5 million years old. Evidence of the evolution of primitive people throughout the Paleolithic Age (1 million-16,000 years B.C.) has been discovered, including remains of Neanderthal man dating to ASHANTI DAHONEY 1775 WOO OTO about 40,000 B.C. Some scholars believe 1712 . that midway through this 3ge groups of a these African peoples migrated to othar continents. Traces of humankind's continued development through the Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron Kingdoms and Empires Kdrw Ages also have been found in several African regions. 1450 B.C. - A.D. 1800 Three main physical types evolved in Africa: Negroid, Bushmanoid, and Pygmoid. Of these groups, the Negroid became dominant, learning first to hunt and forage, later to domesticate animals, and finally to plant coops. Between 1000 B.C. and 1000 A.D., a Negroid group (known by the linguistic classification of Niger-Congo and Kordofanian or Nigritic) exerted control over much of southern Africa, with a major subgroup, the Bantu, nearly eliminating the Pygmoid and Bushmanoid people in the c National Geographic Soaety. 1980 process. Caucasoid peoples from the 3629 12 85 STATE ONR/GE) Mediterranean area first migrated to northeast Africa near the end of the Paleolithic period, and subsequent migrations to northeast and northern statesdeveloped primarily in the became an important commodity, Africa occurred in the centuries savanna lands. The kingdoms of Kongo although trade in slaves had existed for preceding and following Christ. During and Lunda may have been founded as centuries. Reliable figures concerning early as the 14th century, while the the extent of the slave trade are not the 7th to 10th centuries, bedouin Arabscity-states of the Guinea CoastIfe, spread Islamic influence across north available; estimates of the number of Africa, while from the 10th to the 18th Benin, Yorubadate at least to the 15th people sold into slavery during the century. These states were highly centuries, other Muslims continued to 15th-19th centuries range from 10 organized and engaged in long-distance million to 50 million. settle in eastern Africa from the Horn trade in salt, gold, cattle, horses, and southward to Zimbabwe. ivory. Sophisticated societies developed in early days. The Kush Kingdom (700 in the early 15th century, Por- Colonial Era B.C.-200 A.D.) formed in the area of tuguese explorers began a gradual Missionaries, traders, and adventurers present-da.r Sudan. The Axum Empire, buildup of African trade relations with penetrated the heart of the continent in established by 350 A.D., comprised Europe and the Americas, leading even- the 19th century. These were the years much of modern Ethiopia. For more tually to Christian missionary contact of such explorers as Mungo Park, than 1,000 years, ancient African with Africa. During the 16th and 17th Savorgnan de Brazza, Rene Caille, H.M. kingdomssuch as Ghana, Kanem- centuries, the Dutch, British, French, Stanley, Sir Richard Burton, and David Bornu, Mali, Songhai, and the Hausa Spanish, and Arabs increased their Livingstone. They were followed, trade with Africa. During this period, especially after 1880, by government of- Europeans established trading posts and ficials engaged in extending colonial maritime stations on the Atlantic and domains. Indian Ocean coasts but rarely traveled to the interior of the continent. Slaves

4 9 Once the dimensions of Africa's in- 4. ner geography and resources were NISIA known, colonization proceeded rapidly. 10510CCO Although only a small part of the African Continent was under foreign ALGERIA Wes lirnr rule before 1880, all but 2 of the present SAN, 46 independent countries of sub-Saharan ( Africa were under European control by 1900. The two exceptions were Liberia, MAURITANIA established by freed American slaves in MALI _ NIGER the 1840s, and the ancient Empire of THE GAMIN o*..164..1 -\"--,- Ethiopia. The remaindei of Africa was GUINEA- BURKINA T controlled by France, Great Britain, !BISSAUC GUISE i Tremown Portugal, Belgium, Spain, Germany, and IVORY NIGERIA/` \ SIERRA LE COAST Italy. During the next half century, Boor.. AFRICAN REPUBLIC LSE TIER001, Europeans settled in various areas of NoioNedI 'Mho. EGUATOSIAL GUINEA --S_ the continent, traded, extracted SAO TOIN NO PRINCIPE ONOCe minerals, and established governments 1.4.1.10 IGUATOAIAL GUNN* reflecting the different policies and in- 111..11111! stitutions of the colonial powers. Africa Former Colonial Status

Postindependence Period Political Affiliation1962 Many factors helped to create a climate in which most of the European-ruled col- United Kingdom a n Spain onies in Africa eventually became in- France n n Italy dependent. These included the participa- Belgium n1.----1Union of tion of Africans in World Wars I and II; South Africa III Independent Portugal the growth of African nationalist country movements; the Atlantic Charter of AZILAND

1941 proclaiming the right of all peoples ND to choose the form of government under which they would live; and changing European economic and political concerns with respect to the efficacy and burdens of empire. The wave of African independence began in 1957. Led by Nkrumah of the ritory; efforts are underway to move Cultural and relielus differences have Gold Coast (Ghana), Houphouet- Boigny from violence to negotiation toward led to periodic civil wars in Sudan and of the Ivory Coast, and Sekou Toure of Namibian independence. Chad. Warfare also has erupted bet- French Guinea (Guinea), a host of sub- Africa's political evolution during the ween states. Somalia and Ethiopia have Saharan countries in rapid succession past two decades has been tumultuous, been fighting intermittently over posses- broke ties with their colonial rulers. Oc- with nearly two-thirds of the countries sion of the Ogaden region. Tanzania in- casionally, the changeover was accom- undergoing nonconstitutional changes in vadeo Uganda in 1979 to oust the bar- panied by violence, as in Zaire, Mozam- government. Although more than half ofbaric government of Idi Amin and to bique, Angola, and Zimbabwe. Since the nations are led by military leaders retaliate for Ugandan attacks on its ter- 1957, 42 nations have joined the four or committees, some have now returned ritory. Libya forcibly annexed a portion previously independent countries of to constitutional civilian rule. Despite of northern Chad in 1980-81 and pushed Ethiopia, Liberia, Sudan, and South Af- political trauma in many countries, ex- further south in 1983, halting only after rica. South Africa became an independ- amples exist of relative tranquility and regional and international pressures ent union with Dominion status within stable leadership. were applied. Nigeria and Cameroon the British Commonwealth in 1910, and Secession attempts have threatened also have had tense relations over poor- Sudan separated from Egypt and the some nations. Eritrea has been seeking ly defined borders. United Kingdom in 1956. Namibia, independence since 1962, when Ethiopia under de facto South African control, re-assumed direct control and terminated mains the region's only dependent ter- Eritrea's federated status. Shaba (formerly Katanga) unsuccessfully attempted to secede from Zaire (Belgian Congo) when it became independent in 1960, and Biafra from Nigeria in 1967.

10 5 People Africa's estimated population is more than 400 million, 85% of whom live south of the Sahara. If the current growth rate of about 3% continues, the continent's population may reach 800 million by the year 2000an increasing concern of many African governments. Because of the vastness of the conti- 4 ? nent, population density is less than half that of the United Statesabout 30 persons per square mile. However, people are dispersed unevenly through, ut the region. Large expanses of deseand mountains are virtually uninhabited. On the other hand, good climate, fertile land, navigable rivers, safe ports, and demographic movements have created several areas with a population density as high as 500 persons per square mile. Sub-Saharan Africa's most populated areas are:

The lands bordering the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa, particularly A Nigeria and the southern parts of Ghana, Benin, and Togo; RP' The Nile Valley in northern Sudan; Mit The East African highlands, particularly the plateaus of Ethiopia, Kenya, eastern Zaire, Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania; and The eastern and southern coasts and interior High Veld of South Africa.

Most Afr mans still live in small, rural groups. However, opportunities for a better standard of living have led to increased migration to cities, which are confronted with problems of overcrowd- ing, unemployment, and insufficient municipal services. Among cities with more than 1 million inhabitants are: Kin- shasa, Zaire; Lagos and Ibadan, Nigeria; Johannesburg and Cape Town, South Africa; Abidjan, Ivory Coast; Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; and Accra, Ghana. Tremendous diversity exists among r the people of sub-Saharan Africa. This diversity stems from a variety of -A- causesthe infusion of elements from outside the African Continent, migration D to new areas in search of better A Somali farmer and businessman it check crop grown with seeds im- livelihood, rivalries that produced fac- 4 tions and subdivisions, and tendencies to ported from U S 4 organize into small, close-knit groups for Student at the Regional Training h protection and mutual support. Over Center for Plant Protection, thousands of years, this process has pro- Cameroon. duced more than 1,000 ethnic divisions. C Norma girls in traditional headdress, Niger Liberian training officer and secretary in U S AID mission

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Malabo EQUATORIAL GUINEA MO TOME eackshu AND PRINCIPE 0 EQUATORIAL GUINEA I et Si Salaam Africa Luanda

Population Density ,,.,,,,, .4

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12 7 Languages The complexity of African society is African Language Groups graphically demonstrated by the number of languages. Of more than 80G lar.- guages, fewer than 10 are spoken by more than I million people. Most lan E. guages are native to groups of less than a 100,000. Of the numerous linguistic author. A ities, the classifications of Joseph A Greenberg represent a contemporary B consensus (see Bibliography). His listing F2 b, of categories and map on this page show 0 .1 J the general geographic location of J 4, lobe .4 Chad groups. In the orief text that follows, 4. i . i. ,.. J A 1 .4. references in parentheses are alternate 14 //),*F2b. Oci)M .. N 0 13 names used by George Murdock, 14 Fa another eminent scholar. \ \ F1 _----..... 4i o '4.-K A The largest language family is the 3----',..TL- C c..._ a Ft Niger-Congo and Kordofanian (Nigritic), ,_. FBI '--, ___...... ----...... of which the Bantu sublang age group CI AFROASI 'TIC n Fl is the most important. Speakers of this A. Semitic -"xi/V.' family of languages are descendants of E . Berber ft C. CuultItlit LON the earliest people on the continent and D. C. il still occupy much of sub-Saharan Africa. L Ancient Egyptian (Coptic) Lb The Afroasiatic (Hamitic)including SUDANIC Semitic-, Berber-, and Cushitic-speaking F. Chad Me peoplestem from the early Caucasoids t. Central Chan - NSa and live primarily in north and north- 2. Eastern ChartNile a. Nilo& east Africa. The Sudanic can be found in b. Nubian and other a region stretching along the lower Nile Chart - Nile languages O. Central Saharan and westward through the area known M. Malian as the Sahel. The Bushmen and Hotten- I. Furls, J. Songhai tot peoples of southern Africa speak K. Korman Khoisan or "click" languages. Some languages, such as Swahili and Hausa, NIGER CONGO AND KORDOFANIAN serve as linguae francae between widely L Atlantic CLICK divergent groups, especially in trade. M. Mandingo N. Voltaic T. ..helvan 0. Kwa t. Northam P. Lie 2. Central Q. Adantawa and Eastern NigerCongo 3. Southern 11. Wave - Niger (Including Manta) U. Sendawe S. Kordefanian V. Mats.

® ocmIllan Educational Corporation, 1974. 601.1215ST ME 04R,C.41

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The approximate distribution of the main native language groups of Africa Is shown on the above map. Although the number of different languages is very high (perhaps more than 000), all Naive languages derive from tour basic stocks. These stocks we represented by the shaded and unshaded portions of the map. Key let- ters indicate divisions of the mein stooks and are placed in localities when kite,- Maui languages are spoken. European and European colonial languages, which often serve as a common language between language groups, we not included in this prewdallon. The dotted line at E shows the area when ancient Egyptian wee spoken, but the present language Is Amble. Certain other distributions, too minute to be shown on the map, Include complex wisdons in the Sudanic languages; pockets of Fulani In the Atlantic subgroup of Niger-Congo S.) found as far east as Lake Chad; and Bantu (A) encroachments on the territory of the Click speakers. Mannikin Educational Corp 1974

13 EthnolingulstIc Groups Ethnolinguistic Groups The diversity of ethnic groupings, which reflect original racial strains and often bear names similar to the languages "trr KabOas they speak, is illustrated on the map. Arab This map includes a portion of the names of well-known ethnolinguistic or 4.9Ypt,an tribal groups. Their inclusion does not Arab necessarily reflect their relative importance, nor is their location on the map definitive. -4" Arab sea Scattered throughout the continent Barber are about 5 million people of predomin- F redid :Erttan antly European descent, most of them Tans owe raee"4,*,,, concentrated in southern Africa. There Nabs For 01): rof-- are also nearly 1 million people of Asian s.":ftilb emboritiupet Baruirmi (principally Indian or Pakistani) origin in Amhara Africa. 011 mali Religion Religion traditionally has played an important role in African culture. There are many indigenous religions, but most recognize a supreme being who created all things, gave the world its order, and infused it with energy. Many African Groups seleued show diversity religions attribute conscious life to not relative importance Ovimbundu nature and natural objects, which has Simla led some scholars to use the term "animist" to refer to traditional African religions. Traditional religions, however, have been slowly giving way to Ch' tianity and Islam as life in the Africa interior becomes less isolated. Christianity was spread principally by European missionaries after the 16th century. With the advent of independ- Xboaa 60, 65 51.41k ONH r ence, the foreign missionary effort gradually has been replaced by African clergy. Today, some 95 million Chris- tians live in Africa. Islam swept across North Africa in the 7th century and then expanded southward. The Sahelian countries are predominantly Muslim, as are the northwest coastzl areas of sub-Saharan Th Soso (Ce-ge) eateiting Africa. With 125 million adherents, Is reerseereed a ewer Islam is Africa's largest religion. lore whose ineselanee delved from the meld emillkle that the Sable nge snipe* le dew When aollwelee he the diking in ot a neg, the deg epee was pre. eared 62 hot maisedent wires Its eight. The lees amber Cl nails It eattelne le traNnteny to the cealidence of the Ow hew ha Se force.

14 9 A Yoruba mask. Benin. Zulu dancers in Swaziland C Slit wooden drum, Central African Republic D Yacouba stilt dancer in the Ivory Coast. C

10 Culture developed in Ethiopia and later in an effort to maintain unity in one of The cultural richness of Africa is shown languages reflecting Arabic influence, Africa's largest states by accommodat- in four major forms: art, music, dance, sual as Hausa in West Africa and ing its ethnic, cultural, and historical dif. and literature. All uniquely interpret Swahili in the east. In the past 80 ferences in a decentralized system. traditional African values. religious years, published works on this subject Africa's ethnolinguistic groupings were beliefs; veneration of the deceased; have included such landmarks as Blaine characterized by strongly developed respect for nature; and the importance Cendrars' Anthology Negre, Leopold traditioral structures, which often of childbearing, the family, and the a m- Senghor's "Necritae" poetry, H.I.E. crossed political boundaries super. munity and its leaders. The arts express Dhlomo's Valley of the Thousand Hills, imposed by colonial powers with little or reverence for the past, teach social roles Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart, and no regard for linguistic or cultural and responsibilities, and encourage the Thomas Mofolo's Chaka. similarities. Despite the impact of mod. assimilation of traditional beliefs. ernization in urban areas, traditional Thanks to energetic collectors, from ethnic loyalties remain strong and have early colonial explorers to modern impeded the development of national curators and tourists, sculpture is the consciousnerzs. Opposition often has been best known African art form. Most re- based on ethnolinguistic and regional cent sculptures are of wood, but Political Processes special interests. African states probably will continue museums maintain collections from Political institutions and processes vary Nigeria of terra-cotta Nok statues from to experience change in governmental greatly in sub-Saharan Africa. There areform and process as they experiment the second and third centuries B.C. as federations, constitutional monarchies, well as ancient Benin and Ife bronzes. with ways to organize political power military oligarchies and autocracies, effectively and to devise a durable basis Other forms of traditional graphic or republics with democratic parliaments, plastic arts include rock paintings, for citizen participation in the political unicameral and bicameral houses, fully system. decorative metalwork, basketry, and elected and partly appointed legisla- jewelry. tures, and single and multiparty sys- Traditional dances reveal much of tems. Most governments are strongly African lore and legend, philosophy, and authoritarian, either single party or belief. They may celebrate past glories military based. and triumphs, mark contemporary When independence was achieved, Economy events and rites of passage, or make the first order of business was to sur- supplication for a good harvest or the vive, and survival required the building Africa's natural wealth is vast but security of the community. Folk dances of authority rather than its limitation as unevenly distributed. The continent is a vary markedly throughout the continent, in democratic countries. Authority could major exporter of mineralssuch as usually involving group efforts with par- not be achieved with a multiparty diamonds, cobalt, gold, and petroleum ticipants massed in circles or lines. system. Julius Nyerere, former Presi. and of agricultural commoditiessuch as Drums are most often identified dent of Tanzania and one of the original coffee, cocoa, and tea. Some countnes with African music. For thousands of group of African independence leaders, Gabon, Guinea, Liberia, Mauritania, years, however, Africans also have rationalized that the single party system Nigeria, Zaire, Zambia, and South played wind, string, and other percus- is more democratic, "prod -'ing it is Africa--have large mineral reserves. Yet sion instruments, obtaining subtle and identified with the natio. as a whole," other countries, such as those in the complex expressions from relatively sim- since "the people can ha:e more oppor- Sahel region, lack access to the coasts ple devices. Although much of the music tunity to exercise a real choice than as well as natural resources. These con- has served as accompaniment for danc- where you have two or more parties, trasting circumstances have been accen- ing, soloists and ensembles perform on each representing only a section of the tuated by varied colonial and cultural many other occasions. The rhynmic pat- community." Party loyalties and 1..n.ritages and postindependence theories terns of African music have influenced discipline, he maintained, limited of economic development. music outside the continent, most freedom of expression and of choke. Un- Despite its natural wealth, Africa as notably American jazz. fortunately, "democratic" single party a whole faces an unprecedented A rich oral tradition has existed in systems largely failed to create the economic crisis Falling per capita food Africa for centuries. Experts estimate authority necessary to govern. As a production, severe drought, world reces- that more than 250,000 myths, legends, result, most became, in fact, no-party, sion, mounting debt ' .ardens, and and folk tales flourish in sub-Saharan authoritarian regimes. mistaken government policies have Africa. Timbuktu had a written tradition The various forms of government in seriously affected development pros. before the 16th century. In the 18th the subcontinent also reflect the herit- pects. Widespread famine has accom- century other literary traditions age of colonial administrative and polit- panied the current drought; some 36 ical institutions as well as indigenous countries recently have been affected by historical and social backgrounds. abnormal food shortage. Untold Ethiopia's former constitutional monarchy, for example, was deeply rooted in the country's centuries-old royal history. Nigeria's attempt at American-style fed- eralism, on the other hand, represented ) 16

11 thousands of Africans have perished, tion has fallen during the past two to erosion. High population growth rates and an estimated 30 million urgently re- decades. African dependence on outside have stretched most African nations to quire food, medical care, and shelter if food sources is growing at an alarming the production limits of their traditional they are to survive. Even before the pace, and commercial imports of grain agricultures. drought, more than 20% of Africa's have risen at an annual rate of 9% over Nonetheless, Africa does have the population consumed less than the the past 20 years. Africa normally im- potential to produce sufficient food for minimum number of calories needed to ports more than 10 million tons of its increasing population and thereby sustain good health. Child mortality in cereals, excluding currert emergency reduce its vulnerability to future sub-Saharan Africa is double the rate of needs; if trends continue, this deficit willdroughts. This potential depends greatly all developing countries. increase markedly. Per capita gross upon the ability of African governments domestic product declined by 3%-4% to implement effective national policies per year from 1981 to 1983attributable that support small farmers and en- Famine and the Decline in largely to the decline in agriculture, the courage the use of modern technology. Agricultural Productivity primary component of most African Although little can be done to eliminate economies. drought, which occurs periodically in Africa has serious agricultural Debt Problems Africa, much can be done to avoid constraintsinsufficient rainfall, fragile During the 1960s, African governments famine. Drought has been transformed soils, a variety of microclimates, high benefited from high commodity prices into famine by high population growth soil temperatures, extreme seasonabili- and generous foreign aid. Government rates and the decline in farm output. ty, and unique insect pests. Farmers revenue was supplemented by borrow- Famine, in turn, has been aggravated have been shortening the fallow periods ing from private commercial banks. by mistaken national policies and armed for their fields, which has led to With the onset of world recession in the conflict. decreased yields and increased soil ero- 1970s, however, the prices of African Africa is the only region in the sion. Overuse of forests for firewood andcommodities plummeted while the cost world in which per capita food produc- intensive grazing also have contributed of imports remained high. Drought and

Drought victims in Ethiopia. SENEGAL JIBOUTI

EQUATO IAL GUINEA Africa Food Shortage Countries, Deserts and Arid Areas

Selected food shortage countries

True desert 1777717711,4fItcgs!:1.1 Desert margin; desertification in heavily grazed areas Semi-arid zone; extensive W desertification due to over stocking or cultivation BIQUE

0 5001,000 Kilometers

Source:Climate and Desertification: A Revised Analysis, World Meteorological Organization, January 1983. THO

6017 12 85 STATE (1NR/GE)

18 19 declining agricultiiral productivity led to have contributed unwittingly to ineffi- increasing commercial imports of basic cient use of resources. However well in- foodstuffs. tentioned, donors have insisted on im- As African economies declined, their posing their own requirements on reci- governments turned increasingly to bor- pients that have caused administrative rowing. From 1972 to 1982, medium- problems and strained the absorptive and long-term debt increased by an an- capacity of African nationsfor example, nual average rate of 22%. Debt service 50 donors have contributed to 188 proj- . ratios (the relationship between debt ects in Malawi, 61 donors to 321 proj- payments due and exports of goods and ects in Lesotho, and 69 donors to 614 services) worsened as well, with ratios projects in Zambia. Furthermore, aid of from 30% to 80% or more prevailing donors sometimes have subsidized ineffi- in some countries. Most African nations cient state enterprises and supported now have major debt problems. In the the creation of elaborate government international forums where public and projects that could not be maintained private debts are rescheduled, the ma- without continued foreign assistance. jority of 1984 reschedulings were for Nonetheless, foreign assistance has ac- African countries. complished much in Africa. Notably, several major diseases have been Inefficient Government Policies eradicated, and physical infrastructure Africa's economic problems are closely has been created to market crops and linked to the inefficient use of its minerals. Foreign donors also helped to resources. Two decades after in- establish the first universities and dependence, African leaders are con- technical training centers on the fronted with difficult choices and over- continent. whelming economic obstacles that would E try the patience and administrative capacity of more experienced governments elsewhere in the world. These leaders often discourage farm production by adopting politically expedient tax and pricing policies that have favored politically influential urban populations and have disadvantaged farmers, whose output has declined accordingly. They have created large bureaucracies, ig- nored the private sector, promoted e state-run industries that do not produce or produce only at very high cost, maintained overvalued currencies that discourage exports and lead to balance- of-payments crises, and allowed physical infrastructure to deteriorate. Increasingly, however, African governments are recognizing errors in past policies, and changes are occurring throughout the continent. In the last several years, attitudes have shifted dramatically on such issues as exchange rates, on measures to rehabilitate in- frastructu.e and export industries, on reducing government regulation and bureaucracy, and on assuring that farmers are rewarded through pricing and marketing reform. Aid donor countries and international institutions are beginning to realize that some of their practices also

19 14 &1111111441444 .lam 4.411_

+111111A.

Ak_

A Traditional farming in Nigeria. B Grain storage in Niger C Many Africans, Particularly in rural areas, lack access to safe water. In Burkina AID has helped provide improved water systems to replace open wells that are easily contaminated an,. spread disease. D AID-supported project for dry-land rice cultivation in Senegal E African researcher on AID-supported project for dry-land farming in Cameroon

20 15 Organization of African Unity.The agree to coordinate and harmonize their Multilateral Organization of African Unity is the general policies in order to promote most prominent and encompassing African progress and unity, to defend Organizations organization on the African Continent the sovereignty and territorial integrity Founded in May 1963, it includes all in- of member states, and to eradicate dependent African states except the United Nations.Sub-Saharan African colonialism from Africa. Signatories nations play an important role in inter- Republic of South Africa and Morocco. agree to adhere to the principles of non- national and regional organizations. South Africa never belonged to the interference in one another's affairs, the They regard the United Nations as the organization, and Morocco withdrew in peaceful settlement of disputes, the con- major forum for presenting their views 1985 because of the admission of the demnation of political assassination or and as a useful arena for advancing Saharoui Arab Democratic Republic subversive activity against neighboring foreign policy objectives. Because each (Polisario). Headquartered in Addis states, respect for existing boundaries, country, large or small, has one vote in Ababa, the OAU has both political and the liberation of remaining dependent the UN General Assembly, and because economic responsibilities. The organiza- areas, and nonalignment with respect to all 46 independent sub-Saharan states tion has no enforcement powers over its non-African blocs. are UN members, Africa represents members and OAU resolutions are ad- The work of the OAU is carried on nearly one-third of the Assembly's 159 visory rather than binding, although in- through four principal institutionsthe votes. When taking a common stance, dividual OAU member states historically Assembly of Heads of State and Govern- African states thus can have significant, have been reluctant in other interna- ment; the Council of Ministers; the sometimes crucial, influence on many tional forums to depart from OAU posi- General Secretariat; and the Commis- issues in the Assembly and other UN tions adopted by resolution. An impor- sion of Mediation, Conciliation, and Ar- bodies. The African members have been tant OAU function is to obtain an bitration. Specialized and ad hoc com- particularly concerned about issues in- African consensms on questions of in- missions deal with a variety of activities volving colonialism, North-South terest at the United Nations, where the of common interest and attempt to in- economic issues, dependent peoples, and OAU maintains a permanent office. still a spirit of cooperation among human rights. Members of the Organiza- The preamble of the OAU Charter member states. tion of African Unity (OAU) have been reaffirms the principles of the United Annual OAU summits endeavor to prime movers Li General Assembly and Nations and its Universal Declaration of deal with current crises, often involving Security Council resolutions dealing Human Rights. It also pledges to sup- African interstate relations. Debates with southern African problems. Occa- port the aspirations of the African sometimes avoid confrontation on the sionally, however, many have been peoples and to foster African political tough issues and differences that divide reluctant to take controversial positions and economic development. Signatories nations, but they can be acrimonious. involving other African states, prefer- The OAU has attempted to limit exter- ring to deal with such issues within the nal intervention in African problems and OAU or in other African forums. to assist in such issues as the use of Just as African nations participate mercenaries in Zaire, the Biafran actively in the General Assembly and rebellion, disputes between Ethiopia and Security Council, UN specialized agen- Somalia and between Algeria and cies and other organizations have been Morocco, the transition to independence deeply involved in Africa. Among these in Angola, the status of the Western are the UN Conference on Trade and Sahara, self-determination issues in Development (UNCTAD); the Interna- southern Africa, and human rights. In tional Bank for Reconstruction and 1981 the OAU established its first joint Development (IBRD); the International military force to help keep peace during Development Association (IDA); the In- the civil war in Chad. Nigeria, Senegal, ternational Finance Corporation (IFC); and Zaire contributed troops to the the International Monetary Fund (IMF); peacekeeping force during its 6 months the World Health Organization (WHO); in Chad. the International Labor Organization A 1982 executive decision by the (ILO); the UN Children's Fund OAU Secretary General to seat the (UNICEF); the Food and Agriculture Polisarioa self-styled liberation move- Organization (FAO); the UN High Com- ment fighting for the independence of missioner for Refugees (UNHCR); and the Western Saharawas strongly op- the UN Educational, Scientific and posed by Morocco and many African Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Many states. However, because the organiza- of these bodies participate in the UN tion was increasingly paralyzed due to Development Program (UNDP), which the controversy over this one issue, the allocates a major portion of its resources Polisario finally was allowed to take its to sub-Saharan Africa. teat at the November 1984 OAU summit. Morocco withdrew from the OAU as a result.

16 I

Economic Commission for Africa. United States remains the largest nearly all the Francophone, Anglophone, The Economic Commission for Africa donor, providing 15.4% of the total Fund And Lusophone countries of the West (ECA), a UN regional body in which all replenishment. African region from Mauritania to independent African states, except Nigeria. Its objective is to create a com- South Africa, are represented, was Lome Convention.The Lome III mon market in which internal trade bar- established in 1958 for the promotion Ccnvention was signed in Lome, Togo, riers will be eliminated. The Community and planning of African economic and in December 1984; it continues the promotes free movement of people, social development through cooperative special economic relations between the services, and capital; harmonization of and regional action. The ECA performs European Economic Community (EEC) lgricultural policies; joint development extensive research and served as a and 67 nations of the African, Caribbean of economic and industrial policies; and catalyst in the creation of the African and Pacific (ACP) Group of States. The elimination of disparities in levels of Development Institute and the African new convention replaces Lome II, which development. Community headquarters Development Bank. It maintains and expired in February 1985. Lome I was is in Lagos, Nigeria. endeavors to strengthen economic ties signed in 1975. The 5-year accord pro- with other countries of the world. The vides ACP countries with tracts. Inter-African Coffee Organization. headquarters of the ECA Secretariat is preferences, industrial cooperation, and The Inter-African Coffee Organization in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. $6.3 billion in economic assistance, in- (ICAO) was founded in 1960 and now cluding the STABEX program, which has 15 members. Its objective is to African Development Bank and helps to maintain stable export earnings adopt a unified policy on coffee Fund.The purpose of the African for certain ACP commodities. Although marketing. The organization facilitates Development Bank and Fund, head- similar to its predecessor conventions, contacts among member countries, cof- quartered in Abidjan, is to contribute to Lome III adds provisions on private in- fee buyers, and the International Coffee its members' economic and social vestment, fisheries, cultural coordina- Organization. It is headquartered in development. The Bank and Fund tion, and refugee aid. Abidjan, Ivory Coast. finance investment projects and development programs. After the Bank opened ACP Group.The African, Carib- West African Rice Development membership to nonregional countries, bean and Pacific Group of States was Association.The West African Rice the United States joined in 1983, becom-convened originally to negotiate the Development Association (WARDA) has ing the largest nonregional donor, with Lome Convention with the EEC. 14 members. Its purpose is to work an annual commitment of $18 million in Founded as a permanent organization in cooperatively in the research, growing, paid-in capital and $54 million in callable July 1975, the ACP Group aims to and marketing of rice. It lobbies for in- capital. It has increased its contribution represent its members' views concern- creased quotas on the world market. to the Fund, the Bank's soft loan win- ing the Lome Convention. It also tries WARDA's headquarters is located in dow, by $50-$75 million annually. The to develop closer trade, economic, and Monrovia, Liberia. cultural relations among ACP states and to promote effective interregional cooperation. ACP headquarters is in Brussels.

Economic Community of West African States.The Economic Com- munity of West African States (ECOWAS) has 16 members, including

22 17 a-

OM. U.S. Relations With Sub-Saharan Africa

Although Portuguese, French, Dutch, cooperated to promote economic through African waters. Thus, stra- British, Belgian, and German involve- development through bilateral and tegic cooperation with several ment in Africa preceded that of the multilateral programs and in supporting African states is important to the ex- United States and exceeded it in scope, enhanced regional security. ercise of U.S. global responsibilities. U.S. relations with Africa, influenced by Africa is increasingly important to Continuing regional conflicts make our status as a former colony and our U.S. national interests. sub-Saharan Africa a potential arena absence from the ranks of colonial for rivalry and confrontation between powers, have long been affected by Africa is a significant factor in external powers. humanitarian considerations and cultural multilateral politics. With its bloc of North-South issuesraised by less links. In the 19th and early 20th cen- 46 nations (51 with North Africa), developed African and other Third turies, following participation in the Africa can play an important, often slave trade, the United States began decisive, role in international World countries concerned with organizations and multilateral economic disadvantagescould in- slowly and more positively to increase crease hostility and resentment its involvement through the activities of meetings. toward the industrialized democra- missionaries, explorers, and commercial The region possesses important cies; African economic stagnation companies. World War II changed natural resourcesoil, copper, iron, American perceptions and shifted U.S. could lead to greater instability and bauxite, uranium, cobalt, chromium, outside manipulation. priorities and policies. Africa, the platinum, manganese, gold, and Africa assumes particular significance "sleeping giant," was beginning to diamonds. awaken, bringing the realization that for Americans of African descent who the United States and the rest of the Africa offers a growing field for trade are deeply concerned about the conti- world would soon have to consider its and economic cooperation with the nent's problems. political and economic potential. United States. The United States Having played a major role in draft- needs to buy African raw materials; ing provisions of the UN Charter, which Africa requires capital investment, provided the philosophical base for the new technology, managerial skills, end of colonialism, the United States and markets to develop other welcomed African independence. Since products. then, the United States has actively The continent is strategically located. Many countries have deep-water ports, good airfields, and controlling positions in relation to major water- ways and air corridors. The oil tanker routes from the Persian Gulf to Europe and the Americas pass

Facing page U S food aid, Ethiopia.

24 19 climate of understanding and coopera- prehensions in neighboring count' 'es Elements of tion while encouraging restraint on the and contributes to a deterioration of part of outside powers so that African regional stability. Libya, with great U.S. Policy states can devise their own solutions quantities of Soviet arms, has supported and maintain their independence. An im- subversion in many African countries portant goal is to develop more con- and now occupies part of Chad. Elements of U.S. foreign policy toward structive relations with those few Africa have shifted from time to time, African countries with which the United Security Cooperation.Although depending on the outlook of various ad- States has significant problems. ministrations, changing congressional at- most African states would prefer to titudes, and circumstances on the conti- avoid involvement in global political and Opposition to Soviet-bloc Adven- security issues, it is all but impossible nent itself. However, in the past two turlsna. decades a broad outline of U.S. policy The United States has tried to for them to do so when their own keep Africa from becoming an area of security is affected. Thus it is in the in- has emerged that contains the following East -Wet strategic competition and components. terest of the United States and several conflict. The Soviets have not been African countries to cooperate in helping similarly restrained, however. Soviet to ensure regional security. This Maintenance of Mutually Satisfac- military advisers and Soviet-supported tory Bilateral Political Relations. cooperation may involve U.S. access to U.S. Cuban troops decisively influenced the interests are compatible with African African strategic facilities, such as ports outcome of the internal contest for and airfields, to help maintain the free aspirations, and the United States has power in Angola. More than 37,000 made major contributions to African flow of oil and other vital goods through Cuban soldiers remain in Angola and the nearby sea routes. It also may in- development and stability. A principal Ethiopia. This situation generates ap- U.S. objective in Africa is to maintain a clude U.S. military assistance, both materiel and training, to African forces. U.S.-Soviet Military Balance Such assistance remains, nevertheless, a small fraction of our total assistance, which is chiefly economic.

U.S. Support for Civil and Human INghts Throughout Africa.The U.S. Government supports the establishment, maintenance, and extension of full civil and human rights and the rule of law ' all peoples throughout the African Can- tinent. The T inked States has taken the lead in working for a negotiated settlement for independence in Namibia and is encouraging the progressive disman- tling of the apartheid system in South Africa. The United States has adopted specific measures against governments responsible for violations of their own citizens' human rights, for example, Uganda, South Africa, the Central African Republic, and Equatorial Guinea. For the most part, however, the United States promotes human rights through private diplomacy, which usually achieves the most direct benefits for the people affected.

Resolution of African Conflicts. President Reagan with President Moire of Botswana. Conflicts between or within Africa offer undesirable opportunities for foreign interference that may imperil regional stability and destroy the climate of confidence necessary for economic development and international cooperation. Thus it is in the interest of the United States and African nations to contribute I to the peaceful resolution of disputes.

Economic Cooperation.U.S. policy maintains a twofold approach to the economic crisis in sub-Saharan Africa. The United States provides emergency humanitarian aid to those in urgent need, whether victims of the widespread drought or of violent conflict. To promote long-term development, the U.S. Government seeks to encourage efficient African economic policies and to establish programsfor example, in infrastructure, agriculture, health, and educationthat provide the basis for sound economic growth. It also works to expand African and U.S. Vice President Bush with Kenyan President Arap MN private-sector economic activities.

21 Development and stability normally 1977-78. This invasion was repulsed Policy Issues are the first priorities of every African after massive infusions of Soviet aid and state. African governments are well Cuban troops to Ethiopia. In return for aware that expanded trade opportunities their help, the Soviets have acquired The results of subSaharan Africa's, first and development capital, public or 20 years of independence have been naval and air facilities in Ethiopia. The private, will come only from the West. mixed. Some of the former colonies have Ethiopian Government also continues to Africa has welcomed U.S. assistant . rely primarily on military force to remained politically stable and have en- and the majority of African govern. joyed economic growth rates above the resolve longestering internal unrest in ments have confidence in the good will other regions of the country, particular global average. Among these are Kenya, and intentions of the United States. Ivory Coast, Malawi, Botswana. and ly the northern province of Eritrea. Politically, African nations genei ally A largo Sovietbloc presence, in- Cameroon. Others have experienced have not adopted the Western multipar coups d'etat resulting in extended cluding Soviet r dvisers and some 7,000 ty democratic model. Only a minority Cuban combat troops, remains in periods of military rule. Most African meet U.S. criteria for democracy, and economies, however, have stagnated or Ethiopia. With large shipments of many do not respect the human rights Soviet arms and a major expansion of declined, with growth rates now far of their citizenry to the degree that behind the figures for population in- its military forces, Ethiopia now has the most Americans would find desirable. crease. Long civil wars and insurgencies largest standing army in sub-Saharan Yet African countries have not followed Africa. A tripartite pact concluded be- have plagued some countries (P'..inopia, the Soviet example, despite the Marxist Chad) and others (Angola and Mozam- tween Ethiopia, Libya, and South rhetoric of several states. Most are Yemen in August 1981 has been fol- bique) still suffer from the traumatic humane but authoritarian or one-party passage to independence. Many nations lowed by terrorist and guerrilla attacks regimes seeking to devise their own against Sudan and Somalia. In June have been devastated by natural formulas for nation-building and catastrophes such as the widespread 1982, Ethiopian regular troops, support- drought. All African nationseven the development. ing a small number of Somali dissidents oil producersstill face a doubtful Because African nations acutely feel trained and armed in Ethiopia, attacked their poverty and disadvantages in he several points along the disputed economic future caused not only by theirglobal economy, they differ from the own misguided policies but also by ':.,oman.Ethiopian border. Similar attacks United States on many international against 3omalia have occurred since global inflation and uncertain oil and economic issues. They also desire primary commodity markets. Clearly, then. At the end of 1985, Ethiopian greater U.S. participation in commodity forces continued to occupy two small the feeling of euphoria that seized support agreements, whereas the Africans upon independence is past. areas n.f Somali territory. Ethiopia also Chastened by experience, sub-Saharan United States believes that the free has provided training safehavens and market usujly should determine prices supplies for Sudanese rebels fighting in Africa today faces the future sobered by and influence supply and demand. a realization that independence is only southern Sudan. The United States has had a wide Over the past year the Horn has one step toward national well-being. range of policy concerns regarding Throughout this turbulent era, the been devastated by seriot's drought and Africa. The following are the principal famine. More than 7 million people are United States, like the African nations U.S. policy issues. themselves, has bees. learning the affected by this disaster in Ethiopia realities of the region. Since African in- alone. Many of them seek refuge in neighboring countries, particularly dependence, the American Government The Horn of Africa has sought to offer access to scientific, Sudan. The international community has technological, and educational expeience The Horn of Africa is strategically responded generously to emergency and has helped to provide the financial located with respect to the Persian Gulf- needs in the region. The American assistance necessary to fund develop- Southwest Asia region. This north- public, through private contributions, ment programs. Although the United eastern tip, or "Horn," is comprised of has sent relief groups millions of dollars States had relatively little experience in Somalia, Ethiopia, and Djibouti. Key for food, medicine, and shelter. A major Africa before the 1960s, the record of neighboring states are Kenya on the portion of the U.S. Government's aid to American policy has been largely south and Sudan on the west. The Africa is being sent to countries in the positive. Africa as a whole has not fallen area's importance has increased as the Horn, making the United States the prey to communism, as some once United States strengthens its ability to largest single donor in the region. feared it might. Soviet gains on the con- protect U.S. interests in the Indian The U.S. presence is not directed tinent generally have proved to be tran- Ocean in the wake of instability in the against any state in the region, nor do sitory, and Soviet opportunities have Middle East. The political-military situa- we wish to see any of these states depended on local turmoil generating a tion in the Horn is complicated by inter forced to allocate additional resources to demand for Soviet arms. nal and regional conflicts, instabilities, military purposes when the economic and tangled external ali:ances. Somali needs of their peoples are so great. irredentist claims to neighlor'..._; ter. However, African security is not served ritories inhabited by ethnic S nails led to an undeclared Somali-Kenyan war in the late 1960s and then to a oonudi invasion of E..:iopia's Ogaden regi.n in

27 22 to include northerners in 1978. The northern Prime Minister, Hissein Habre, attempted a coup in February 1979 that led to fighting among 11 factions. At this point, the civil war had become so intense that no effective e:taCkii. government existed and external observers were obliged to intervene. A series of four international conferences, held first under Nigerian and then under OAU sponsorship, attempted to bring the 11 factions together. At the fourth conference, held in Lagos in August 1979, the Lagos accord was signed establishing a transitional government pending national elections. In November 1979, the National Union Transition Government (GUNT) was created with a mandate to govern for 18 months. Goukouni Oueddei, a north- erner, was named President; Eritrean rebels, Abdelkader Kamougue, a southerner, Vice President; and Hissein Habre, Defense Minister. if Soviet arms, Cuban forces, and Lib- We have made clear that we would This coalition proved fragile; in yan money are combined to destabilize welcome signs from Ethiopia that it, March 1980 renewed fighting broke out legitimate governments in the Horn. too, seeks a better structure of rela- between Goukouni's and Habre's forces. The United States will respond to such tionships in the region and an end to Tile war dragged on inconclusively until threats against friends and legitimate confrontational policies. We are the Goukouni obtained the intervention of U.S. interests in the region, as il largest single donor to Ethiopian Libya, which sent more than 7,000 lustrated by emergency arms shipments famine relief. troops to Chad and defeated Habre's to Somalia at the time of the Ethiopian We fully respect the sovereignty and forces. These Libyan troops then incursions. At the same time, the U.S. territorial integrity of all regional became an occupation force in Chad. In Government works cooperatively for states. We support the OAU position October 1981, Goukouni responded to political resolution of the underlying ten on the acceptance of postcolonial regional and international concern over sions that have long troubled this region borders in Africa, as well as efforts Libya's announced goal of unification and for the improvement of the to negotiate resolutions to specific with Chad and requested the complete economic conditions and welfare of all regional conflicts. withdrawal of Libyan troops. They its people. pulled back to the contested Aozou Strip The United States is pursuing in northern Chad, which the Libyans specific policies to advance its overall Chad have occupied since 1973, and were objectives in the region. A large, landlocked country in the replaced by a 3,500-man OAU center of Africa, Chad has often suf- peacekeeping force from Nigeria, We provide substantial assistance to fered from internal conflicts baseu on Senegal, and Zaire. The United States the states of the region (more than ethnic and religious differenceswith gave strong diplomatic backing to the $300 million in economic assistance factional leaders using private armies to creation of this force and authorized $12 and more than $100 million in securi- compete for powerand, more recen*ly, million for its support. ty assistance in FY 1985); emergency from Libyan aggression. Chad's long A special summit of the OAU Chad food assistance in FY 1985 exceeded civil war began in 1965just 5 years committee in February 1982 called for a $400 million. after its independence from France process of reconciliation among all the We have actively engaged with other with an uprising of northerners against factions, particularly Goukouni and major bilateral donor states and with the southern-led government. With the Habre, who had resumed military ac- the international financial institutions help of France, President Tombalbaye tivities in eastern Chad. Although to promote more comprehensive pro- initially was able to repress the in- Habre agr- ed to participate, Goukouni grams to meet the economic prob- surgency, but eventually the rebels refused to negotiate. Defying the OAU lems facing Sudan, Somalia, Djibouti, gathered force. den. Felix Malloum, a February 1982 cease-fire, Goukouni and Kenya. southerner, led a successful coup d'etat ordered GUNT coalition forces to attack We work diplomatically to encourage in 1975; his government was broadened Habre. Habre's troops seized the Chad- better relations among those coun- ian capital on June 7, 1982. The OAU tries in the region, such as Kenya force remained neutral during the con- and Somalia, with which we have flict. Habre then asked the peacekeep- close ties.

28 23 ing force to stay in Chad to oversee the Southern Africa have produced violent retaliatory reconciliation process, but the force The countries of southern Africa responses from the South African withdrew when its OAU mandate ex- comprising South Africa, Namibia, Government. U.S. policy aims to end pired on June 30. Habre established a Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, Angola, this cycle of violence, which contributes government emphasizing reconciliation Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi, and to instability throughout the region and and including representatives of all ma- Mozambiqueare closely interrelated decreases South Africa's willingness to jor Chadian ethnic and regionr groups. through political, socioeconomic, and negotiate. Goukouni, former President and Vice cultural ties. It is a region of great President Kamougue, and a number of mineral wealth, containing several U.S. Policy.Through frank other factional leaders fled the country critical resources, and occupies a dialogue and quiet diplomacy with all In late 1982 they formed a Libyan- strategic position along the West's oil parties, the Reagan Administration has supported "government-in-exile" in the supply route. Unfortunately, it has sought to develop an overall framework Aozou Strip to overthrow the Habre become one of the continent's major for regional security, to bring about the government. areas of political crisis, a region withdrawal of foreign troops from the In mid-1983, Libyan-supported rebels characterized by confrontation, region, to gain Namibian independence, launched an offensive against President destabilization, and armed strife. to hasten positive change in South Habre. They were later supported by One issue that motivated and united Africa, and to create an environment in Libyan ground and air forces that forced many sub-Saharan countries in their which economic development can flour- Chadian Government troops to withdraw quest for independence still exists in ish. Our policy encourages the active in- from Faya Largeau and other northern southern Africa: domination by a white volvement of the U.S. Government and oases. The military situation stabilized minority. For black Africans, colonial private citizens or groups with all con- following the introduction of French and and racial issues are critical, while many tending parties in the region. Although Zairian forces. In September 1984, whites in southern Africa believe their the U.S. Government does not regard France and Libya announced their position and even their very survival the situation in southern Africa as agreement to a mutual withdrawal of are threatened. In consequence, conflicts satisfactory, the reality is that we can forces from Chad. All French troops in southern Africa have been particular- play a substantive role in encouraging were withdrawn by mid-November, but ly bitterthe wars to end colonial rule peaceful evolution only if we are in- a substantial number of Libyans in Angola and Mozambique, the struggle volved in regional diplomacy and sup- remained. for independence and the end of white port positive change in South Africa. The United States is seriously con- minority rule in Southern Rhodesia This is a role for which the United cerned by the continued Libyan military (Zimbabwe), and continuing efforts to States is uniquely suited. As leader of occupation of northern Chad, which end South Africa's apartheid system and the free world, the United States has threatens destabilization not only in its control over Namibia. global interests that require it to be Chad but also in the entire region. The An atmosphere of polarization vitally concerned about peace and United States and the majority of the envelops the region, providing fertile stability in southern Africa. As a society international communityincluding the ground for exploitation by the Soviet that has moved with justice and humani- United Nations, OAU, and Nonaligned bloc. The activity of communist coun- ty to resolve its own racial problems, Movementrecognize President Habre's tries consists principally of supplying the United States has earned the con- government. In response to a Chadian war materiel, troops, and military sup- fidence of many black African countries. Government request in mid-1983, Presi- port personnel, which only exacerbates Thus, the United States aims to help to dent Reagan authorized emergency the situation. Capital, technology, in- build bridges of con.prehension and con- military assistance amounting to $25 vestment, and traderather than fidence between Cie races in southern million. military assistanceare the paramount Africa that will enable the region to Under Habre's leadership, Chad has needs of these countries, and they must avoid chaos and maintain stability while achieved a significant measure of unity look primarily to the West for this the inevitable process of evolution takes and purpose despite Libyan aggression. assistance. place. The United States enjoys close ties with African attention now focuses on the Government of Chad, and we sup- two principal issues: terminating South South Africa.The United States port peaceful efforts aimed at restoring Africa's system of apartheid and achiev- has maintained official relations with the country's territorial integrity and ing independence for Namibia on the South Africa since the establishment of sovereignty. U.S. policy supplements basis of UN Security Council Resolution a consulate in Cape Town in 1799. The the lead role assumed by France in 435. Efforts in Namibia by the South many ties between the two countries in- assisting the Government of Chad to West Africa People's Organization clude a shared language and cultural thwart Libyan aggression and to pursue (SWAPO) and in South Africa by the heritage, military cooperation embracing reconstruction and internal political African National Congress (ANC) and two World Wars and Korea, and impor- reconciliation. In FY 1985, the U.S. the Pan-African Congress (PAC) to tant trade and investment relations. Government provided substantial achieve these goals by armed struggle, Since 1948, however, when the Govern- amounts of emergency food as well as including cross-border guerrilla attacks. ment of South Africa officially adopted economic and rehabilitation grant aid to its policy of apartheid, which legally Chad totaling about $55 million. separated the various racial groups, relations with the United States have been troubled.

2i 24 4. 4.

.rs:

A A Durban, South Africa, an industrial center, seaport, and resort B Funeral demonstration, South Africa

Apartheid is incompatible with American values and has become increasingly intolerable as our international human rights policy has evolved. President Reagan has called apartheid repugnant, and Vice President Bush said in 1982: "Apartheid is wrong. It is legally entrenched racisminimical to the fundamental ideals of the United States." Apartheid also is politically disastrous, since it fosters economic, military, and political instability both within South Africa and throughout the region. For both moral and practical political reasons, therefore, several U.S. administrations have sought to move the B South African Government away from apartheid and toward a system of government based on participation and ment in Namibia and peaceful evolution progress on any issue. Without such consent of all the governed. However, away from apartheid in South Africa. cooperation, the elements within South although U.S. policy objectives have re- By contrast, the current policy has Africa favoring a more militant policy mained fundamentally the same, the worked to reestablish and maintain a are strengthened; the climate inSouth methods for achieving them have relationship with South Africa that will Africa for positive change or for differed. allow effective bilateral communication cooperation in economic development The Reagan Administration in- and thereby enhance U.S. ability to in- worsens in the face of cross-border guer- herited a relationship with South Africa fluence South African policies and rilla attacks or increas,d violence in that was at its lowest point in recent actions. Namibia. At the same time, South history. It was characterized by official The principal issues plaguing Africa's neighbors are less able and will- hostility on both sides, confrontational southern Africaapartheid, Namibia, ing to participate in constructive rhetoric often appearing in public print, regional security, and economic regional diplomacy whk,n that govern- and severely strained diplomatic rela- developmentare closely related, and ment pursues an aggressive regional tions. More important, a total stalemate progrEss, or the lack of it, on one issue policy and when hopes fade for sus- existed on the key issues of a settle- affects progress on the others. South tained reform away from apartheid. Africa is the strongest power in the region, and its cooperation with other southern African nations is essential for

30 25 To achieve lasting peace and period has been allocated for specific nings, police brutality, and the detention economic development, the nations of human rights projects. These efforts of black leaders, some of whom were the region must evolve ground rules for supplement those of the U.S. business later charged with treason. In July 1985, cooperation and coexistence. The United community, which, during the past 8 the South African Government declared States serves as an important catalyst years, has spent more than $130 million a state of emergency in 36 magisterial to bring the contending parties together on similar programs to assist the black districts to stem this violence. It subse- and to reverse the deteriorating majority. More than 70% of all black quently announced its willingness to regional security situation. Progress has South African employees of U.S. consider changes in laws covering influx been achieved. We helped to arrange affiliated private companies in the nun- control, the pass laws, and citizenship the February 1984 Lusaka accord under try are covered by the Sullivan code of for blacks. If enacted, these reforms which South Africa agreed to withdraw fair employment practices. would constitute major changes away its forces from Angola and the two na- The United States has been en- from apartheid and would continue the tions established a Joint South African- couraged by some recent evidence of liberalization process. However, the Angolan Monitoring Commission to movement away from apartheid in government has yet to clarify its inten- oversee the withdrawal. We also helped South Africa, including abolition of the tions or take concrete actions. South Africa and Mozambique to Mixed Marriages and Immorality Acts; Even with these changes, major negotiate the March 1984 nonaggression an end to the Political Interference Act, grievances would remain. There have pact at Nkomatifurther evidence of which prohibited racially integrated been official hints and "trial balloons," the increased willingness of various par- political parties; legalization of black but no significant change has occurred ties to resolve their differences through labor unions; granting urban residency in the "homelands" policy under which negotiation and to move away from rights to more blacks; and increasing blacks are deprived of South African the concept of armed struggle and government spending for black educa- citizenship and relegated to impover- destabilization. tion. In particular, we believe that the ished "homeland" enclaves that have lit- The many restrictions on trade, vote on November 2, 1983, on the new tle, if any, potential for independent travel, and financial assistance and on constitutionin which the white elec- economic or political viability. It is also military, scientific, and nuclear coopera- torate indicated its support of change by unclear whether the central issue tion demonstrate that the United States a 2-1 margindemonstrates the political rights for blackswill be re- does not have a normal diplomatic rela- readiness of whites to move away from solved to the satisfaction of the govern- tionship with South Africa. The United the discredited policy of apartheid. ment and its opponents. Although the States maintains an arms embargo and Although the new constitution is basical- government has indicated its willingness enforces other restrictions on the sale of ly flawed because it grants only limited to negotiate this issue, many black equipment to South Africa's military, political rights to the country's colored leaders are skeptical about its sincerity. police, and other agencies enforcing and Asian populations and none to the As the paCe of change increases, so apartheid. However, we believe that black majority, we believe the vote do expectations for further modification, progress in obtaining South African itself indicates hope for future progress. as well as resistance from substantial cooperation to solve the problems in Unfortunately, as in the past, these elements of the white minority. We southern Africa cannot be achieved by encouraging signs have been accom- believe in encouraging the reforms now further punitive economic actions; these panied by negative actions by the South underway and concentrating on positive tac :cs have proved unsuccessful and African Government, such as the deten- steps that back constructive change and even counterproductive in the past. tion of opposition leaders on the eve of those working to achieve it. In doing We believe that South African and the August 1984 elections for the new this, one must keep in mind that the in- U.S. interests are best served by en- tripartite Parliament and overreactions fluence of outside powers on the course couraging sustained movement away to black protests by police resulting in of events in South Africa is limited; from apartheid. The reforms underway needless deaths, widespread detention, however, it does exist and, when used in South Africa in recent years repre- and actions against labor leaders. judiciously, can be successful. sent a beginning, but the most fun- Violence in South Africa's townships To indicate America's displeasure damental aspects of apartheid have not has been at a high level since the new with the continued high level of violence been addressed. We are concentrating constitution was inaugurated in 1984. and the slow pace of reform in South oil positive steps to support constructiveAdding to black unrest have been school Africa, President Reagan announced in change and those who work for it. With boycotts by students protesting inferior ,eptember 1985 further restrictions on the cooperation of Congress, we have education; a nationwide recession, with U.S. ties with the South African spent more than $10 million in FY 1985 skyrocketing black unemployment and Government. This followed nearly 5 to bring black South Africans to the galloping inflation; imposition of in- years of consistent, forceful criticism by United States for study; to train black creased rents for black housing by the President, the Vice President, and trade unionists; to support the develop- township councils; and killings, ban- the Secretary of State of South Africa's ment and growth of small businesses in human rights record and growing the black communities; and to support demands in the United States from Con- black education within South Africa. In gress and the American public for addition, $1.5 million during a 2-year stronger measures to bring about change in South Africa. The President carefully tailored his actions to avoid

31 26 punitive measures that would disrupt military withdrawal would be completed. the ccuntry's economy and hurt those After the conclusion of the constituent South Africans disadvantaged by apart- assembly, independence would be heid and instead focused his actions on proclaimed. the apparatus that enforces apartheid. Although South Africa initially The new measuresvery similar to agreed to these principles, it broke off negotiations at Geneva in January 1981. those in proposed congressional legisla- tion that had been approved by the The South African Government seemed to realize the inevitability of Namibian House of Representatives, except that independence but feared that the ter- they did not contain a ban on new investmentincluded expanded restric- ritory's white and other minorities would be given insufficient opportunity tions on nuclear and computer sales and to express their political wills in a fair on bank loans to the South African Government, a ban on arms imports constitutional process and that any preindependence agreement to protect from South Africa, a ban on importing Krugerrands, and a requirement that them would be abandoned afterward. U.S. firms doing business in South Recognizing that Namibian in- Africa adhere to certain fair labor stand- dependence was impossible without ards based on the Sullivan principles or South Africa's cooperation, the Reagan forfeit marketing assistance from the Administration sought early in its first U.S. Government anywhere in the term to revive the Contact Group in- world. The new measures also provided itiative, this time on a basis that ad- for more official U.S. assistance to black dressed South African concerns more education, black entrepreneurs, black directly. In September 1981, a new, trade unions, and human rights and phabc4 plan for the implementation of Securit j Council Resolution 435 con- legal assistance programs. tained Features designed to satisfy all Namibia.Following World War I, parties, including the following South Africa was given a League of Na- elements: tions mandate to administer the former German colony of South West Africa Agreement on ".constitutional prin- (Namibia) until it was ready for in- ciples" to guide the constitution's dependence. After World War II, South drafters and to ensure that the in- Africa, which had treated Namibia as an terests of all Namibians were integral part of its national territory, protected; refused to place it under a UN Agreement on the composition, size, trusteeship and continued to administer and operation of the UN Transitional it under South African law, including Assistance Group; on the disposition the apartheid system. In 1966 the UN of all troops during the transition General Assembly revoked South period; and on measures relating to Africa's mandate, and in 1971 the Inter- the United Kingdom, and the United UN impartiality; and national Court of Justice stated that States) began an effort to negotiate a Initiation of the transition procedure South Africa was obligated to terminate solution to the potentially explosive in Resolution 435. immediately its administration of polarization of the region and thereby Namibia. reduce the possibility for outside ex- Since 1981, the United States and its Confronted with a growing insurgen- ploitation. This Western Contact Group contact group partners have: cy by the South West Africa People's formulated a plan approved in 1978 as Organization and worldwide disapproval UN Security Council Resolution 435 Obtained South Africa's recommit- of its refusal to abide by the Court's that was provisionally accepted by ment to arrangements for bringing ruling, South Africa sought to establish South Africa, SWAPO, and Namibia's about Namibian independence an ethnically based structure of self- black African neighborsthe front-line through adherence to Resolution government in Namibia. In reality, states of Angola, Botswana, Mozam- 435the only internationally accept- South Africa retained control of the bique, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. able basis for a solution; country, and African states and the in- Under the UN plan, a UN Transi- Obtained the agreement of SWAPO, ternational community rejected the ar- tional Assistance Group with civilian and military components would be the United Nations, and the con- ringement as a basis for Namibian in- cerned neighboring African states to dependence. In 1977 five Western established in Namibia during the transitional period leading to independ- the arrangements negotiated with members of the UN Security Council South Africa; and (the Contact GroupCanada, the ence. South African troops would be Federal Republic of Germany, France, restricted to base and gradually withdrawn. A constituent assembly would be elected to develop a constitution. Fol- lowing the election, South African

32 27 Rejected South Africa s temptation Angola today. The United States views earnings in gold; by 1977 the number to seek its own "internal" settlement UNITA as a legitimate nationalist had been reduced to fewer than 45,000, in Namibia. which would have organization and supports its struggle and in 1978 South Africa withdrew its guaranteed many more years of against Soviet/Cuban adventurism in fixed-price gold remittances. By 1983, regional turmoil, We consider the Angola. Although the Administration Mozambique's trade deficit stood at $500 South African Government's 1985 ac- opposes legislatively mandated aid to million, and its external debt to noncom tion in establishing an interim UNITA, it announced that it would munist countries at $1.4 billion. Perhaps government for Namibia to be null work with the Congress to find effective most significant, when 90% of the Por- and void and without standing. It hasways to demonstrate support in a tuguese settlers precipitously abandoned no significant bearing on our policy, manner consistent with overall U.S. the country after independence, Mozam- and we have made our position quite goals in the region. bique found itself bereft of private clear to the South Africans. capital and both skilled and managerial Mozambique. Mozambique attained services. The presence of about 30,000 Cuban its independence on June 25, 1975, after Following the end of the Rhodesian combat troops in Angola continues to more than 470 years of Portuguese in- conflict and the establishment of the complicate negotiations over Namibia fluence and colonial rule. The transition new nation of Zimbabwe in April 1980, and contribute to regional instability. was the culmination of at least a decade support for RENAMO was taken over Although the removal of these troops is of fighting, led principally by the almost entirely by South Africa, which not a requirement of the Namibian in- Revolutionary Front for the Liberation used the organization as a destabilizing dependence process under Resolution of Mozambique (FRE LIMO). It was force to further its own national in- 435, South Africa has made clear its marked by dramatic internal change and terests. Power lines and road and rail readiness to proceed only in the context upheaval. A one-party socialist state, bridges were cut, the oil pipeline run- of a parallel commitment to resolve the with close ties to the Soviet bloc, was ning into Zimbabwe was sabotaged, and issue of Cuban troop withdrawal. We installed, and some 180,000 out of terrorist attacks were made against believe that this issue must be dealt 200,000 Portuguese settlers, seeing their civilians, including foreign nationals. By with as a practical necessity to obtain a privileged position undermined, aban- 1982 RENAMO was operating in 7 out durable settlement acceptable to all doned the country and fled to South of Mozambique's 10 provinces, and by parties. Africa, Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), or 1984 its impact was being felt on the Acceptance by South Africa and back to Portugal. At the same time, outskirts of Maputo. Meanwhile, South Angola of a timetable for Cuban troop more than 60,000 Mozambican refugees African military forces launched direct, withdrawal is thus the one remaining who had fled their country returned to cross-border raids against African Na- issue to be resolved in order to proceed Mozambique. tional Congress installations in Mozam- with implementation of the resolution. Newly independent Mozambique bique in response to actual or potential U.S. diplomacy is actively involved in soon became increasingly involved in the guerrilla attacks inside South Africa. working out details, based on the Zimbabwean conflict. It pledged training To offset the threat first from Angolan Government's October 1984 and transit facilities as well as logistical Rhodesia and later from RENAMO and agreement to accept Cuban troop support to Zimbabwean guerrillas South Africa, Mozambique sought and withdrawal in the same context as the fighting the Rhodesian regime. Rhode received Soviet aid. Following the sign- Namibian settlement. Although much sian forces launched retaliatory and ing of a Treaty of Friendship in 1977, hard work remains, the parties are preemptive cross-border raids and a de the Soviets sent advisers and materiel negotiating, and the United States has facto state of war existed between the to help Mozambique strengthen its posi- been accepted as a mediator. We believetwo countries. As part of the war effort, tion against an increasingly aggressive that resolving this issue will have an im- the antigovernment Mozambique Rhodesia. By 1981, an estir,..ted 550 portant impact on southern African Resistance Movement (MRM), later Soviet and East European and 1,000 security and make a Namibian settle- known as MNR or RENAMO, was Cuban military advisers were attached ment possible. If we succeed, Africa's created with Rhodesian, South African, to the Mozambican Army. East Ger- last colony will achieve statehood. This, and ex-Portuguese settler backing. many virtually controlled the country's in turn, will help to foster a regional Postindependence Mozambique's new security forces, and a plethora of climate conducive to constructive change political, economic, and social policies, economic projects brought nearly 2,000 away from apartheid in South Africa. coupled with the impact of the continu- Soviet and East German technicians to In July 1985, the U.S. Congress ing Rhodesian conflict and punitive Maputo and the countryside. repealed the Clark amendment which measures taken by South Africa, had a In the early 1980s, when South prohibited U.S. aid to antigovernment devastating effect on the economy. In Africa took over the support of forces in Angola. Measures subsequently 1976, the cost to Mozambique of im- RENAMO, the Soviets increased their were introduced in Congress to provide plementing sanctions against the Rhode- military involvement, providing humanitarian and military assistance to sian regime was $165 million, and 10,000 helicopter gunships, advanced surface-to- the antigovernment forces of the people lost their jobs. Trade between air missiles, tanks and armored vehicles, National Union for the Total Independ- Mozambique and South Africa, amount- artillery, small arms, and ammunition. ence of Angola (UNITA), headed by ing to 6.8 million tons in 1973, dwindled Soviet naval ships visited Maputo, a Dr. Jonas Savimbi. UNITA fought for to 1.1 million tons by 1981. In 1975, number of high-level military exchanges Angola's independence from Portugal some 118,000 Mozambicans working in took place, President Machel visited alongside the Popular Movement for the South Africa remitted most of their Moscow, and Soviet declarations of Liberation of Angola, which governs militar, support were made. However, despite the rhetorical and military back-

2$ 33 ing, Soviet training, tactics, and ar- would expel and end its support for governments and businesses. Italian maments often were of poor quality and RENAMO. Whether the accord suc- assistance, for example, has become proved inadequate to the prosecution of ceeds depends on a variety of factors, sizable, and South Africans are once the counterinsurgency war. Mozam- not the least of which are South Africa's again exploring business opportunities in bique's disappointment with Soviet own internal security situation, Soviet Maputo. This appears to be a direct assistance was heightened by Moscow's interest in the area, South Africa's abili- result of Mozambique's willingness to refusal to support President Machel's ty to exercise control over RENAMO, move toward a more neutral position request in late 1980 for association with Mozambique's ability to rebuild its vis-a-vis the West, a move confirmed by the Council for Mutual Economic economy, and the degree of interest and the successful visit by President Machel Assistance (the Warsaw Pact's economic involvement by neighbors and outside to the United States in September 1985. community). supporters in Mozambique and It is against this background of RE NAMO. Zimbabwe. The United States was military threat from inside and outside, Certainly, current closer relations actively involved with the British economic collapse, and inadequate sup- with the West will help. By the end of Government in achieving a settlement of port from their Soviet-bloc friends that 1984, Mozambique finally subscribed to the Rhodesian war and in establishing Mozambique, in 1981 and 1982, began to the Lome Convention, which opens the the new nation of Zimbabwe, which signal an interest in improved relations door for Common Market aid, and became independent on April 18, 1980. with the West. It turned first to Por- signed a modified Berlin clause, which Since then, Zimbabwe has sought to im- tugal, which welcomed the approach, permits West German assistance. Mo- prove its domestic and international and in 1982 the United States received zambique has joined the World Bank credibility by balancing the need for clear indications that President Machel and International Monetary Fund, which change with that of building confidence wanted improved relations and hoped are preparing to make loans and provide in its government. The democratic in- the United States could help to technical assistance to the country. stitutions established by the 1980 con- moderate the ever-increasing military American aid also has increased, par- stitution continue to operate, and threat from South Africa. ticularly for emergency relief efforts in parliamentary elections, generally The United States grasped the offer connection with the devastating drought peaceful and fair, were held in June-July to end the freeze in relations. They had that has embraced much of the country 1985. reached a particularly low point in 1981 for the past several years. In 1985, U.S. Zimbabwe inherited a strong and when Mozambique expelled four program aid to Mozambique amounted diversified economy with a significant members of the U.S. Embassy on to $15 million; emergency food aid to- private sector. Although affected by charges of spying, and the new Reagan taled $45.8 million. Meanwhile, Soviet- world recession, drought, and socialist Administration responded by halting the bloc assistance, both military and other, rhetoric (which has discouraged new appointment of a new ambassador to has tended to remain level. foreign investment), the government of Maputo and suspending food shipments. On the other side of the coin, post- Prime Minister Mugabe holds a respect For some time the United States had Nkomati developments have shown that for market principles and international been disturbed by the growing instabili- there are limits to the South African economic realities. If peace and sound ty in southern Africa and South Africa's Government's influence over RENAMO. economic policies are maintained, Zim- increasingly militant posture. It saw the In January 1985, South Africa's Presi- babwe has the potential to help spark approach from Mozambique as an oppor- dent Botha admitted that "elements in- development in central and southern tunity to ameliorate the security situa- side South Africa" were still helping Africa. A healthy and stable Zimbabwe tion in the area and to encourage RENAMO, and, in September 1985, also could provide a positive example for Mozambique to move away from the documents captured by Mozambique the entire region and enhance chances Soviet and toward the Western camp. Government forces revealed continuing for stability in this troubled area. These developments paved the way for South African assistance and contacts. Zimbabwe remains strongly opposed the March 1984 nonaggression pact be- Certainly, South Africa's willingness to to South Africa's apartheid policy but tween South Africa and Mozambique, improve relations with Mozambique is has not allowed its territory to be used known as the Nkomati accord. Although affected by conditions within South to launch guerrilla attacks against its the United States has not claimed credit Africa. When relative calm prevails in- neighbor. It has accepted responsibility for Nkomati, it is no secret that it ternally, efforts for improved relations for building peace in the area and ap- helped to bring the two sides together. receive more support than at present or proves of its neighbors' efforts to If it succeeds, the Nkomati accord, during the recent past, when conditions resolve their differences. Zimbabwe in addition to its specific security provi are unstable. Perhaps most important, maintains official contactsbut not sions and international political implica- RENAMO's leadership undou'utedly has diplomatic representationwith South tions, could restore the strong pre-1975 objectives that are not always in har- Africa and has worked for effective economic links between Mozambique and mony with those of South Africa and coexistence. South Africa and, thereby, contribute may, in fact, run counter to them, The United States contributes significantly to economic growth in depending on current political substantially to Zimbabwe's economic Mozambique. Under the terms of the ac- considerations. growth and is, in fact, its largest aid cord, each side agreed "not to allow its In any event, although the United donor. U.S. economic aid since in- territory to be used for acts of war, ag- States remains concerned that fighting dependence totals more than $300 gression, or violence against the other between Mozambican forces and million. state." This meant that Mozambique RENAMO has not ceased, there is would no longer allow ANC guerrillas to satisfaction to be gained from increased use its territory and that South Africa interest in Mozambique during the past 2-3 years on the part of Western

34 29 Foreign Assistance and Economic Relations

The U.S. and African governments recognize that an inseparable relationship exists between economics and politics and that the United States and the West are uniquely qualified to respond to Africa's needs. The African nations' principal goal is development, and the United States cooperates with them in their efforts not only because their economic well-being is important to us in human terms but also because it is directly related to African security. In turn, African security and political stability are important to our foreign policy because they affect U.S. national interests. The economic crisis in Africa threatens most of our policy goals, including the search for peace in southern Africa. In response to the economic crisis and human tragedy in Africa, the United States is providing unprecedented levels of assistance. We are at- tempting to alleviate the immediate needs of millions of starving people as well as to promote long-term solutions to Africa's economic problems. We are providing assistance through international organizations and bilateral programs and helping private voluntary 7. oar groups in their efforts to deliver food and other necessities of life. We are now furnishing more than half of all ow" emergency food reaching African famine victims. The United States has not allowed political differences with any government to weaken its determination to provide assistance to those in need. Indeed, we are the largest donor to 40 Ethiopia, a country whose government -AL has been openly hostile to us for several years.

Emergency Famine Assistance On July 10, 1984, President Reagan announced a major initiative to respond more quickly and effectively to the food needs of the people of Africa and others suffering from hunger and malnutrition. This five-point program includes:

Prepositioning grain in selected Third Ethiopian refugees in Somalia World areas;

30 35 Creating a special $50 million presidential fund to allow a more flexible U.S. response to food emergencies; Financing or paying ocean and inland transportation costs associated with U.S. food aid in special emergency cases; Creating a government task force to provide better forecasts of food shortages and needs; and Establishing an advisory group of business leaders to share information on Third World hunger and food production.

The President also announced a comprehensive African Hunger Relief In- itiative on January 3, 1985, directing the U.S. Government to provide more than 1.5 million metric tons of emergency food during FY 1985three times the record amount from the previous year. In FY 1984, the U.S. Government provided $200 million of emergency assistanceincluding more than 500,000 metric tons of emergency food aid as well as medicine and transport assistanceto 26 African countries. Total food aid to Africa amounted to more than 1.4 million metric tons in FY 1984. In FY 1985, the U.S. Government delivered 1.8 million metric tons of emergency food assistance to Africa at a cost of $770 million. When added to our regular PL-480 program, we provided African countries with more than 3 million metric tons of food grown in America at a delivered cost of $1.1 billion. Another $109 million of nonfood assistance was provided during the same period. Our entire assistance program in FY 1985including both regular and emergency assistance totaled a record $1.9 billion, with almost one-half provided in response to the ex- traordinary famine conditions that existed on the continent. U.S. commitment and concern were further highlighted by Vice President Bush during his visit to Sudan, Niger, and Mali in March 1985, his second trip to Africa since he took office in 1981. In order to draw attention to the widespread nature of the drought emergen-

36 31 cy, the Vice President completed his World Bank and moved the reform Support for International Efforts trip by representing the United States process more quickly and broadly than Although the United States has an in at a special UN conL . once on the crisis would have been the case without our fluential role in mobilizing an effective held in Geneva. His message to the in- presence. response to Africa's economic problems, ternational community was that, in spite The policy reform program is a the task is not solely a U.S. responsibili- of all that had been done, more help precursor of, and gave impetus to, the ty and, in fact, is far too great for the was neededneeded from all those with creation of a similar World Bank pro- United States to attempt alone. The the means to assist and needed gram, the Special African Facility, crisis in Africa touches upon the welfare immediately. which, together with bilateral funds of the entire world and requires a sus- available for cofinancing, will have about tained and coordinated international ef- $1.2 billion to finance policy reform pro- fort to promote long-term development. Long-term Assistance grams in Africa. We have been coor- The U.S. Government has intensified Because the roots of the economic crisis dinating our policy reform efforts with efforts to work with other donors and are so deep, the solution will nece'sarily the World Bank and, as the Bank's multilateral institutions to encourage require resources, time, and commit- Faciliti enters an operational phase, it African governments to imp'tement ment. The U.S. Government provided will provide stronger opportunities for policy reforms that will promote growth $1.1 billion in regular assistance to sub- cooperation. and development. Through international Saharan Africa in FY 1985, over five "Food for Progress," another policy organizations and U.S. bilateral and times that provided in FY 1974. reform initiative, was announced by regional programs, the United States is The four major "pillars" of our President Reagan in January 1985. This supporting agricultural development pro- assistance strategy are: policy reform, would provide food assistance on a jects, land reclamation, and other pro- strengthening the indigenous private multiyear basis to countries desiring to grams to develop agricultural land and sector, institution-building, and undertake policy reforms in the agricul- to train farmers in soil conservation technology transfer. tural sector. The necessary legislative techniques. The United States par- Our economic policy reform pro- framework and funding for this program ticularly supports the critical role of the grams seek to create incentives for are being developed. International Monetary Fund in pro- growth and to enable African farmers, viding assistance for stabilizing African as well as businessmen, to play a more economies and of the World Bank in dynamic role. At the same time, these promoting economic development. programs help to develop the technolo- In the long run, however, primary gies, institutions, and human capital re- U.S. Trade With Sub-Saharan responsibility must rest with the quired for sustained growth. We have Atrica,1910-114 African nations themselves, whose ac- placed increased emphasis on promoting $ Moss tions and policies will largely determine private sector activity in Africa and 18 how much progress toward long-term using private rather than public sector Ill Imports development is possible. channels to deliver our aid resources to Africa. We are supporting agricultural 18 Exports pricing and marketing reforms, privatiz- Trade and Investment ation of parastatals, and increased 14 Only a few years ago, many African farmer productivity through investments regimes were either hostile or indif- designed to improve technologies, access ferent to foreign private enterprise. To- to markets, productive infrastructure, 12 day, even countries with a Marxist and the supply of fertilizer and other orientation are increasingly eager for agricultural inputs. 10 trade and investment relations with the In FY 1985, the United States West. African leaders are attracted by launched the African Economic Policy the fact that American businesses have Reform Program, which provides addi- 8 great expertise in fields important to tional and more flexible assistance to economic development, such as African countries undertaking critical e agribusiness. They also recognize that policy reforms. In the first year, pro- U.S. private enterprise can provide grams totaling $75 million were much of the technical and managerial developed for Malawi, Mauritius, Mali, 4 expertise required to promote economic Rwanda, and Zambia. Although these growth, job creation, and improved programs are still in their initial stages, standards of living. they already have served as a catalyst 2 for action on the part of donors and the 0 1080 1081 1082 1003 1084

32 37 Appendix

However, between 1980 and 1984, sub-Saharan Africa's percentage of total 11111Lik U.S. private direct investment abroad remained constant at 2%the level prevailing for the past 20 years. During 1980-84, the U.S. trade deficit with the region decreased by about one-half. Besides economic problems, other factors hinder the growth of U.S. business and trade activities in Africa. Despite growing African interest in trade and investment, the investment climate in many countries remains uncertain. Fur- thermore, many American businesses are indifferent to African markets or assume that opportunities are monop- olized by former colonial powers. The Departments of State and Com- merce, the Export-Import Bank, and the Overseas Private Investment Corpora- tion seek to familiarize U.S. businesses with the problems of and opportunities for doing business in Africa, as well as with the available support services. The U.S. G vernment also encourages U.S. trade and investment abroad through tax and other incentives. At all U.S. Embassies, assisting U.S. businesses is a top priority. The Commerce Depart- ment's Foreign Commercial Service is represented in major African commercial centers, including Abidjan, Johan- nesburg, Lagos, and Nairobi. And the Agency for International Development works to enhance the role of the African private sector in development activities and to build institutions that will promote foreign and domestic business growth.

Dogon rock paintings, Mall.

33 38 Sub-Saharan Africa' (Numbered footnoteson p. 43)

Angola Luanda 481,351 8.0 27 38 Ovimbundu (38)Chnstian (88) Portu- 20 NA 60 40 Peoples Repub- Klmbundu (23)Indigenous (12) guese ic of Angola Bakongo(13) Local (Angola) Other (26)

Botswana Gaborone 220,000 3.3 50 Tswana (94) Indigenous (85) English Republic of Bushmen (5) Christian (15) Setswans Botswana White (1) (Bechuanaland)

Burundi Bujumbura 10,747 2.6 42 Hutu (65)Christian (67) Kirundi 25 29 N Republic of Tutsi (14) Indigenous (32)French Burundi Twa (1) Muslim (1) Swahili I

Cape Verde Praia 1,557 0.3 2.0 61 Creole (71) Catholic (65) Portu- 37 NA 0.1 Republic of African (26) Indigenous (35) guess Cape Verde European (1) Crioulo (Cape Verde Islands)

Chad N'Djamena 498,000 2.5 39 200 groups Muslim French 20 20 Republic of Chad Christian Chadian- Indigenous Arabic

'Industry Services Commerce and Government

34 39 ,_40,4--- o

I-1

,o Jo n

0 °I, 1.1

'K.4\1C _2;;z, H tan'. z .."tt. _ oo, " . , r'2.k

5-' SI_

.4 Ou4n66-6166ou Republic of Guinea-Bissau (Portuguese Guinea)

'Industry Services Commerce and Government

36 41 FINN. To Odd d GrowthPer % % % LNI us Dam d Sale angler Amid Nate rivePineTali 11184 Ted 1114 Waal ladepsoP Need at Pen Mar (S M9 PO 1111ay.1st 0191111(I fill5(S Is 41111is we 111.401 WIN TYM 4111V011111141111 Nome

1 8 31 1300 10 15 75 . 12 997 looioil 1 o sm. , 1 People's Pres (Col) ) D Congo Wobd Republic Sassou- Sugar Nguesso Tobacco Coffee

0.1 NA 400 10 1 t10 1 - II 10 01Hides 11 Pm. H.G. COSI APOSan Collo

0 1 0 417 50 2 48 3< 0 5 13 0 5Cocoa 1.0 10/12/68Republic Pres (Lt Col ) Equatorial Coffee (Xiang Guinea Wood Nguema Bananas Mbasogo

f,-.. 142 12 14 , .ti 3.7 74r 3,1 _ . 1.

: ,, .fr

3 5 0 7 2742 4 8 90 711 362200 680Petrolourn 0 fU17/60Republic Pres. El Had] Gabon Wood Omar Bongo Manganese Uranium i . 0.1 13.4 150 75 15 4.7 Pia.* Its AWL jasors lismbls ,...

10 5 - 7 2 954NA NAINA 46 057 47Cocoa 7.8 3/6/57Prow- Chairman of Ghana Minerals sional PNDC Ft. Lt. Wood Military J J. Rawlings

1.5 1.3 vs,45 . 100180 Pups. (Col) Clines L. Cords a ti,

.15 -5.1 182NA NA NA 5 NM 9 NMPeanuts 2.5 9/24/73Republic Pres. (Brig. GuIrwa-Illsaau Palm General Products J B Vieiria Fish tServices Commerce Mining and Trade

42 37 Ivory Coast 124.500 10.1 Indigenous (83) French Republic of Muslim (25)Local the Ivory Coast Christian (12) (Ivory Coast)

Lesotho 11.716 1.5 2.5 52 Sotho ( < 100)Christian (80)English Kingdom of Lesotho Other (<1)Indigenous (20)Sesotho (Basutoland) Xhosa Zulu

Madagascar Antana- Marina Indigenous (52)Malagasy Democrat< Republicnarivo Walley Christian (41) French of Madagascar Cotiars Muslim (7) (Malagasy Republic) French Indian

7.7 2.3 45 Marta (50)Muslim (90) French Paul (17) Indigenous(9) Bambara Voltaic (12)Christian (1) Other (21)

Mauritius Indo- Hindu (52) English Mauritius Mauritian (58)Christian (31)French Creoles (27)Muslim (17) Creole Sino- Hindi Mauritian(3) Urdu Franco- Mauritian(2)

.i11(111StryService', CLifliler( ecrilrl GO Verlilleill

38 43 76 60 Coffee 0 8/7/60 Republic Pres. F. Ivory Coast Cocoa Houphouet- Wood Boigny

2.0 0.7 Wool 16.6 10/4/66 Constitu- Lesotho Mohair tional Diamonds Monarchy Labor to South Africa

2.5 17.8 8/29/60 Republic Pres. (Adm.) kladootteeer D. Ratsirska

44)

1.0 Meat 23.5 9/22/60 Cotton Fish Peanuts

1053 Sugar 5.6 3/12/68 Parl. Dem. Chief of thenthus Tea Under StateOueen Textiles Coast. Elizabeth II Tourism Monarch Governor General Sir S Ramgoolam

tServices Commerce Mai Gen Justinus Lekhanya deposed Mining ano Trade PM Jonathan on January 20 1986 Lekhanya heads the Governing Military Council 44 39 fiewiel holmNoe, elms Ler- (414* Owe Nemi --- rarlist Moat . 71 ,, No Mid41 le 41 le a ;:---4114 fgre Om* 41110 ter.04bei

.._ Namibia Windhoek 318,261 1 1 3 0 NA African (86)Christian (60)Afrikaans 39 25 0 5 60 40 (Southwest Africa) European (7) Indigenous (40) English Mixed (7) German Local

MOW 04 3.3 42 \ 16411101 palPinch 6 15 Li 00 - -10 . RepubliC 01 M1111, 0,11001*11: Sleet . . #(0

Nigeria Lagos 357,000 91.2 34 49 Hausa- Muslim (47) English 30 42 40 60 40 Federal Republic Fulani Christian (34) Hausa of Nigeria lb° Indigenous (19) lbo (Nigeria) Yoruba Yoruba

P Rem* 'X .- .-- Republic 01 -...-,-- . . Rwanda -._ -,

Sio Tome and Sao Tome 3720.09 0.8 NA Portuguese- Christian (80) Portuguese 50 NA 0 02 70 30 Prrnclpe African Other (20) Democratic Republic African of Sao Tome Portuguese anc Principe

'10 15$ 1.7. 70 . .. /Republic , ,

Seychelles Victoria 171 0.07 0.9 88 Seychellois Christian (98) English 60 95 003 19 81 Republic of Other (2) French Seychelles Creole (Seychelles Colony)

. gem Weillc'' 12 1.6 -711. Republic el . A*ENS* 014 -2K110

. (sawn, ..f, 11 ?

Somagla Mogadishu248,155 7.6 3.0 44 Somali (85) Muslim (99) Somali 10 50 2.2 82 18 Somali Democratic Bantu (14)Other (1) Arabic Republic Other (1) English (British Somalia and Italian Italian Somalia)

-- kith Attie, , A , II: 1:1461waii, ,1 70 1111 10.4 00 RepubliC it , - ,,:t- Sou ti Atka: ziou=0 (union of 'Sarni ' - Akita/ ' Atli . Sillha _Tswana i

'IndustryServices Commerce andGovernment

4 40 Chief of Dass of Slam and/or Winn& Mad at Familiar eirse "p. OrmernmaM Nam*

15 -701429 10 6 84 4 3Copper 0 Pending Interna- Namibia Uranium bona! Diamonds Territory Cattle

, -,. c-, 37.11 WOO Republic Pros. (S. Gen.) Niger .4 Seri ... Kountchi .., . . , -,-, ,..

670 -4.4 760 25 10 65 u i 577 2508Petroleum 0 10/1/60 Federal Pres Ibrahim Nigeria Cocoa Republic Babangida Tin Coal

. , - -4---1, 114 7/1/02. Pres. Glej. Gen.) Nwends . .1,?- ttf'' 4 J. Mitigations . ,.

0 03 -10 0 30040 8 52 21 NM NMCocoa 0 3 7/12/75 Republic Pres M Silo Tomii Copra Pinto Da and Principe Palm Costa

.... ,1 --, II . 4/4/80 Republic Pres. A. Diouf Senegal -.14 .31. . , . - . -., a t- , ...

,---

0 2 -0.22270 7 15 78 81 0 5 0 3Tourism 2 3 6/29/76 Republic Pres F R Seychelles Copra Rene Cinnamon

= 4, A , , , 412M1 Republic Pres. Dr, S.P. 31a .. Leone Steven

1 9 9 6 101 0.7Livestock 70 7 7/1/60 Republic Pres (M Gen ) Somalia Fruit Said Barre Hides

. : 8131110 Republic Pres. P.W. South Africa . Botha . . .,, h ; .., , ..3, , a . , tServices Commerce Mining and Trade

46 41 Sudan Black (52) Arabic Democratic Republic Arab (39) English of the Sudan Baia (S) Local (Anglo-Egyptian Other (3) Sudan)

Tanzania Dar es Indigenous (34) United Republic Swahili Salum Christian (33) of Tanzania Muslim (33) (Tanganyika and Zanzibar)

Uganda 91,076 Republic of Uganda (Uganda)

Zambia African (99) Christian (51) English Republic of Zambia Other (1) Indigenous (48) (Northern Rhodesia) Muslim (1) (Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland)

'Inoustry Service, Commerce and Government

4ri

42 Nil40 1800 138 790 20 Cotton 214.4 111158 Republic Chairman Gum Arabic (Gen.) Suwar Peanuts elDahab

0.8 210 (Union) Republic Pres. All Tanzania 1984 Hassan IHEE Mwinyl

5.0 509 10/9/82 Republic Chief of State (Gen.) T.O. IilI Lutwe

Copper Republic Cobalt Zinc Lead Tobacco

tServices Commerce Yoweri Museveni and his National Resistance Mining and Trade Army seized power on January 27 1986 Museveni was sworn in as President on January 29 1986

'Statistics are drawn from the latest most reliable data available from a 'Trade statistics with the United States have been comkne d for the Cape variety of sources particularly from the Department of State s Background Notes Verde Islands Guinea Bissau and Sao Tome and PrincipeIota' 1984 ,rIpore, and the Central Intelligence Agency s The World Factbook which are periodical from the United States were $29 7 mullion and Val 1984 c,pert In tt,e United ly updated Therefore except where indicated no specific year can he States were $0 9 million designated for each category of statistics Furthermore current figures do not 'Economic assistance include', dee,elopment assistance Et 11'1017,1u Support exist in many cases (indicated by NA- not available) and some data are based Funds and PL 480 Titles III and IIIRefugee and ernprgenoi farewe on U S Government estimates assistance which amounted to $879 million in FY 1985 and mo[tae, assistance, ?The earlier name listing is included to identify for readers unfamiliar with are excluded Some regional funds for the African economic policyetnrrn ;Nu Africa earlier names by which some of the countries have been known In some gram also are not ncluded cases these names date to preindependence and in other instances relate to "These funds do not qo In ttte South African Government AID', program ai previous postindependence regimes No political significance should be attached South Africa works directly with regional organwatienr-, private r.oluntae, to selections which are based largely on historical perceptions organizations local groups and individuals for the impro,,emenlif educational 3Estimated and projected mid year population and growth rates are from and training opportunities for South, mut:dry, dititatit.iittitittleo titiiciitrtholit mid year to mid year

48 43

Gregersen, Edgar A. Language in Bibliography Africa: An Introductory Survey. New York: Gordon and Breach, Reference and Introductory 1977. Harris, Joseph E. Africans and Their African Bibliographic Center. Current History. New York: New American Bibliography on African Affairs. Library, 1972. New York: Greenwood Periodicals, Larson, Charles R. The Emergency of quarterly editions. African Fiction. Rev. ed. New York: African Encylopedia. London: Oxford Macmillan Press, 1978. University Press, 1974. Mbiti, John S. Introduction to African Africa South of the Sahara. London: Religion. New York: Praeger, 1975. Europa Publications, annual Murdock, George P. Africa, Its Peoples editions. and Their Culture History. New Africa Today. London: Africa Journal York: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1979. Ltd., 1981. Posnansky, Merrick. "African Ar- Balandier, Georges, and Jacques Ma- chaeology Comes of Age," World quet. Dictionary of Black African Archaeology (Feb. 1982). Civilization. New York: Leon Amiel, Ray, Benjamin C. African Religions: 1974. Symbol, Ritual and Community. Bohannan, Paul and Philip Curtin. Englewood: Prentice Hall, 1975. Africa and Africans. Garden City, Skinner, Elliott P. Peoples and Cultures N.Y.: Natural History Press, 1971. of Africa: An Anthropological The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Africa. Reader. New York: Natural History Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973. Press, 1981. Soyinka, Wole. Myth, Literature and The Cambridge History of Africa. Cam- the African World. New York: Cam- bridge: Cambridge University bridge University Press, 1979. Press, 1984. ' Willet, Frank. African Art, A Concise Foreign Area Studies, American Uni- History. New York: Praeger, 1971. versity. Area Handbook Series. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, various editions. Contemporary Sub - Saharan Africa Legum, Colin, ed. Africa Contemporary Record: Annual Survey and iackground Notes. Washington, D.C.: Documents. New York: Holmes and U.S. Government Printing Office, Meier, annual editions. updated periodically for each Martin, Phyllis, and Patrick O'Mara, country. eds. Africa. Bloomington, Ind.: In- Adam, Heribert, and Herman Giliomee. diana University Press, 1977. Ethnic Power Mobilized: Can South New African Yearbook. London: I.C. Africa Change? New Haven: Yale Magazines Ltd., 1983-84. University Press, 1979. Paden, John, and Edward Soja, eds. The Albright, David E., ed. Communism in African Experience. 3 vols. Tobacco mortar, Zaire. Africa. Bloomington: Indiana Evanston: Northwestern University University Press, 1980. Press, 1970. Andemicale, Berhanykun. The OA U and the UN: Relations Between the Fanon, Franz. The Wretched of the Organization of African Unity and Earth. New York: Grove Press, Historical and Cultural Backgrour.d the United Nations. New York: 1965. Africana Publishing Co., 1976. Bascom, William R. African Art in Gibbs, James L., ed. Peoples of Africa. El-Ayouty, Yassin, and I. William Zart- Cultural Perspective. New York: New York: Holt, Rinehart and man, eds. The OAU After Twenty W.W. Norton & Co., 1973. Winston, 1965. Years. New York: Praeger, 1984. Curtin, Philip D., et al. African History. Greenberg, Joseph H. Essays in Berg, Elliot, et al. Accelerated Develop- Boston: Little Brown & Co., 1978. Linguistics. New York: Wenner- ment in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Davidson, Basil. Let Freedom Come: Gren Foundation for Anthropo Agenda for Action. Washington, Africa in Modern History. Boston: logical Research, 1957 D.C.: World Bank, 1981. Little Brown & Co., 1978. Language, Culture and Bienen, Henry. Armies and Parties in Fage, J.D. A History of Africa. Communications. Stanford: Stanford Africa. New York: Africana, 1978. Westminster, Md.: Alfred A. Knopf, University Press, 1971. 1979.

Facing papa. The ruins of Great Zimbabwe, the site from which the country derives its name, were the most spectacular of 150 or more madzimbabwo (stone enclosures; sing. zimbabwe). Stone construction by the Shona people began in the 11th century and continued for hundreds of years. Historians believe that at its height Great Zimbabwe's 12 clusters of stone structures housed 20,000 residents as well as the royal court, markets, warehouses, and religious shrines

50 45 Mum( National Park, Tanzania.

Bissell, r *chard E., and Chester A. Kamarck, Andrew. The Economics of Rosberg, Carl G., and Thomas M. Crocaer, eds. South Africa into the African Development. Rev. ed. New Callaghy, eds. Socialism in Sub- 1980s. Boulder, Colo.: Westview York: Praeger, 1971. Saharan Africa: A New Assessment. Special Studies on Africa, 1979. Kitchen, Helen A. Africa: From Berkeley: Institute of International Carter, Gwendolyn M., and Patrick Mystery to Maze. Lexington, Mass.: Studies, University of California at O'Meara, eds. International Politics Lexington Books, 1976. Berkeley, 1979. in Southern Africa. Bloomington, U S. Interests in Africa. Rotberg, Robert. Namibia: Political and Ind.: University Press, 1982. New York: Praeger, 1983. Economic Prospects. Lexington, Cervenka, Zdenek. The Unfinished and Michael Clough. The Mass.: Lexington Books, 1983. Quest for Unity: Africa and the United States and South Africa: Study Commission on U.S. Policy OA U. London: J. Friedman, 1977. Realities and Red Herrings. Toward South Africa. South Africa: Clough, Michael, ed. Changing Realities Washington, D.C.: Center for Time Running Out. Berkeley: in Southern Africa: Implications For Strategic and International Studies, University of California Press, 1981. American Policy. Berkeley: Institute Georgetown University, 1984. Young, Crawford. The Politics of of International Studies, University Kuper, Leo. The Pity of It All Cultural Pluralism. Madc,on, Wisc.: of California at Berkeley, 1982. Polarization of Racial and Ethnic University of Wisconsin Press, 1976. Hance, William A. The Geography of Relations. Minneapolis: University Zolberg, Aristic P R. Creating Political Modern Africa. Rev. ed. New York: of Minnesota, 1977. Order. Chicago: Rand McNally and Columbia University Press, 1975. Lowenkopf, Martin. "Mozambique: The Co., 1966. Nkomati Accord." Forthcoming, 1986, Nyerere, Julius K. Freedom and Unity. London: Oxford University Press, 1966.

U.S. GOVERNMEN': PRINTING OFFICE: I.cP-'t 014,'561