Hamilton, S and Seager Thomas, M 2018 Eroding Heritage: An Island Context. Archaeology International, 21(1), pp. 64–74. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/ai-382

RESEARCH UPDATE Eroding Heritage: An Island Context Sue Hamilton and Mike Seager Thomas

Introduction how precarious human achievement can be In the following we focus on, and briefly in the face of scarce and vulnerable natu- summarize, the work of the UCL Rapa Nui ral resources, human intervention, and a Landscapes of Construction Project (LOC) susceptibility to local, regional and global over the past two years, monitoring various environmental changes. Deforestation, sedi- aspects of erosion and weathering on the ment erosion (contributed to by tree loss, island (Table 1) and its impact on the Rapa poor soil structure, deep weathering, in Nui (Easter Island) heritage landscape. This places ploughing, and damage caused by work builds on and expands data collected introduced animals) and the island’s vulner- during the British Academy (SG-47054) and ability to seasonal storms, constant sea spray, AHRC (AH/1002596/1) funded phases of and oscillating heavy rain and dryness have LOC (previously discussed and attributed collectively served to leave Rapa Nui’s excep- in Archaeology International) (see Hamilton tional archaeology at risk. This is exacerbated 2007; 2013). by the topographic locations across the In the 21st century, climate change is iden- island on which specific categories of monu- tified as a major contributor to the physical­ ments were placed, the differing geologies of erosion of tangible heritage around the world the architecture comprising these, and the and the associated loss of intangible herit- spread of modern development—new build- age. The environmental and socio-­ ­economic ings and farms in locations that previously saga of early Rapa Nui, which since 1996 had fossil landscapes of surface archaeology, has comprised a UNESCO designated World elements of which had lain undisturbed by Heritage Landscape, and particularly the people since the later 19th century. With the decline or demise of the population and the present Chilean policy of land return to the socio-economic structures­ that sustained its Rapanui and the increasing need for infra- statue (moai) building period (c. AD 1200– structure to support tourism, the racked-up 1500), is well known. Evoked again and again speed of change has been particularly in evi- is the ­vulnerability of a society with colossal dence over the past two or three years. With monuments and an intricate lifestyle that this multitude of intersecting factors, it is fell victim to geographic isolation (Rapa over-simplistic, indeed sensational, to focus Nui lies in the Pacific Ocean c. 3,500 km off on any single cause for Rapa Nui’s dramati- the coast of Chile), a tiny land area, and low cally eroding heritage. biodiversity (e.g. Bahn and Flenley 2011: Rapa Nui’s small size and the cluster- chapters 11 and 12; Diamond 2006: chapter ing around its vulnerable coastline of the 2). To many this has served as a warning of majority of one of its primary categories of heritage monument (the ahu or ceremonial platform), its near total economic reliance UCL Institute of Archaeology, London WC1H 0PY, UK on tourism (c. 70K visitors per annum) and a Corresponding author: Sue Hamilton growing emphasis on the interpretative pres- ([email protected]) entation of monument complexes to tourists, Hamilton and Seager Thomas: Eroding Heritage 65 heightens the need to develop policies on the Coastal erosion and ahu ­relationship between heritage, ­conservation, Coastal erosion is not a new threat to Rapa Nui tourism and academic research. Sensitive heritage. Since the original construction of the monitoring, control, and management of ahu around the coast in deliberate proximity these require a sustained­ familiarity with to the sea, it has slowly brought the coast- Rapa Nui’s landscapes, multi-disciplinary line closer and closer to them. These ahu, on input, and the coordinated­ discussion, judg- many of which moai once stood, and on some ments and consensus of many stakeholders. of which these have been re-erected, are now In November 2017, the Ma’u Henua indige- enveloped in sea spray and in some cases phys- nous people’s community organization took ically battered by the waves. The consequence over management of archaeology within of this is that the stones comprising them have the Rapa Nui National Park, in which the become pitted with tafoni and—in places—are best known of the island’s heritage monu- collapsing into the sea (Figures 1 and 2, left). ments fall, from the Chilean National Park Over the past decade LOC has surveyed Authority (CONAF). In March 2018, the UCL >100 ahu, most of them around the coast, Rapa Nui Landscapes of Construction Project and we have a growing database on the con- signed a 5-year agreement with Ma’u Henua dition of, and range of threats to these, which to advise on the management of the Park’s we have shared with Ma’u Henua. A number threatened heritage. This is a new UCL phase, of ahu reconstructed in the later 20th century and one of the impacts and legacies of the have become major tourist attractions (e.g. now concluded AHRC-funded LOC field pro- the ahu complex at Tahai). Most of these ject. Below we highlight some of the issues are now safe from collapse but all of those that we are currently working on. by the sea remain vulnerable to the effects

Figure 1: The rear of Ahu Ura Uraŋa Te Mahina, on the south coast of the Island. Sea erosion of the low cliff on which it stands has reached its rear wall, and is causing it to collapse (in the photo, the collapse is advancing from the left to the right). The bases of three prone moai are partially visible at the top of the surviving platform. Photo: Adam Stanford. 66 Hamilton and Seager Thomas: Eroding Heritage of salt. Others, also tourist attractions, but It is also important to note that Rapa Nui’s more important archaeologically because ahu, coastal and otherwise, are not just dis- they have not been reconstructed, are being crete ceremonial platforms. Most form part of steadily degraded by ongoing wave action. a complex of structures, which might include For example, at Ahu Ura Uraŋa Te Mahina, crematoria, usually on their seaward sides; a low sea cliff has reached the seaward wall adjacent, contingent paved ramps to the of the platform (Figure 1), and at Haŋa Tee sea; coeval un-recorded coastal breakwaters; o Vaihu, the coastline is advancing along the water sumps; and a range of associated inland platform, as well as from its back. Others, and features. These are all also under threat, parts of others, not on the tourist circuit but though often of a different sort, and require of no less importance, are already in a state the same level of monitoring, recording and of terminal breakdown. protection. A rare paved ramp to the sea at High-cliff instability and retraction, due Ahu Haŋa Teteŋa, for example, which has to undermining by wave action (rather than been denuded by ongoing animal and human direct wave action on the ahu), has resulted traffic to a spring at the water’s edge, is close in the historic disappearance of Ahu Riki to disappearance (Figure 2, bottom right), as Riki, which was recorded in the late 19th cen- are two sea washed crematoria to the rear of tury (Thompson 1891: 513), and the partial Ahu Haŋa Poukura (Figure 2, top right). Thus loss of Ahu Motu Toremo Hiva and Ahu Te each coastal ahu has unique, contextual ele- Nui, data from both of which have had to be ments for which there are no single or simple saved by rescue excavation. solutions to reduce ongoing erosion.

Figure 2: Coastal ahu are open to many threats. Left: tafoni in the rear wall of Ahu Haŋa Poukura caused by the re-crystallization of absorbed salt within the rock. Top right: also to the rear of Ahu Haŋa Poukura, the remains of a sea-washed crematorium. Bottom right: a paved route to a freshwater spring at the shore’s edge at Ahu Haŋa Teteŋa, which is being degraded by wave action and by people and animals accessing the spring. Photos: Sue Hamilton (left) & Mike Seager Thomas (right). Hamilton and Seager Thomas: Eroding Heritage 67

Disintegration of the moai and the layers of tuff at their surfaces to lift At no less risk are the island’s famous moai. off (Charola 1997: 23–30). This ongoing The majority of moai were carved from breakdown of their fabric is highly conspicu- ­volcanic tuff, which was quarried from the ous (Figures 3 and 4, left). inside and the outside of the present crater­ The moai too have contextual differences of Rano Raraku. Approximately 200 tuff that determine the extent and types of moai were set up on ahu (Figures 1 and 4, weathering and erosion to which they have left), others lie recumbent along the Ara been and are currently subjected (Table 1): Moai (moai roads) spreading from/leading sea spray and wave action for those near the to Rano Raraku (Figure 3), while many more coast; interference by animals, particularly never left the vicinity of the quarry. They are for the recumbent ones along the Ara Moai; disintegrating due to the differential expan- and for some at Rano Raraku, protection as sion and contraction of the minerals com- a result of burial by colluvium derived from prising the tuff, when subject to changes in upslope quarry workings. temperature, the translocation within them Many projects have been set up to monitor of the cement holding these together, the and collect scientific data on the breakdown, swelling when wetted of clays formed within and undertake experimental conser­vation/ the weathered tuff, the rooting of plants and stone stabilization treatment, of individual (in moai close to the sea) pressures caused moai. These have been used as a proxy for by the build up of absorbed salt. Collectively, the wider control of their breakdown as a these cause the moai to disaggregate, crack, monument category (such as those of the

Figure 3: The profoundly weathered and eroded rear of “Cook’s moai” on the southern Ara Moai. The flow lava inclusions projecting from the tuff give an idea how much material has been lost. Differential weathering of the moai’s downward side (not visible in the photo) shows that it was once standing. Photo: Mike Seager Thomas. 68 Hamilton and Seager Thomas: Eroding Heritage

Chilean Centro Nacional de Conservación y that present across the island as a whole, Restauración, which experimented with con- including ahu with moai, hare paeŋa (boat- solidants and water ­repellents on a moai re- shaped houses), rock art, stone quarries and erected on Ahu Haŋa Kio’e, and the Italian numerous taheta (rock-cut basins to contain conservator Lorenzo Casamenti, who has ­rainwater), which on Poike lie within a dis- applied biocides to the re-erected moai on crete, integrated landscape, free of modern Ahu Ature Huke to kill and facilitate the roads, buildings and established tourism. removal of lichen: Charola 1997, 31–33; Here, therefore, it is possible to consider CTS News 2013). Our survey (commissioned multiple factors of erosion on a landscape by CONAF: LOC 2013, 2014, 2015) encom- scale, as it relates to all these categories­ of passes 35 recumbent moai on the Ara Moai site. Here, also, it is possible to formulate a and a total of 12 recumbent, and standing, fieldwork strategy without reference to the moai on the outer slopes of Rano Raraku. It mass tourism that troubles, and itself con- differs from the above in so far as it consid- tributes to, the deterioration of archaeology ers a range of types of damage and threat in other parts of the island. (at least 21 categories) and the best cur- The extent of Poike’s archaeology and the rent ­management strategies to protect the nature and scale of the natural threats to it moai, many of which are beyond recovery are such that it will be impossible to save eve- (Figure 3), from further deterioration in the rything. The challenge for the archaeologist, wider ­landscape (such as control of animals even while attempting to mitigate the threat and tourists). to individual sites, is to devise and execute Furthermore, our survey is uniquely inte- a prioritizing strategy that will maximize the grated with research on individual weath- amount of data saved, and take advantage of ering patterns and how these can inform what in some cases may be a narrow ­window our knowledge of the original placement of investigative opportunity provided by locales, biographies and settings of moai in a differing range of types and periods of the landscape, alongside the wider archaeol- ­erosion. Our work on it provides a useful case ogy of the Park. In the case of moai along study of the wider, multiple erosion factors the Ara Moai this has usefully contributed affecting Rapa Nui’s heritage. to elucidating whether they were aban- On Poike, deep weathering of the bedrock doned in transport (a view which fits nicely has rendered its surface sediments unstable with the theory of a sudden collapse of with the result that its lower slopes are now Rapa Nui society due to resource stress, see mantled by colluvium (Mieth and Bork 2005), Skjölsvold 1961: 378–9), or as we, Katherine which, along with the archaeology buried by Routledge, and a Belgian team working on it, is slowly being stripped away by sheet and the same issues, deduced, deliberately set gully erosion, leaving three of the peninsu- up along routes to and from the quarry la’s four known ahu under immediate threat (Cauwe and De Dapper 2015; LOC 2014: of collapse. Erosion is exacerbated today by 26–27; Routledge 1919: 195). cattle scuffing and trampling and the scour- ing out of car tracks. In addition, the disag- Poike’s archaeology and erosion gregation of tuff moai (Figure 4, left), and Our most recent work (LOC 2016, 2017; the weathering of other culturally modified Scaife in prep.) has been on the Poike stone is ongoing. Environmentally-driven ­peninsular, at the eastern end of the island. deterioration of these sorts are associated Poike’s archaeology is less well known than with archaeology across the island, but are that of other parts of the island but is of not much studied. no less importance to our understanding The re-deposition of sediments as collu- of prehistoric Rapa Nui culture. It has a vium and therefore erosion on the penin- range of archaeological features similar to sula probably dates from the period during Hamilton and Seager Thomas: Eroding Heritage 69 prehistory when it was first deforested (Mieth the mouths of the gullies, the pedestaling of and Bork 2005) but this probably acceler- residual cultural stones on the eroded surface ated in the 19th century, when sheep farm- (Figure 4, bottom right), and ongoing dam- ing arrived on the island, and again in the age done to the archaeology (Figure 4, top 20th, when parts of it were ploughed. Later, right) (LOC 2016: 5–7). The resulting ­collapse in places, it was planted with Eucalyptus, of elements of Poike’s heritage monuments which, while checking the extension of ero- can be sudden rather than gradual and this sion upslope, may, owing to the deposition necessitates decisions, about the viability of slowly degrading leaf litter, have increased and value of preventative action or investiga- run off and therefore erosion downslope. tive intervention, to be made and instituted Sediment erosion on Poike is characterized in advance. Accelerated surface erosion—dur- on the ground by localized slumping, the for- ing La Niña in the summer of 2016–17—of mation of terracettes, gullying, localized sea the denuded sediment pedestal on which cliff collapse and, as the surface vegetation is Ahu Viri Viri o Tumu stands (Figure 4, top lost, massive sheet erosion. It is shown to be right), for example, resulted in the sudden­ active today by the deposition of red, surface partial collapse and destabilization of the weathered sediments on the sea cliffs below ahu’s rear wall.

Figure 4: Erosion on Poike. Left: a small, heavily weathered moai to the rear of Ahu Hati Te Kohe. (The head of the moai is to the bottom of the picture). Top right: deep gully and sheet erosion around Ahu Viri Viri o Tumu in 2016. La Niña in the summer of 2016–17 was ‘the tipping point’ for its rear wall, which has now lost more stones. The trees (Casuarina) in the foreground and to the front of the ahu were planted in an attempt to inhibit further erosion. The trees in the background are Eucalyptus­ which here surround the eroded area. ­Bottom right: out of situ cultural stones pedestaled by ongoing sheet erosion. Photos: Mike Seager Thomas. 70 Hamilton and Seager Thomas: Eroding Heritage

The displacement and mixing of archaeo- The threat in the long term logical material on Poike’s deeply eroded The natural alternation every few years of El ­surfaces, on the one hand, and the burial of Niño and La Niña is sometimes cited in expla- this by colluvium on the other, have rendered nation of threats to Rapa Nui’s heritage, even survey of the areas so affected pointless,­ though the island falls outside the area most ­irrespective of the researcher’s agenda. strongly influenced by these, and records do However, we obtained useful ­archaeological not allow an unambiguous record of past and environmental data from a number environmental causes/effects to be plotted of locations. These included: areas which (Genz and Hunt 2003). Future predictions because of the local topography had escaped for the region, however, point to reduced erosion or deposition of colluvium (mostly but more intense precipitation, increasing gentle convex slopes and the outer parts the likelihood of spreading vegetation fires of deep terraces); un-eroded islands of rela- and therefore sediment instability and loss. tively unweathered bedrock, which in differ- Also predicted, is a rise in sea level and the ent places stood proud of colluvium and the possible inundation of some low-lying land eroded surfaces; ahu, whose stony bulk has and its associated archaeology during storm inhibited runoff, and which now stand on events (Quilliam et al. 2014: 63). These are islands of sediment above the eroded surface predictions; they may not be realized. But, (we were too late to record the structures the shoreline will continue to retract, the that had formerly stood on several other moai will continue to degrade, cliffs will such islands); the erosion front at the edge of continue to collapse and, unless action is the eroded area, including sections through taken to stop it, Poike and other areas of the structures standing on the aforementioned island will continue to be stripped of sedi- sediment islands; and the sides of erosion ment and the heritage monuments these gullies. Together, these yielded a range of support undermined. These facts need to be structural, artefactual, and sedimentological faced squarely by all the island’s stakehold- evidence of interpretative value, dating from ers—archaeologists, curatorial authorities, a period prior to the arrival of the island’s the tourist industry, every Rapanui—and a first colonizers, through the statue-building realistic archaeological strategy that accom- period down to the present. Most notably, modates them devised, agreed and imple- they included a previously unknown ahu mented. Otherwise, Rapa Nui’s archaeology moai of a type peculiar to Poike (Figure 4, will become a greatly diminished thing of left); pollen information on the treed envi- the past. ronment in which the Poike ahu were built (R. Scaife pers. comm.); and a probable water- Conclusion logged basin, which appears to predate the Archaeology and heritage monuments cessation of active volcanism on the island. are the basis of Rapa Nui’s main industry, For Poike, such locations are predictable, tourism. Alongside research on Rapa Nui’s easily accessible in the field, and have high archaeology, the search for a better, more archaeological potential and are thus obvi- chronologically continuous, geographically ous fieldwork priorities. While the useful- extensive, and multi-factor understand- ness of each was tempered by our individual ing of the intricacies of the threats to the research agendas, their study yielded pro- ­physical fabric of Rapa Nui’s heritage and portionately more useful data than either natural environment is essential (Table 1). random or total survey, both of which would Rather than focusing on single factors or inevitably have included much archaeologi- monument categories, our work on Poike cally sterile ground. This was established by and elsewhere allowed us to explore these extensive, rather than site or monument- intricacies at an interconnected land- type focused, fieldwork. scape scale. Research can but inform the Hamilton and Seager Thomas: Eroding Heritage 71 (contd.) & rock art a Poukura Nui; & Te a Tee moai ŋ ŋ o; Rano Raraku ŋ Ara Moai ; Oro o ŋ — e.g. Ha — e.g. Ha burying (and protecting) Ahu moai moai moai ahu ahu ahu ahu along the moai moai o a o Tuki axe factory a o Tuki ŋ ŋ Examples of sites currently or recently effected Most exposed Most exposed & Hati te Kohe; (2017) Ahu Viri o Tumu Viri Rano Raraku; Oro Most exposed The sediments ­ most exposed Hati te Kohe; Most coastal Some coastal Some coastal Oro Most coastal Most Ahu Oroi & Taharoa Most Most sites ; rock art moai moai ; moa

; the pavements of moai hare moai (particularly their , ; , rock gardens and other a a archaeology effected

ŋ ŋ ahu ahu ava ; exterior rock art ; rock art ; Moai Any coastal or inland site on in situ or re-deposited degraded lava with a significant slope Moai Surface features (e.g. artefact scatters and exposed ahu fills); Coastal ­ crematoria and rear walls) Anything close to coast or the edge of a sea cliff Coastal Moai Ahu Moai buried Part hare pae superficial stone features Types of ­ Types Moai Mineral translocation & clay swelling in rock leading to disaggregation Sediment run off leading to ­ localized collapse Soil creep Differential expansion of rock ­ minerals leading to disaggregation Sediment deflation & sand blasting Salt re-crystallization leading to rock disaggregation Sediment run off and localized ­ physical collapse and localized physical Undermining collapse Salt re-crystallization leading to ­­ rock disaggregation Rock disaggregation Rock displacement Physical abrasion Physical abrasion & rock displacement Effect(s) Mechanical erosion of rock Sun Wind action Wave Sea spray Lichen rooting Shrub rooting Rubbing & Trampling scuffing Rain Threats to Rapa Nui’s Archaeology. 1: Sea Vegetation Cattle & Horses Threats Climate Table 72 Hamilton and Seager Thomas: Eroding Heritage

- a ŋ moai faces moai a Roa and on some ŋ , inconspicuous, part buried a Poukura — and other structures a Poukura ŋ ahu ariki; the re-carving of ŋ ear on Ahu Nau (2008) at Ahu One Makihi (2018); many at Ahu One Makihi (2018); Examples of sites currently or recently effected (2011) Puna Pau Unknown sites around Hanga Roa Various paths around Rano Raraku; Ahu Ha Tourist and (fenced across the plaza in 2011 Tee Pitu Kura (fenced across & Te walled in 2017) the plaza in 2009); Explora Hotel 2007 Rock gardens all along the island’s southern coast road former govern On many plots of “returned”, ment land around Ha squatted land further afield Many exposed scatters Moai unfenced — e.g. at Ha Moai Ahu To during the restoration of Ahu Nau - bare such traces a have been reported

ŋ Moai , artefact scatters etc. archaeology effected hare pae moai

, Types of ­ Types All Many but the extent to which these can be attributed to modern fires is uncertain. damaged by recent fires previously unrecog Minor, nized sites discovered during development All Inconspicuous rock gardens & ­ collapsed stone features easily accessible from roads Obsidian scatters Ahu Moai All. As elsewhere, failure properly to report is a recurrent shortcoming of Rapa Nui archaeology - - - Effect(s) loss leading to the expo Vegetation sure of sediments to rain and wind Rock spalling; oxidization & site destruction Feature Phenomenological interference Rock harvesting for house & wall building Rock & artefact displacement Artefact theft Trampling Vandalism & graffiti Vandalism Destruction of archaeological fea tures & distortion of the archaeo logical record - Fire Infrastructure development Ploughing & local Tourists residents Un- or incompletely Un- published archaeo logical interventions & restoration Threats Human impacts Hamilton and Seager Thomas: Eroding Heritage 73 future ­meaning of Rapa Nui’s heritage. Diamond, J 2006 Collapse: How Societies­ Documenting its archaeology with research Choose to Fail or Survive. London: Penguin­ questions in mind, sampling the stratig- Books. raphies that ­erosion exposes, and rescue Genz, J and Hunt, T 2003 El Niño/Southern excavation must be done alongside, but not oscillation and Rapa Nui Prehistory. Rapa independent of, the monitoring and protec- Nui Journal, 17(1): 7–14. tion of its eroding heritage. Rapa Nui pre- Hamilton, S 2007 Rapa Nui landscapes sents a microcosm of many world heritage of construction. Archaeology Interna- issues and reveals a daunting array of threats tional, 10: 49–53. DOI: https://doi. to the fabric of its heritage. Interestingly, it org/10.5334/ai.1011 is current research that increasingly ascribes Hamilton, S 2013 Rapa Nui (Easter Island)’s to Rapa Nui’s remarkable prehistory a record stone worlds. Archaeology International, of successful ancient environmental man- 16 (2012–2013): 96–109. DOI: https:// agement (for example through rock mulch- doi.org/10.5334/ai.1613 ing of crops and control of periodic surface Ladefoged, T, Stevenson, C, Haoa, S, flows of water, see Ladefoged et al. 2010; ­Mulrooney, M, Puleston, C, Vitousek, P Stevenson, Wozniak and Haoa 1999; Vogt and Chadwick, O 2010 Soil nutrient anal- and Moser 2010), a record that now seems ysis of Rapa Nui gardening. ­Archaeology to have been more successful at controlling Oceania­ , 45: 80–85. DOI: https://doi. erosion than the many 20th- and 21st-century org/10.1002/j.1834-4453.2010.tb00082.x responses to managing the development Landscapes of Construction 2013 and environmental change that Rapa Nui is Preliminary multi-scalar survey of the experiencing with increasing intensity. ­southwest section of the Ara Moai, 2013. Rapa Nui Landscapes of Construction Competing Interests Interim Reports, 7. Available at: https:// The authors have no competing interests to archive.org/details/LOC7AraMoai2013In- declare. gles [Last accessed: 23 August 2018]. Landscapes of Construction 2014 Multi- References scalar survey of the southwestern Ara Bahn, P and Flenley, J 2011 Easter Moai between Ahu Hanga Tetenga and Island: Earth Island. Rapa Nui: Rapa Nui Ahu Hoa Anga Vaka A Tua Poi. Rapa Press. Nui Landscapes of Construction Interim Cauwe, N and De Dapper, M 2015 The road Reports, 9. Available at: https://archive. of the moai, an interrupted travelator? In: org/details/LOC9AraMoai2014English Cauwe, N and De Dapper, M (eds) Easter [Last accessed: 23 August 2018]. Island: Collapse or Transformation? A Landscapes of Construction 2015 Work State of the Art. Brussels: Royal Academy on the Ara Moai (northwest and south) for Overseas Sciences, Royal Museums of and at Rano Raraku, 2015. Rapa Nui Art and History & Belgian Science Policy ­Landscapes of Construction Project Interim Office. pp. 9–57. Reports, 11. Available at: https://archive. Charola, E 1997 Death of a Moai. Easter org/details/LOC11 [Last accessed: 23 Island Statues: their Nature, Deterioration August 2018]. and Conservation. Easter Island Founda- Landscapes of Construction 2016 Survey tion Occasional Paper 4. on Poike. UCL Rapa Nui Landscapes of CTS News 2013 Work in progress—the weak- Construction Interim Reports, 13. ­Available ness of the moai. CTS News, 16 April 2013. at: https://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/ Available at: https://www.ctseurope. research/directory/rapanui_hamilton/ com/en/dettaglio-news.php?id=191 LOC13_english_16MB.pdf [Last accessed: [Last accessed: 16 August 2018]. 23 August 2018]. 74 Hamilton and Seager Thomas: Eroding Heritage

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How to cite this article: Hamilton, S and Seager Thomas, M 2018 Eroding Heritage: An Island Context. Archaeology International, 21 (1), pp. 64–74. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/ai-382

Submitted: 06 July 2018 Accepted: 15 August 2018 Published: 05 December 2018

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