Volume 1, Issue 11 Date-released: December 29, 2018
News reports - Sylvan Acquired by Yuguan - Japan Firm Claims Success in Cultivation of Matsutake-Like Mushroom - Growing Guide 'Mushroom Signals' Gets a Chinese Release Up-coming events - 25th North American Mushroom Conference - Dutch Mushroom Days 2019 - The 10th International Medicinal Mushroom Conference Welcome Letter Research progress - New Researches Points and Reviews
- Current and Future Research Trends in Agricultural and Biomedical Applications of Medicinal Mushrooms and Mushroom Products (Review) (Part I), by Shu Ting Chang & Solomon P. Wasser
Call for Papers Contact information
Issue Editor- Mr. Ziqiang Liu [email protected] Department of Edible Mushrooms, CFNA, 4/F, Talent International Building
No. 80 Guangqumennei Street,
Dongcheng District, Beijing 10062, China
News Reports
Sylvan Acquired by Yuguan
At the end of August, Sylvan started to inform customers about the imminent acquirement of the spawn company by Yuguan China, supported by investment firm KKR.
Mark Snyder, Sylvan Inc. CEO and Chairman of the Board spoke of ‘entering a new and exciting era in Sylvans evolution as a global player’, having executed an agreement with Jiangsu Yuguan Modern Agriculture Science And Technology, Ltd (Yuguan China) to acquire Sylvan Inc., the largest producer and distributor of mushroom spawn, with facilities in 16 locations. Yuguan Director Jacky Qi confirmed the ‘very strategic’ move for his company, and told Mushroom Business that ‘the whole mushroom community can expect to benefit from our investments in Sylvan’.
Yuguan Group The Yuguan Group, led by Mr. Jianguang Huang, has been dedicated to commercial mushroom growing, processing and sales for the past 30 years. Yuguan China, founded in 2010, is currently the largest modern farm in China, producing 120 million pounds of fresh mushrooms (100% Sylvan variety A15) for the Chinese domestic market. Yuguan produces its own compost, runs satellite farms, provides inhouse training, and still increases its expansion this year.
Snyder: “Sylvan has a long and close relationship with Yuguan and believe this merger will be highly beneficial to our customers. They are a highly reputable firm and are known for their innovation and dedication to quality in our industry. Customers should expect the same level of quality, products and continued high service levels with Yuguan.”
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Sylvan in China Iwan Brandsma, Commercial Director of Sylvan Europe told Mushroom Business on September 2nd that ‘the realisation of a Sylvan spawn factory in China, which was in the planning anyway, will now be a certainty’. “For Yuguan, the advantages of this step are clear, it fits in the companies big ambitions. For Sylvan, the entry to the Chinese market is a guarantee for necessary further growth and investments, and we are very happy with this step, that will bring huge synergy advantages for both companies.”
It is anticipated that Sylvan will continue to operate as a separate division under its current management team, and until all necessary approvals have been granted and the transaction has closed, Sylvan and Yuguan will continue to operate independently. Yuguan is supported in the Sylvan investment by KKR, a US headquartered and globally renowned private equity fund with a strong track record in agriculture and food safety investments in Asia.
More in Mushroom Business 90 and Paddestoelen 4, September 2018
Japan Firm Claims Success in Cultivation of Matsutake-Like Mushroom
A fertilizer-maker in western Japan has claimed success in artificially cultivating bakamatsutake mushrooms — a species related to the highly prized matsutake mushroom, with a similar taste and flavor. Once mass production of bakamatsutake, whose scientific name is Tricholoma bakamatsutake, is ready, consumers will be able to enjoy its matsutake-like flavor, but at a lower cost, said Taki Chemical Co. the Kakogawa, Hyogo Prefecture, based company behind the research.
Bakamatsutake mushrooms are found in beech and oak forests, not in red pine woodlands where matsutake mushrooms grow. The growth season for bakamatsutake starts about one month ahead of the matsutake mushrooms, according to the company.
Although another institute has symbiotically cultivated the mushrooms on plants, a researcher at Taki Chemical, who first started work on developing an artificial cultivation method for bakamatsutake mushrooms about six years ago, has for the first time successfully grown them on artificial mushroom beds, the company said. It is said the mushroom was named baka (stupid) matsutake because it failed to grow in the same place and season as matsutake. But Taki Chemical said bakamatsutake is often described as tasting and smelling better than matsutake.
Domestically harvested matsutake mushrooms sell for ¥40,000 to ¥50,000 (5-6,000 EUR) per kilogram, although their prices vary depending on when and where they are picked. But even matsutake-specialized sellers said they have no idea about prices for bakamatsutake mushrooms due to their rare appearance at retail stores.
Pointing out that artificial cultivation will make it possible to ship bakamatsutake mushrooms any time of the year, a Taki Chemical official in charge hopes that the company will be able to develop a stable production system and launch its bakamatsutake business in three years.
“We’d like to supply products cheaper than matsutake mushrooms,” the official said.
Source: Japan Times
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Growing Guide 'Mushroom Signals' Gets a Chinese Release
During the 12th Chinese Mushroom days in Zhangzhou, the first copy of ‘Mushroom Signals’ Chinese edition was presented to Professor Li Yu of Jilin Agricultural University by author Mark den Ouden. Author Mark den Ouden is an international advisor/trainer and son of a mushroom grower. The book will be available via Roodbont Publishers. This Chinese edition is the fifth edition after English, Dutch, Polish and Russian.
Art of the profession
Mushroom growing is not an exact science. To learn how you can see, understand and act to mushroom signals in the right way is an art. And this art can be mastered. The process of successful mushroom growing starts with a proper assessment of raw materials needed for optimal compost. When it comes to mushroom growing, it is the challenge that you react adequately to changing growth circumstances in order to achieve a good or even better growth result. ‘Mushroom Signals’ will show you how to put this into daily practice.
Look, think, act
‘Mushroom Signals’ teaches composting managers and mushroom growers to optimize their production process by showing them how to pay attention to signals from daily practice. Not to jump to conclusions, but to always ask yourself three questions: What do I see? Why does this happen? What can I do about it? Example: What do I see? A day after watering the floor is still wet and the casing soil looks shiny. Why does this happen? Too little moisture is removed. Because of this the pinheads of the second flush cannot grow out properly and bacterial blotches may appear. What can I do about it? Decrease the RH (relative humidity) and CO2 (carbondioxide). This is one of the many signals with which you can optimize the production and quality of the mushrooms. A mushroom grows four percent per hour! By asking a picker to harvest more often per day from the same bed, you can achieve an increased production of at least ten per cent. So coaching of your employees is as important as monitoring your mushrooms.
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Develop your Signals Antenna
The circumstances in which mushrooms are grown are different around the world. But the signals that you can pick up from compost and mushrooms are the same everywhere. On every spot on every moment you can pick up signals... as long as you put your ‘signals antenna’ on. ‘Mushroom Signals’ helps you develop this antenna.
Price and ordering
‘Mushroom Signals- Chinese’ has a luxury hard cover, a 21 x 27 cm format, contains 150 full color pages and about 450 photos. The retail price is € 64, 90 (incl. VAT). The ISBN is 9789087403072. Ordering can be done via www.roodbont.com. For companies a customized edition can be delivered with their own cover wrap. More information can be obtained via [email protected].
For more information: Annemarie Weijland-ter Woorst: Tel: +31 57 54 56 88 Email: [email protected]
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Up-coming Events
25th North American Mushroom Conference
The 25th North American Mushroom Conference will be held at Hyatt Regency Hotel, Orlando, Florida, USA on February 14-16, 2019.
Schedule
Day 1 February 14, 2019
5:00 pm – 7:00 pm Expo Opening Reception
Day 2 February 15, 2019
7:00 am Registration Open 7:30 am – 8:30 am Breakfast in Expo 8:30 am - 12:15 pm Business Sessions 12:15 pm - 1:30 pm Lunch in Expo 1:30 pm - 3:00 pm Business Sessions 3:00 pm - 5:00 pm Expo Open & Prize Drawings
Day 3 February 16, 2019
7:30 am – 8:30 am Breakfast in Expo 8:30 am – 12:15 pm Business Sessions 12:15 pm – 1:30 pm Lunch in Expo 1:30 pm – 3:00 pm Business Sessions 6:00 pm Closing Dinner & Reception
About Orlando
It’s true: Orlando is a magical place.
And it’s not just because it’s home to Cinderella’s castle at Walt Disney World. There’s an incredible mix of fun things to do in this great city that make it an ideal vacationing spot for not only families but young singles, baby boomers, foodies, outdoor adventurous types, luxury shoppers and international visitors.
While the city was built on theme park fame, the number and variety of Orlando attractions have grown to include everything from world-famous restaurants to high-end outlet shopping centers to theatrical performances and amazing concert and sporting event venues.
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Golfers love the pristine, challenging and historic courses throughout the city and art-lovers enjoy the Orlando Museum of Art, Mennello Museum of American Art as well as a number of small, funky galleries and art studios sprinkled throughout the area.
If you’re looking for quirky, interesting things to do in a half-day, afternoon or evening, Orlando has a number of fun spots that make for great memories and neat stories.
Whether you’re traveling with friends, family or in town for business, Orlando offers unique experiences for every visitor to ensure an unforgettable vacation. Get all the information you need on the area’s theme parks, indoor and outdoor activities, restaurants and more at www.visitorlando.com.
Sponsorship Opportunities
Don’t miss out on being a part of this event which brings together mushroom industry leaders from across North America and around the world, providing you with valuable and unique networking opportunities. Your sponsorship proudly proclaims your status not only as a player, but as an industry leader. We all make our living in this business, and we should do all we can to cultivate its success and enhance its viability.
Financing the NAMC is a challenging task. As with any conference of this magnitude, the costs are substantial, and registration fees cover only a fraction of the expenses. Your sponsorship dollars play a vital role in keeping the conference fees as low as possible to encourage the maximum number of delegates, which in turn increases the return on investment from your support. Help us assure our largest attendance ever while you enjoy the benefits of networking without day-to-day business distractions.
We are very pleased to offer sponsorship opportunities for every budget from Platinum, Gold, Silver, and Bronze to Patrons and Friends and sponsors will receive unique benefits.
Send your sponsorship form to AMI via email at [email protected] or mail to AMI, 1284 Gap Newport Pike, Suite 2, Avondale, PA 19311.
EXPO
With the leaders, decision-makers and influencers of the industry all in one place, the NAMC Expo is the perfect opportunity to expand company awareness and drive sales. The schedule and floor-plan have been designed to provide you with maximum exposure and space to showcase your products and services to North America’s mushroom producers, with dedicated Expo hours as well as an opening evening reception and breakfast, lunch and coffee breaks, all held in the Expo ballroom.
More information please visit www.mushroomconference.org
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Dutch Mushroom Days 2019
The Dutch mushroom industry is known as one of the largest players in the global mushroom sector! The Mushroom Days are the perfect platform for Dutch and international companies to present their technologies and services and to gain the newest information and insights. The organisers (Stichting Champignondagen) expect a presence of over 3,000 professionals from various different countries.
35th edition of the Mushroom Days
The 35th edition of the Mushroom Days 2019 will take place from Wednesday May 22 until Friday May 24 2019 in the Brabanthallen in 's-Hertogenbosch, the Netherlands. The commission of this fair recently changed and currently consists of: Piet Lempens (president), Ko Hooijmans (Treasurer), Wout van Lieshout and Jan Arts of Vullings Systemen. The commission wants to thank Peter Christiaens and Paul Weigl for their years of input and pleasant manner of collaboration once again. The organisation of the fair will once again be taken care of by Hagenstein Exhibition Management, Anoeska Hagenstein and Femke Willems.
Stallholders Meeting
The organisation would like to invite all (potential) stallholders to the stallholders meeting on September 21 in the Brabanthallen in 's-Hertogenbosch. It will take place from 15.00 - 17.00 hours. During this meeting stallholders will be able to sign up to the Mushroom Days.
Ambassador Award
On the Wednesday after the show the Welcome Event for exhibitors, visitors and press will be organised. As in the previous edition there will be a special guest speaker, to be announced at a later date. During the Welcome Event the 'Ambassador of the Mushroom Industry Award' will be handed out. This award is intended for those who contribute to the positive image of the mushroom sector as a true ambassador.
If you have a potential candidate for this award, you can write your name and motivation to [email protected]. The night will end with a delicious buffet. Visitors, stallholders and their partners are all welcome and participation is free. A perfect moment to catch up with colleagues.
For more information or to sign up:
[email protected] www.champignondagen.nl
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The 10th International Medicinal Mushroom Conference Welcome Letter
Dear Delegates and All Participants,
I am deeply honored to convey, on behalf of the Organizing Committee of the 10th International Medicinal Mushroom Conference (IMMC10), our sincere gratitude to all of the experts, scholars, company representatives, and all of the participants who will be attending the 10th International Medicinal Mushroom Conference.
Medicinal mushrooms have a long history in China. About 2500 years ago, mushrooms were first reportedly used for medical purposes. The first medicinal book written in China was “The Classic of Herbal Medicine” (B.C. 200-B.C. 102) and covered agricultural and medicinal plants; 12 different kinds of medicinal mushrooms were mentioned, and some of these are still being used today. When the 1st IMMC was held in Kiev in the Ukraine in 2001, it was agreed that there would be other IMMCs every two years. The IMMC5 and IMMC7 were both held in China, and the IMMC10 will be held in Nantong, China, during the period of September 19-22, 2019. The success of this conference would not be possible without the support and help provided by the delegates and participants from all over the world.
The IMMC10 will be a grand international event, specializing in a wide variety of academic discussions. The conference theme is “Medicinal Mushroom Science: Innovations and Challenges”. The conference is organized by the International Society for Medicinal Mushrooms, and the China Chamber of Commerce of Foodstuffs and Native Produce; co-organized by the China Chamber of Commerce of Foodstuffs and Native Produce, the Edible Mushroom Branch, Internationally Cooperative Research Center of China for New Germplasm Breading of Edible Mushroom, Jiangsu Alphay Bio- Technology Co., Ltd., Strategic Alliance for Technological Innovation of National Food and Medicinal Mushroom Industry, and Key Laboratory of Edible Mushroom Processing, Ministry of Agriculture. The major activities include key-note speeches, scientific forums, poster sessions, exhibitions of edible and medicinal mushroom products, and so on. The scientific symposia involve 1) Biodiversity of Medicinal Mushrooms (Conservation, Taxonomy and Ecological Distribution), 2) Genetics and breeding of Medicinal Mushrooms (including Molecular Biology), 3) Physiology, Cultivation and Fermentation of Medicinal Mushrooms, 4) Biochemistry and Pharmacology of Medicinal Mushrooms Active Compounds, 5) Medicinal Mushrooms in Veterinary Medicine and Agriculture, 6) Medicinal Mushrooms in Clinical Practice, 7) Nutritional and Medicinal Value of Mushroom Products, and 8) Industrialization of Medicinal Mushrooms Products (including Management, Marketing, Laws and Regulations, Standardization). The conference will provide a platform for all medicinal mushroom researchers who will be able to discuss basic and currently important scientific questions, share the results of individual studies, make new or renew friendships, and work together to develop a new chapter in medicinal mushrooms.
At this very moment, I also believe that, at this grand event, scientific researchers and delegates from the medicinal mushroom industry will benefit immensely from the information to be exchanged. I feel very strongly that, with the combined efforts of all of the individuals involved, the conference is certain to be successful and will contribute considerably both to improving our overall knowledge and also in promoting the further development of medicinal mushrooms throughout the world.
I would like to wish all of you good health and success in your work!
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Thank you all again!
Prof. Yu Li Chairman of the Organizing Committee The 10th International Medicinal Mushroom Conference
The 10th International Medicinal Mushroom Conference
Local Organizing Committee:
Address: No. 68-A, Zhongyang Road, NETDA, Nantong, Jiangsu, China. P.C.:226009
Tel: +86-10-87109859, +86-513-85960147
Fax: +86-10-87109861, +86-513-85960137
E-mail: [email protected] (Registration & Payment);
[email protected] (Abstract & Full paper)
[email protected] (Accommodations)
[email protected] (Exhibition & Sponsorship)
Website: www.immc10.com
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Research progress
Profiles of Little-Known Medicinal Polypores: Funalia trogii (Agaricomycetes)
By Ivan V. Zmitrovicha , Margarita A. Bondartsevaa, Stanislav P. Arefyevb, Oleg N. Ezhovc, Solomon P. Wasserd,e aLaboratory of Systematics and Geography of Fungi, Komarov Botanical Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Saint Petersburg, Russia; bInstitute of Problems of Development of the North (a subdivision of the Federal Research Center), Tyumen Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences (Siberian Branch), Tyumen, Russia; cN. Laverov Federal Center for Integrated Arctic Research, Arkhangelsk, Russia; dN.G. Kholodny Institute of Botany, NAS of Ukraine, 2 Tereshchenkovskaya Str., Kiev 01004, Ukraine; eDepartment of Evolutionary and Environmental Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Institute of Evolution, University of Haifa, 199 Abba Khousi Ave., Mt. Carmel, Haifa 3498838, Israel
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to comprehensively characterize little-known polypores that have recently been found to possess anticancer activity and thus can be used in targeted cancer therapy. Funalia trogii is a polypore with bipolar distribution and has been found by harvesters working in taiga forests, broadleaf forests, and forest- steppes of the Holarctic, and in semiarid temperate forests of the Southern Hemisphere. Substances such as gibberellic acid, abscisic acid, indole-3-acetic acid, and natural cytokinin were determined in culture media of F. trogii. Also, laccases and peroxidases of spare action have been reported in F. trogii culture media. All of the aforementioned substances can be used in targeted cancer therapy, but further investigation of F. trogii is recommended; more details of its health benefits could expand its use in mycotherapy.
Keywords: distribution, Funalia, Funalia trogii, gibberellic acid, indole-3-acetic acid, laccases of spare action, medicinal mushrooms, medicinal polypores, morphology, targeted therapy
International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms, Volume 20, 2018 Issue 7, pages 657-664
Opposite Polarity Monospore Genome De Novo Sequencing and Comparative Analysis Reveal the Possible Heterothallic Life Cycle of Morchella importuna
By Wei Liu 1,2, LianFu Chen 1,2, YingLi Cai 1,2, QianQian Zhang 1,2 and YinBing Bian 1,2
1Institute of Applied Mycology, Plant Science and Technology College, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; 2Key Laboratory of Agro-Microbial Resource Comprehensive Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
Abstract: Morchella is a popular edible fungus worldwide due to its rich nutrition and unique flavor. Many research efforts were made on the domestication and cultivation of Morchella all over the world. In recent years, the cultivation of Morchella was successfully commercialized in China. However, the biology is not well understood, which restricts the
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further development of the morel fungus cultivation industry. In this paper, we performed de novo sequencing and assembly of the genomes of two monospores with a different mating type (M04M24 and M04M26) isolated from the commercially cultivated strain M04. Gene annotation and comparative genome analysis were performed to study differences in CAZyme (Carbohydrate-active enzyme) enzyme content, transcription factors, duplicated sequences, structure of mating type sites, and differences at the gene and functional levels between the two monospore strains of M. importuna. Results showed that the de novo assembled haploid M04M24 and M04M26 genomes were 48.98 and 51.07 Mb, respectively. A complete fine physical map of M. importuna was obtained from genome coverage and gene completeness evaluation. A total of 10,852 and 10,902 common genes and 667 and 868 endemic genes were identified from the two monospore strains, respectively. The Gene Ontology (GO) and KAAS (KEGG Automatic Annotation Serve) enrichment analyses showed that the endemic genes performed different functions. The two monospore strains had 99.22% collinearity with each other, accompanied with certain position and rearrangement events. Analysis of complete mating-type loci revealed that the two monospore M. importuna strains contained an independent mating-type structure and remained conserved in sequence and location. The phylogenetic and divergence time of M. importuna was analyzed at the whole-genome level for the first time. The bifurcation time of morel and tuber was estimated to be 201.14 million years ago (Mya); the two monospore strains with a different mating type represented the evolution of different nuclei, and the single copy homologous genes between them were also different due to a genetic differentiation distance about 0.65 Mya. Compared with truffles, M. importuna had an extension of 28 clusters of orthologous genes (COGs) and a contraction of two COGs. The two different polar nuclei with different degrees of contraction and expansion suggested that they might have undergone different evolutionary processes. The different mating-type structures, together with the functional clustering and enrichment analysis results of the endemic genes of the two different polar nuclei, imply that M. importuna might be a heterothallic fungus and the interaction between the endemic genes may be necessary for its complete life history. Studies on the genome of M. importuna facilitate a better understanding of morel biology and evolution.
Keywords: Morchella importuna, mating type, transcriptome, heterothallism, gene expansion and contraction
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(9), 2525
Genetic Variability of the Medicinal Tinder Bracket Polypore, Fomes fomentarius (Agaricomycetes), from the Asian Part of Russia
By Victor A. Mukhina,b, Elena V. Zhuykovac , Susanna M. Badalyand aDepartment of Biodiversity and Bioecology, Ural Federal University, Yekaterinburg, Russia; Department of Vegetation and Mycobiota Biodiversity, Institute of Plant and Animal Ecology, bUral Division Russian Academy of Sciences, Yekaterinburg, Russia; cDepartment of Experimental Biology and Biotechnology, Ural Federal University, Yekaterinburg, Russia; dLaboratory of Fungal Biology and Biotechnology, Institute of Pharmacy, Yerevan State University, 1 A. Manoogian St., 0025 Yerevan, Armenia
Abstract: We analyzed intraspecies genetic variability of the medicinal tinder bracket polypore, Fomes fomentarius, from the Asian part of Russia, including the Ural, Altai, Western Sayan, and Baikal regions. We used nuclear ribosomal
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DNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence data as a standard marker for fungal DNA barcoding. In the Asian part of Russia, lineage A occurs as sublineage A2, which differs from sublineage A1 by a single nucleotide insertion at ITS2.3. Sublineage A2 is distributed up to Lake Baikal in the Ural, Altai, and Western Sayan regions. It can be characterized as a Eurasian sublineage of F. fomentarius. Lineage B is also represented by 2 sublineages (B1 and B2), which differ from each other by nucleotide sequences at ITS2.1. Sublineage B1 is represented by a small group of isolates from Asia (Iran, China, Nepal, South Korea), whereas sublineage B2 mainly includes isolates from Europe (Great Britain, Italy, Latvia, Slovakia, Slovenia) and 2 separate samples from Asia (Iran, China); these locales compose the distribution area of F. fomentarius. In the Asian part of Russia, lineage B is represented by sublineage B2 found in the Southern Urals (at the border between Europe and Asia), which is the only area where sublineages A2 and B2 are present. These sublineages are characterized by different substrate spectra: sublineage A2 is predominantly associated with Betula spp. and rarely with Alnus and Larix trees, whereas sublineage B2 does not have a pronounced substrate preference and is found in basidiomes collected from Acer, Duschekia, Prunus, and Salix trees, but not Betula trees. In general, the spectrum of substrates for F. fomentarius lineages A and B in the Asian part of Russia corresponds to that in other parts of this polypore's distribution area. Data are needed on genetic intraspecies variability (polymorphism) in relation to pharmacological properties for further biotechnological cultivation and use of the medicinal fungus F. fomentarius.
Keywords: Asian Russia, distribution, Fomes fomentarius, genotypes, intraspecies variability, ITS sequences, medicinal mushrooms, rDNA, substrate preference, polymorphism
International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms, Volume 20, 2018 Issue 6, pages 561-568
Medicinal Mushrooms Supplements Alter Chicken Intestinal Microbiome By Janelle Robinsona, Felicia N. Anikea, Willie Willis, bOmoanghe S. Isikhuemhena aDepartment of Natural Resources and Environmental Design, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, USA; bDepartment of Animal Sciences, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, USA
Abstract: Chicken intestinal microbiomes are known to enhance chicken health and increase production. Identifying natural supplements that shift bacteria communities in favor of beneficial bacteria is critical. This study is a preliminary investigation of the use of medicinal mushrooms nutritional supplements (MSs) including Lentinus edodes, Ganoderma lucidum, Pleurotus ostreatus, and Cordyceps sp. to modulate bacteria in chicken guts. Two-hundred seventy 1-day-old broilers were weighed and randomly assigned to nine different treatments containing MSs. Treatments were assigned according to MS incubation times (14-56 days) and levels of inclusion (5% and 10%) into chicken feed as follows: (1) control MS0; (2) MS1, 14 days, 5%; (3) MS2, 14 days, 10%; (4) MS3, 28 days, 5%; (5) MS4, 28 days, 10%; (6) MS5, 42 days, 5%; (7) MS6, 42 days, 10%; (8) MS7, 56 days, 5%; and (9) MS8, 56 days, 10%. Changes in bacterial community in the stomach (S) and bursa (B) of experimental chickens were assessed using a next-generation sequencing approach. Results indicated that all MSs, except MS1-S (14 days, 5%) and MS4-S (28 days, 10%), completely eliminated Mollicutes, a class of stomach pathogens. MS7 (56 days, 5%) reduced Clostridia 4.8-fold and 3-fold in the stomach and bursa, respectively. The chicken stomach contained far more diverse bacteria than the bursa. Whereas the overall diversity of bacteria decreased with MSs, there was no consistent pattern with incubation time and inclusion level. The abundance
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of Gammaproteobacteria and unidentified species increased tremendously in both organs, while Bacilli were generally reduced. MS7 (56 days, 5%) showed the most promising result but needs further research. This study high-lights potential benefits from the use of fungal-based supplements as health enhancers in chicken production.
Keywords: medicinal mushrooms supplements, gut microbiome, chicken, bacteria, chicken, health, Lentinus edodes, Ganoderma lucidum, Pleurotus ostreatus, Cordyceps sp.
International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms, Volume 20, 2018 Issue 7, pages 685-693
Mushroom Poisoning: A Proposed New Clinical Classification
Julian Whitea,Scott A. Weinsteina, Luc De Harob, Regis Bédryc, Andreas Schaperd, Barry H. Rumacke, Thomas Zilkerf aToxinology Dept., Women's & Children's Hospital, North Adelaide, Australia; bMarseille Poison Centre, Hopital Sainte Marguerite, Marseille, France; cHospital Secure Unit, Pellegrin University Hospital, Bordeaux, France; d GIZ-Nord Poisons Centre, University Medical Center Göettingen, Göttingen, Germany; eDepartment of Emergency Medicine and Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA; fDept. for Clinical Toxicology at II, Med. Klinik, TU, München, Munich, Germany
Abstract: Mushroom poisoning is a significant and increasing form of toxin-induced-disease. Existing classifications of mushroom poisoning do not include more recently described new syndromes of mushroom poisoning and this can impede the diagnostic process. We reviewed the literature on mushroom poisoning, concentrating on the period since the current major classification published in 1994, to identify all new syndromes of poisoning and organise them into a new integrated classification, supported by a new diagnostic algorithm. New syndromes were eligible for inclusion if there was sufficient detail about both causation and clinical descriptions. Criteria included: identity of mushrooms, clinical profile, epidemiology, and the distinctive features of poisoning in comparison with previously documented syndromes. We propose 6 major groups based on key clinical features relevant in distinguishing between poisoning syndromes. Some clinical features, notably gastrointestinal symptoms, are common to many mushroom poisoning syndromes. Group 1 - Cytotoxic mushroom poisoning. Syndromes with specific major internal organ pathology: (Subgroup 1.1; Primary hepatotoxicity); 1A, primary hepatotoxicity(amatoxins); (Subgroup 1.2; Primary nephrotoxicity); 1B, early primary nephrotoxicity (amino hexadienoic acid; AHDA); 1C, delayed primary nephrotoxicity (orellanines). Group 2 - Neurotoxic mushroom poisoning. Syndromes with primary neurotoxicity: 2A, hallucinogenic mushrooms (psilocybins and related toxins); 2B, autonomic-toxicity mushrooms (muscarines); 2C, CNS-toxicity mushrooms (ibotenic acid/muscimol); 2D, morel neurologic syndrome (Morchella spp.). Group 3 - Myotoxic mushroom poisoning. Syndromes with rhabdomyolysis as the primary feature: 3A, rapid onset (Russula spp.); 3B, delayed onset (Tricholomaspp.). Group 4 – Metabolic, endocrine and related toxicity mushroom poisoning. Syndromes with a variety of clinical presentations affecting metabolic and/or endocrine processes: 4A, GABA-blocking mushroom poisoning (gyromitrins); 4B, disulfiram-like (coprines); 4C, polyporic mushroom poisoning (polyporic acid); 4D, trichothecene mushroom poisoning (Podostroma spp.); 4E, hypoglycaemic mushroom poisoning (Trogia venenata); 4F, hyperprocalcitoninemia mushroom poisoning (Boletus satanas); 4G, pancytopenic mushroom poisoning (Ganodermaneojaponicum). Group 5 - Gastrointestinal irritant mushroom poisoning. This group includes a wide variety of mushrooms that cause gastrointestinal effects without causing other clinically significant effects. Group 6 - 13
Miscellaneous adverse reactions to mushrooms. Syndromes which do not fit within the previous 5 groups: 6A, Shiitake mushroomdermatitis; 6B, erythromelagic mushrooms (Clitocybe acromelagia); 6C, Paxillus syndrome (Paxillus involutus); 6D, encephalopathy syndrome (Pleurocybella porrigens).
Keywords: Mushrooms, Mushroom poisoning, Poisonous mushrooms, Diagnostic algorithm; Hepatotoxicity; Renal failure; Rhabdomyolysis
Toxicon, Volume 157, January 2019, Pages 53-65
Cross-Flow Ultrafiltration Fractions of a Cold Aqueous Extract of the Shiitake Culinary-Medicinal Mushroom, Lentinus edodes (Agaricomycetes), Exhibit Apoptosis in Tumor Cells
By Miriam Saria, Katharina Toeplerb, Anna Nickisch-Hartfielc, Nicole Teuschb, Reinhard Hambitzera aCompetence Center for Applied Mycology and Environmental Studies, Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Niederrhein University of Applied Sciences, Mönchengladbach, Germany; bBio-Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Technische Hochschule Koeln, Leverkusen, Germany; cDepartment of Chemistry, Niederrhein University of Applied Sciences, Krefeld, Germany
Abstract: Lentinus edodes (shiitake) ranks among the most well-known medicinal mushrooms worldwide. Immune- modulating effects of shiitake extracts have been widely demonstrated in animals and humans. Apart from providing highly purified compounds such as lentinan, crude mushroom extracts also show antitumor activities. The direct cytotoxicity of crude preparations still requires investigation. The focus of our study lies in the molecular weight cutoff distribution of β-glucans and proteins in a cold aqueous extract from L. edodes. We applied cross-flow ultrafiltration to obtain 6 fractions with different molecular sizes. β-glucan and protein contents were quantified. We were able to show that only small amounts of β-glucans were extracted and that protein content decreases with fraction size. The cytotoxic potential of the cold aqueous preparation was demonstrated by analyzing inhibition of the growth of non- small cell lung cancer and triple-negative breast cancer cells.
Keywords: B-glucans, A549, breast cancer, cold water extraction, cytotoxicity, extract, Lentinus edodes, MDA-MB-231, medicinal mushrooms, non-small cell lung cancer, ultrafiltration, tumor cell growth
International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms, Volume 20, 2018 Issue 11, pages 1107-1119
Antiproliferative and Apoptotic Activities of the Medicinal Mushroom Phellinus rimosus (Agaricomycetes) on HCT116 Human Colorectal Carcinoma Cells By Chakrappilly Radhakrishnan Meeraa,b, Kainoor K. Janardhananc, Devarajan Karunagarand,e aAmala Cancer Research Centre, Amala Nagar, Thrissur, Kerala, India; bDepartment of Microbiology, St. Mary's College, Thrissur, Kerala, India; cDepartment of Microbiology, Amala Cancer Research Centre, Amala Nagar, Thrissur, Kerala, India; dRajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology, Poojappura, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India; eDepartment of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India
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Abstract: Phellinus rimosus is a host-specific wood-rotting polypore that has been reported to be used by some tribes in Kerala, India, for curing mumps. We isolated a novel polysaccharide-protein complex from Ph. rimosus (PPC-Pr) that possessed significant antitumor activity. In this study, we examined the antiproliferative and apoptotic properties of PPC-Pr using human colon cancer cell line HCT116 as a model system. HCT116 cells were cultured in the presence of PPC-Pr at various concentrations (100-1000 μg/mL) for 24-96 hours, and the percentage of cell viability was evaluated using a 3-(4-5 dimethylthiozol-2-yl) 2-5-diphenyl-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. The results showed that PPC-Pr inhibited cell viability in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. The antiproliferative effect of PPC-Pr was associated with apoptosis on HCT116 cells. We analyzed the morphological changes in the PPC-Pr-treated HCT116 cells using fluorescent DNA-microscopy with 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole dihydrochloride hydrate (DAPI) and acridine orange-ethidium bromide (AO/EB) staining. With DAPI staining, the cells treated with PPC-Pr showed nuclear shrinkage and chromatin condensation. Apoptotic morphology in cellular bodies as well as chromatin condensation were also confirmed by AO/EB double staining. Oligonucleosomal DNA fragmentation in PPC-Pr-treated cells was evaluated using a comet assay. The comet assay showed that control cells had few nuclei with fragmented chromatin, whereas apoptotic nuclei were more frequent in PPC-Pr-treated cells. These investigations indicate that the polysaccharide- protein complex from Ph. rimosus possesses antiproliferative activity and induces marked apoptosis in tumor cells in vitro.
Keywords: Phellinus rimosus, polysaccharide-protein complex, antiproliferative, apoptosis, colon cancer, medicinal mushrooms
International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms, Volume 20, 2018 Issue 10, pages 935-945
Ethnopharmacological Exploration of Medicinal Mushroom from Pakistan
By Hamna Yasin, Maria Zahoor, Zubaida Yousaf, Arusa Aftab, Nadia Saleh, Nadia Riaz, Bushra Shamsheer
Department of Botany, Lahore College for Women University, Lahore, Pakistan
Abstract: The chief aim of this study was to enlist the ethnopharmacological aspect of mushrooms from four Provinces of Pakistan. Due to the seasonal variation and extreme geographical conditions, Pakistan has great mushroom diversity. Mushrooms have been used by the indigenous people for the treatment of different ailments in many regions of Pakistan. They still depend on the mushrooms for treatment of various ailments. Moreover, mushrooms are used as first aid to treat cold, cough, influenza, asthma, cancer, gastric and hepatic disorders. Traditional uses of medicinal mushrooms lead to the discovery of alternative source of synthetic medicines. This is basically the first quantitative ethnopharmcological documentation of medicinal mushrooms from Pakistan. Ethnopharmacological information was collected from the 950 informants including male and female. The informative data was based on semi-structured interviews, group discussions, and field visits. Data was analyzed by applying different quantitative indices such as informant consent factor (ICF), Use value (UV), Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC), the Fidelity level (FL) and Jaccard Index (JI).
Almost 50 mushrooms belonging to 24 families were reported. Most-frequently cited families were Agaricaceae (13 species) and Morchellaceae (5 species). Extract was the common mode of preparation reported (63.33%), followed by
15
Powder (36.67%). Mostly these medicinal mushrooms were present as wild (62.90%), followed by cultivated (37.10%). Among all 11.75% mushrooms were toxic and inedible, 75% were nontoxic, whereas the remaining 13.46% may be toxic or nontoxic because of their dual attitude. New medicinal uses of 23 mushrooms were explored in this study. This ethnopharmacological documentation revealed that the mushrooms are still used by natives of rural area in their day- to-day lives. This study provides the basis for the conservation of mushrooms. Mushrooms with high ICF, UV and FL were further used for phytochemical and pharmacological studies. This documentation is baseline information which can be used to develop new mushroom-based medicines.
Keywords: Ethnopharmacology, Medicinal mushrooms, Provinces, Pakistan, Use value
Phytomedicine, Volume 54, 15 February 2019, Pages 43-55
Effects of Birch Polypore Mushroom, Piptoporus betulinus(Agaricomycetes), the "Iceman’s Fungus", on Human Immune Cells
By Franziska Grunewalda, Carmen Steinborna, Roman Hubera, Radim Willeb, Stefanie Meierc, Zeyad Alreslyc, Ulrike Lindequistc, Carsten Gründemanna aCenter for Complementary Medicine, Institute for Infection Prevention and Hospital Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; bABNOBA GmbH, Hohenzollernstr; cInstitute of Pharmacy, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt- University Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
Abstract: Piptoporus betulinus, the mushroom that has been carried by Ötzi the "Iceman", has a long tradition of use in medicinal practice for its antiseptic, anticancer, and immune-enhancing properties. With this study, we aimed to investigate the immunomodulatory effects of P. betulinus on primary human immunocompetent cells. The influence of P. betulinus water and methanol extract on apoptosis and necrosis induction of T cells and monocytes was analyzed using annexin V/propidium iodide staining and proliferation of T cells by carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester staining using flow cytometry. The effects on T-cell activation (CD69/CD25) and dendritic cell maturation (CD83, CD86, and CD14) were assessed using flow cytometric analysis of distinct marker expression. Alterations of the secretion of effector mediators interferon (IFN)-γ by T cells and interleukin (IL)-8 by monocytes and dendritic cells were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. None of the P. betulinus extracts had a significant influence on apoptosis and necrosis induction, T-cell proliferation, or T-cell activation status, but P. betulinus water extract caused a strong increase in IFN-γ release. The same extract was slightly protective against apoptosis of monocytes and further triggered IL-8 secretion by monocytes and dendritic cells. Moreover, P. betulinus water extract induced dendritic cell maturation. Our results demonstrate the immune-enhancing properties of P. betulinus.
Keywords: immunomodulation, medicinal mushrooms, Piptoporus betulinus
International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms, Volume 20, 2018 Issue 12, pages 1135-1147
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International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 2018, Vol. 20, Issue no.12 Current and Future Research Trends in Agricultural and Biomedical Applications of Medicinal Mushrooms and Mushroom Products (Review) Shu Ting Chang, Solomon P. Wasser
Effects of Birch Polypore Mushroom, Piptoporus betulinus (Agaricomycetes), the "Iceman’s Fungus", on Human Immune Cells Franziska Grunewald, Carmen Steinborn, Roman Huber, Radim Wille, Stefanie Meier, Zeyad Alresly, Ulrike Lindequist, Carsten Gründemann
An Evaluation of Common Cordyceps (Ascomycetes) Species Found in Chinese Markets Ling-Sheng Zha, Shi-Ke Huang, Yuan-Pin Xiao, Saranyaphat Boonmee, Prapassorn D. Eungwanichayapant, Eric H.C. McKenzie, Vadim Kryukov, Xing-Liang Wu, Kevin D. Hyde, Ting-Chi Wen
Expression and Antitumor Function of Latcripin-4 RCC1 and ANK Domain Protein on HepG2 from the Shiitake
Medicinal Mushroom, Lentinus edodes C91–3 (Agaricomycetes), Transcriptome Xuefang Guo, Xiaoli Wang, Min Liu, Lei Chen, Warren Chanda, Arshad Ahmed Pahiar, Xingyun Li, Wei Zhang, Anhong Ning, Min Huang, Jing Cao, Mintao Zhong
Antiproliferative Effects of a Triterpene-Enriched Extract from Lingzhi or Reishi Medicinal Mushroom, Ganoderma lucidum (Agaricomycetes), on Human Lung Cancer Cells Sanda Zolj, Melissa P. Smith, Jillian C. Goines, T'Shura S. Ali, Mary O. Huff, David L. Robinson, Joann M. Lau
Proximal Composition, Nutraceutical Properties, and Acute Toxicity Study of Culinary-Medicinal Oyster Mushroom Powder, Pleurotus ostreatus (Agaricomycetes) Yamila Lebeque, Humberto J. Morris, Yaixa Beltrán, Gabriel Llaurado, Isabelle Gaime-Perraud, Marcos Meneses, Serge Moukha, Rosa C. Bermúdez, Nora Garcia
Larvicidal, Ovicidal, and Histopathological Effects of the Sulphur Polypore Mushroom, Laetiporus sulphureus (Agaricomycetes), Collected from Tamil Nadu, India against Mosquitoes Subramaniyan Sivanandhan, Pathalam Ganesan, Michael Gabriel Paulraj, Savarimuthu Ignacimuthu
Profiling of Intra- and Extracellular Enzymes Involved in Fructification of the Lingzhi or Reishi Medicinal Mushroom, Ganoderma lucidum (Agaricomycetes) Anna Goyal, Anu Kalia, Harpreet Singh Sodhi
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International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 2019, Vol. 21, Issue no.1 In Vitro and In Vivo Inhibition of Helicobacter pylori by Ethanolic Extracts of Lion’s Mane Medicinal Mushroom Hericium erinaceus (Agaricomycetes) Ge Wang, Xiumin Zhang, Susan E. Maier, Liping Zhang, & Robert J. Maier
Immunomodulatory Activities of Polysaccharides from the White Culinary-Medicinal Botton Mushroom, Agaricus bisporus (Agaricomycetes) Fruit Body and Cultured mycelia in Healthy and Immunosuppression Mice Yang Liu, Dandan Zheng, Ling Su, Qi Wang, & Yu Li
Aqueous Extract of Wood Ear Mushroom, Auricularia polytricha (Agaricomycetes) Demonstrated Antiepileptic Activity Against Seizure Induced by Maximal Electroshock and Isoniazid in Experimental Animals Gaurav Gupta, Sachchidanand Pathak, Rajiv Dahiya, Rajendra Awasthi, Anurag Mishra, Rakesh Kumar Sharma, Mohit Agrawal, & Kamal Dua
Dissolution of Bioactive Components from Dried Shiitake Culinary-Medicinal Mushroom Lentinus edodes (Agaricomycetes) Fruit Bodies during Cleaning, Soaking, and Cooking Lina Zhu, Shulei Wang, Zhong Zhang, Shuai Zhou, Qingjiu Tang, Feihua Wu, & Jingsong Zhang
Developing a Novel Two-Stage Process for Carotenoid Production by Cordyceps militaris (Ascomycetes) Qianwang Zheng, Tao Wei, Yin Lin, Zhiwei Ye, Junfang Lin, Liqiong Guo, Fan Yun, & Linzhi Kang
Effect of Environmental Conditions on Synnema Formation and Nucleoside Production in Cicada Flower, Isaria cicadae (Ascomycetes) Kuanbo Liu, Fen Wang, Guijun Liu, & Caihong Dong
137Cs and Mineral Elements in Culinary-Medicinal Mushrooms from the Southern Outskirts of Kyiv (Ukraine) Anna A. Grodzinskaya, Anatoliy I. Samchuk, Vitaliy B. Nebesnyi & Hanna Yu. Honcha
Fruiting Body Production and Suitable Environmental Ranges for Growing of the Umbrella Polypore Medicinal Mushroom Polyporus umbellatus (Agaricomycetes) in Natural Conditions of Central Europe Vladimír Kunca, & Martin Pavlík
Shiitake Culinary-Medicinal Mushroom, Lentinus edodes (Agaricomycetes), Supplementation Alters Gut Microbiome and Corrects Dyslipidemia in Rats Haseeb Anwar, Jan S. Suchodolski, Muhammad I Ullah, Ghulam Hussain, Muhammad Z. Shabbir, Imtiaz Mustafa, & Muhammad U. Sohail
Combined Administration of White Button Culinary-Medicinal Mushroom, Agaricus bisporus (Agaricomycetes) and Lactobacillus casei Modulated Immune Related Genes Expression, Mucosal and Serum Immune Parameters in Goldfish (Carassius auratus) Model Roghieh Safari, Seyed Hossein Hoseinifar, Shabnam Nejadmoghaddam, & Maryam Dadar
Effects of Feeding Diets Supplemented with Medicinal Mushrooms Myceliated Grains on Some Production, Health and Oxidation Traits of Dairy Ewes Adriana Bonanno, Antonino Di Grigoli, Francesca Vitale, Giuseppe Di Miceli, Massimo Todaro, Marco Alabiso, Maria Letizia Gargano, Giuseppe Venturella, Felicia Ngozi Anike, & Omoanghe Samuel Isikhuemhen
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International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 2019, Vol. 21, Issue no.2 Cancer Without Pharmacological Illusions and Niche for Mycotherapy Ivan V. Zmitrovich, Nina V. Belova, Mikhail E. Balandaykin, & Solomon P. Wasser
Evaluation of the Antibacterial Activity of 75 Mushrooms Collected in the Oxford Vicinity, Ohio (USA) Faizule Hassan, Shuisong Ni, Taylor L. Becker, Christine M. Kinstedt, Jana L. Abdul-Samad, Luis A. Actis, Michael A. Kennedy
Effects of Concurrently Administered Aqueous Extract of Lingzhi or Reishi Medicinal Mushroom, Ganoderma lucidum (Agaricomycetes) and Lead Acetate in Rats Michael T. Shobowale, Raymond I. Ozolua, Dickson O. Uwaya, & Buniyamin A. Ayinde
Antioxidant Rich Peptide Fractions Derived from High Altitude Chinese Caterpillar Medicinal Mushroom Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Ascomycetes) Inhibit Bacterial Pathogens Jigni Mishra, Rakhee, Kaushlesh Singh, Anju Bansal, & Kshipra Misra
13 Weeks Oral Toxicity Evaluation of Erinacine A-Enriched of Lion’s Mane Medicinal Mushroom, Hericium erinaceus (Agaricomycetes) Mycelia in Sprague-Dawley Rats Li-Ya Lee, I-Chen Li, Wan-Ping Chen, Yueh-Ting Tsai, Chin-Chu Chen, & Kwong-Chung Tung
Monitoring Heavy Metal on Royal Sun Medicinal Mushroom, Agaricus brasiliensis (Agaricomycetes) Production Eduardo Marin Morales, Bruna Letícia Baldissera, & Dejanira de Franceschi de Angelis
Bioprospecting of Wild Mushrooms from India with Respect to Medicinal Aspects Foziya Khan & Ramesh Chandra
Safety Evaluation of Aqueous Extract of Termitomyces robustus (Agaricomycetes) in Wistar Rats Eziuche Amadike Ugbogu, Emmanuel Iroha Akubugwo, Victor Chibueze Ude, Okezie Emmanuel, Okomba Okoji Nduka, Cynthia Ibe, Ozioma Onyero
Chemical Compounds and Antioxidant Activity of Volatile Oil from the White Jelly Mushroom, Tremella fuciformis (Tremellomycetes) Wei Liu, Qing-jiu Tang, Yu-tian Wei, Le Han, Wei Han, Na Feng, & Jing-song Zhang
Cultivation of Medicinal Mushrooms on Spruce Sawdust Fermented with a Liquid Part of Digestate from Biogas Stations Adam Brezáni, Kateřina Svobodová, Ivan Jablonský, & Pavel Tlustoš
Tavis Lynch. Book. Mushroom Cultivation: An Illustrated Guide to Growing Your Own Mushrooms at Home Craig Soderberg
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Points and Reviews
Current and Future Research Trends in Agricultural and Biomedical Applications of
Medicinal Mushrooms and Mushroom Products (Review) (Part I)
Shu Ting Chang1,* & Solomon P. Wasser2
1Chinese University of Hong Kong, Ainslie, Australia; 2Institute of Evolution and Department of Evolutionary and Environmental Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa, Israel
*Address all correspondence to: Shu Ting Chang, Emeritus Professor of Biology, Chinese University of Hong Kong, c/o 3 Toms Crescent, Ainslie, ATC 2602, Australia; [email protected]
Originally published in the Int J Med Mushrooms, 2018, 20 (12): 1121-1133
ABSTRACT: Here, we analyze the status and future trends in the study of medicinal mushrooms (MMs) in agriculture and biomedicine. Fruiting bodies of mushrooms are heterotrophic organisms that obtain all their nutritive requirements from the substrate. Mushroom substrates are agro-industrial plant residues and forest byproducts, which are usually called lignocellulosic materials. A good substrate for mushroom growth must be suitable both chemically and physically, as well as have the proper conditions for microbial activities. Under suitable conditions, mushrooms can excrete key enzymes for unlocking indigestible lignocellulosic biomasses to help provide sources of nourishment. The production of enzymes by mushroom mycelia plays a crucial part in the colonization process and is an important determinant of mushroom yields. The sense of purpose and vision for mushroom industries is also briefly discussed. Special attention is given to the use of mushroom extracts with antiphytopathologenic and insecticidal properties in modern agriculture. In the second part of this article, we summarize biomedical applications of medicinal mushrooms, which are currently used as 1) dietary food, 2) dietary supplement products, 3) a new class of drugs called “mushroom pharmaceuticals or mushroom drugs,” 4) natural biocontrol agents in plant protection demonstrating insecticidal, fungicidal, bactericidal, herbicidal, nematocidal, and antiphytoviral activities, and 5) cosmeceuticals. We also aimed to draw attention to many critically important unsolved problems in the future development of medicinal mushroom science in the 21st century, including problems of production, standardization, and safety of mushroom dietary supplement products, as well as to discuss the problems of developing new medicinal mushroom drugs based not only on beta-glucans polysaccharides but also on low-molecular-weight secondary metabolites.
KEY WORDS: medicinal mushrooms, agricultural and biomedical applications, mushroom industrial uses, mushroom enzymes, dietary supplements, mushroom medicine, mushroom products, polysaccharides, beta-glucans, antitumor, immunomodulator activity
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ABBREVIATIONS: BRM, biological response modifier; CAPE, caffeic acid phenethyl ester; DS, dietary supplement; IMMC, International Medicinal Mushroom Conference; ISMS, International Society of Mushroom Science; MM, medicinal mushroom; NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa B; WSMBMP, World Society for Mushroom Biology and Mushroom Products
I. INTRODUCTION
Several mushrooms belonging to Agaricomycetes and several mushrooms belonging to Ascomycetes can effectively convert lignocelluloses’ waste materials directly into human food/medicine or animal feed. The technique of mushroom cultivation can be primitive in rural areas or it can be highly industrialized in urban areas, depending on the use of modern technology and sophisticated equipment. However, the continuous production of successful crops requires both practical experience and scientific knowledge—two aspects of mushroom science. Mushroom science, like any other branch of science, requires systematic investigation to establish facts and principles for future development. The mushroom industry, including farmers, subsequently receives benefits by applying the newly developed technology.
Human beings have constantly searched for new substances that can improve biological functions and make people fitter, healthier, and happier. Societies usually, particularly in the last 3 decades, have turned to plants, herbs, mushrooms, and nontraditional food as new sources of health enhancement. Mushrooms have long been used as healthy food, tonics, and medicines. Mushrooms, like all other fungi, lack chlorophyll and are therefore nongreen organisms. They cannot convert solar energy to organic matters like green plants do, but they can convert huge amounts of lignocellulosic waste produced from agricultural and forestry activities into human foods, animal feed, and crop fertilizers. Another significant aspect of mushroom cultivation is that mushrooms help create a pollution-free environment. Increasing interest in the cultivation and utilization of mushrooms has been amply demonstrated by the succession of international mushroom conferences, which have attracted more and more participants. These conferences are mainly organized by three international mushroom societies. First, the International Society for Mushroom Sciences (ISMS), which focuses on edible mushrooms (mainly Agaricus), was established in 1950 in England. Since then, ISMS congresses have been held every 3–5 years. Next, the World Society for Mushroom Biology and Mushroom Products (WSMBMP), which focuses on mushroom biology and medicinal mushroom products, was formed in 1993 in Hong Kong. The WSMBMP hosts an international conference every 3 years. Finally, to promote the medicinal aspect of mushrooms, the International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms was launched in 1999 in the United States. Two years later, in 2001, the inaugural International Medicinal Mushroom Conference (IMMC) was held in Kiev, Ukraine. These conferences are held every 2 years, and during the IMMC-7 in Beijing, China, the International Society for Medicinal Mushrooms was officially established in 2013 and registered in Canada. In this article, we summarize the latest biological nature, cultivation, and biomedical advances in modernizing mushroom farming and the mushroom industry: mushroom cultivation and mushroom products that enhance human health.
II. AGRICULTURAL APPLICATIONS
Mushroom cultivation is a complicated business. It involves a number of different operations, including the selection of an acceptable fruiting culture of the mushroom, preparation of spawn and substrate/ compost, inoculation of the substrate, crop care, harvesting handling proper storage of the mushroom, and marketing of the final mushroom products. Each of these operations consists of many sequential steps, which are equally important to achieving success
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in the mushroom industry. In this section, only a few important factors have been selected for further elucidation.1
A. Mushroom Substrate
Mushroom substrates may be simply defined as a kind of lignocellulosic material, which supports the growth and development of mushroom mycelia and fruiting. The process of fermentation of the substrate is usually called “composting.” The mushrooms, which are under cultivation or might be cultivated in the future, can generally be divided into the following groups, according to their occurrence in nature and to practices in farming.2 Some require composting, while others do not.
1. Mushrooms that grow on fresh or almost fresh plant residues: Lentinulla, Pleurotus, Flammulina, Auricularia, Pholiota, Tremella, Agrocybe, Ganoderma, and Coprinus.
2. Mushrooms that grow on only small amounts of composted material: Volvariella, Stropharia, and Coprinus.
3. Mushrooms that grow well or very well on composted material: Agaricus.
4. Mushrooms that grow on soil and humus: Lepiota, Lepista, Morchella, and Gyromitra.
5. Mycorrhizal mushrooms: Boletales, Cantharellus, Amanita, Tuber, Tricholoma matsutake, and Lactarius.
A good substrate for mushroom growth must be suitable both chemically and physically, and it must have the proper conditions for microbial activities. These three elements or factors must be coordinated to induce the proper excreted enzymes to degrade the substrate. Our knowledge of the nutritional requirements of different mushrooms remains limited. Chemical studies on the nutritive composition of the substrate as well as on enzyme profiles of individual mushroom species are critically important for mushroom cultivation and production.
B. Mushroom Enzymes
Agro-industrial plant residues and forest materials are produced worldwide in huge quantities as waste and/or byproducts of agriculture and food processing. More than 70% of these materials are nonproductive and become industrial wastes in processing. These wastes, often causing serious environmental pollution, are burned, used as landfill, or fed to animals. Therefore, they may pollute the environment if not properly treated. Various strategies have been developed to utilize part of the vast quantities of lignocellulose waste, for example, using physical and chemical pretreatment to break down the strong linkages between small molecules. However, they are economically less effective in practice either due to high costs or are not environmentally friendly due to difficulties in removing the chemical residues after treatments. At the same time, lignocellulosic agro-industrial wastes are highly valuable raw materials and represent a renewable feedstock for the production of different value-added products through the biorefinery approaches.3–5 Nevertheless, these materials might become a valuable alternative and an abundant source of chemicals and bioproducts if properly addressed and valorized in an integrated way. Indeed, given the origin, biodegradability, and nontoxicity of these biowastes and using microbial fermentation followed by specific recovery procedures, several value-added products of special interest (food, feed, biofuels, enzymes and organic acids, pharmaceutical compounds, dietary supplements, etc.) can be obtained from these materials.3,4,6
In fact, one of the most significant uses, in terms of producing a higher-value product from these waste products, is the cultivation of edible and medicinal mushrooms by solid-state fermentation.7 Mushrooms exhibit varying abilities to 22
utilize different lignocellulosic materials as growth substrates. Nowadays, white-rot Basidiomycetes, which possess a unique enzyme system, have been extensively investigated. Mushrooms can excrete the key enzymes for unlocking indigestible lignocellulosic biomasses emanating from our agricultural and forestry economic activities, as a source of nourishment. Mushrooms along with other fungi are the main biota possessing this key. Other chemical compositions of fungal cells have been described and discussed in detail by Miles and Chang.8 Higher Basidiomycetes are popular not only for remediation purposes but also for providing mycelia or fruiting bodies as a source of protein. Utilization of lignocellulosic substrates by mushrooms is dependent upon their ability to synthesize the relevant hydrolytic and oxidative enzymes, which convert the individual components (cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin) into low-molecular- weight compounds that can be used for nutrition.9 Mushrooms can produce extracellular peroxidases, ligninase (lignin peroxidase, manganese dependent peroxidase and laccase), cellulases, proteases, pectinases, xylanases, and oxidases, and they have significant use in a variety of biotechnological processes, including cosmetics and medicine.10
Production of these enzymes by the mushroom mycelia plays a crucial part in the colonization process and is an important determinant of mushroom yields. Buswell et al.11 reported the lignocellulolytic enzyme profiles of three popular cultivated mushrooms in Asia: Volvarieilla volvacea, Lentinus edodes (=Lentinula edodes), and P. pulmonarius var. stechangii (=P. sajor-caju). They all exhibit varying abilities to utilize different lignocellulosics as growth substrates.12– 16 The diversity in the lignocellulolytic enzyme profiles was reflected in qualitative variations in major enzymatic determinants (i.e., cellulases, ligninases) required for substrate bioconversion. The lignocellulolytic enzyme profiles of the three species show this diversity to be reflected qualitatively the major enzymatic determinants (Table 1). The production and distribution of endoglucanase, cellobiohydrolase, and B-glucosidase components of the cellulolytic system of one of the popular tropic mushrooms, V. volvacea, has been studied in detail.17
Mushrooms are heterotrophic organisms and must obtain all their nutritive requirements from the substrate. In this respect, they are unlike autotrophic high plants, which obtain water and inorganic nutrients from soil and synthesize organic compounds in leaves through photosynthesis. Thus, the substrate or compost must make greater contributions in the production of mushrooms than the soil does for higher plant growth. Therefore, the substrate/compost has a more comprehensive role in the production of mushrooms than does the soil for higher plants. A good substrate for mushroom growth must be suitable, both chemically and physically, as well as have the proper condition for microbial activities. A suitable chemical condition is one that allows for the release of some nutrients from the substrate during mushroom growth.
C. Mushroom Spent Substrate/Compost
The ultimate aim in the applied aspects of any scientific endeavor is to integrate, wherever possible, the various disciplines of science as well as the technological processes to maximum the benefits of such efforts. Combined production of mushrooms, biogas, and organic fertilizer and soil conditioner from lignocellulosic wastes is an aim of such integrated schemes that can eventually be become profitable. These sequential operations, which convert organic waste into edible protein, animal feedstock, biogas, biofertilizer, soil conditioner and restoration of damaged environments, are called a cycler agro-eco system or a cycler economic approach.18,19
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TABLE 1: Examination of the Lignocellulolytic Enzyme Profiles of Three Important Commercially Cultivated Mushrooms
Mushroom Characteristic
Lentinus edodes 1. Produces a complex of enzymes, including exoglucanase, endoglucanase, and xylanase, as well as laccase and manganese peroxidase. They have been associated with lignocellulose degradation
2. Cultivated on highly lignified substrates such as wood and sawdust
Volvariella volvacea 1. Produces a family of cellulolytic enzymes and multiple forms of extracellular laccase
2. Cultivated on paddy straw, which has relatively low lignin content. Increased yield on cotton waste
Pleurotus pulmonarius var. stechangii 1. Produces cellulolytic enzymes, such as endoglucanase, exoglucanase, and B-glucosidase, and also produces manganese peroxidase and laccase, which can degrade lignin
2. It is the most adaptable of the three species and can be grown on a wide variety of agricultural and forest waste materials for composition in terms of the polysaccharide/lignin ratio
D. Restoration of Damaged Environments by Mushroom Mycelia
The wider use of mushrooms to repair or restore a weakened or damaged ecosystem has been termed “mycorestoration.”20 Mushroom mycelia, as mentioned above, produce complex extracellular enzymes that can degrade lignocellulosic wastes and reduce pollution. Bioremediation is an important technique that involves the use of mushroom mycelia to remove or neutralize a wide variety of pollutants. They can thus play a significant role in the restoration of damaged environments.20–22
E. Mushroom Extracts with Antiphytopathogenic and Insecticidal Properties
Deadly chemical pesticides have been the preferred approach in the conventional agricultural industry, but new research suggests that biopesticides made from fungi could be a safer, more planet-friendly alternative. Naturally occurring substances found in mushroom extracts are important sources of molecules with antiphythopathogenic and insecticidal properties. For example, the secondary metabolites strobirulin and oudemansin, isolated from mycelia of the Basidiomycetes fungi Strobilurus tenacellus23 and Oudemansiella mucida,24 have shown high antifungal activity against phytopathogenic fungi at very low concentrations. They have a unique mode of action, selectively inhibiting the respiration of fungi by interfering with the ubiquinol oxidation center of the mitochondrial bc1 complex.25 Oudemansin X was isolated from O. radicata and showed high fungicidal and bactericidal activities against many plant pathogens.26 The chlorinated strobilurins B have also been isolated from Mycena alkalina, M. avenacea, M. crocata, Xerula longipes, and X. melanotricha. Basidiocarps of the genera Agaricus, Favolaschia, and Filoboletus produced strobilurins A, E, F1, 9-methoxystrobilurins A, and oudemansin A.27 According to Clough,28 the strobirulin E and
24
oudemansins also were isolated from the Basidiomycetes mushroom Crepidotus fulvotomentosus. These compounds have served as natural product prototypes for the design synthetic analogs azoxystrobin and kresoxim-methyl, which were sold for the first time in 1996.29 Their lack of mammalian toxicity makes them significant compounds in the development of commercial agricultural fungicides.
Another mushroom metabolite, favolon, produced by a culture of an Ethiopian Favolaschia species, is an unusual ergosterone with a B/C-cis ring junction. This compound displays strong antifungal activity against numerous fungal pathogens, with the strongest inhibitions in the agar diffusion assay for Mucor miehei, Paecilomyces varioti, and Penicillium islandicum.30 According to Aqueveque et al.,31 a new biologically active triterpenoid favolon B isolated from fermentation broth of Mycena sp. favolon B, showed antifungal activities toward Botrytis cinerea, M. miehei, P. variotii, and P. notatum. Hypnophilin together with pleurotellol were isolated from fermentation of the agaricoid Basidiomycetes Pleurotellus hypnophillus,32 and they act as plant growth inhibitors. The antifungal sesterterpene β-D- xyloside, aleurodiscal, was isolated from the wood-rotting polypore, Aleurodiscus mirabilis.33 Aleurodiscal is selectively active against Zygomycetes, especially against Mucor miehei. The cultivation of Clitocybe claviceps led to the isolation of three metabolites with pronounced antifungal activities: the clavilactones A, B, and C. In addition to its antifungal activities, clavilactone B exhibits antibacterial and herbicidal effects.34
Extracts from numerous mushroom fruiting bodies have been demonstrated to possess insecticidal properties that make them valuable in novel insecticides. The insecticidal properties of these mushrooms were attributed to proteins, such as lectins or hemolysins.35,36 The first protein isolated from the Basidiomycetes mushroom showing insecticidal activity was a lectin from the red cracking bolete (Xerocomus chrysenteron), called lectin XCL, which is the third member of the new saline-soluble lectin family present in fungi.37 This protein, purified from mushroom, is toxic to some insects, such as the dipteran Drosophila melanogaster and the hemipteran Acyrthosiphon pisum. Several species of Lactarius (Russulaceae) contain sesquiterpene lactones that deter insects from feeding.38 The European L. fuliginosus contains a variety of chromenes.39,40 Chromenes are toxic to various Lepidoptera species or cause antihormone effects that induce a precocious metamorphosis.41 Extracts of L. fuliginosus and L. fumosus showed the strongest toxic effects against a large milkweed bug, Oncopeltus fasciatus and in some cases caused precocious development.42 According to Bücker et al.,43 crude extracts from Basidiomycetes Pycnoporus sanguineus have high larvicidal activity against the mosquitoes Aedes aegypti and Anopheles nuneztovari and have the potential for the production of bioactive substances against the larvae of these two tropical disease vectors; A. nuneztovari is more susceptible to the extracts.
A nematocidal cyclic peptide, omphalotin, was isolated from biomass after fermentation of Omphalotus olearius.44 The LD against the plant-pathogenic nematode Meloidogyne incognita was 0.75 µg/mL.
Omphalotin is a promising candidate for the development of an agricultural nematicide. 1-Hydroxypyrene, derived from Crinipellis stipitaria, showed very strong nematocidal activity against the saprotrophic soil- inhabiting nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. The effects of 1-hydroxypyrene were visible after 1 hour, immobilizing nematodes at a concentration of 1 mg/mL.45 The cultural filtrates from Amauroderma macer, Laccaria tortilis, Peziza spp., Oudemanciella mucida, P. pulmatus, and Tylopilus striatulus showed high nematocidal activities against the pinewood nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus.46
Many, if not all, presented bioactive metabolites may lead to the discovery of novel target sites or to new classes of
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chemicals that can be developed for pathogen management. The advantage of biopesticides compared with synthetic ones is not only their nontoxic characteristics but also their low production costs. Mushroom-derived biopesticides usually operate in very small concentrations, and small amounts are needed for further application. Most importantly, mushroom-derived biopesticides are relatively cheap and are available as biocontrol agents.47 (...to be continued)
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Call for Papers
Aiming to build the relationship between the members and the Society, the publication of the newsletters was proposed before the launching of the Society. The newsletters represent one of the key official publications from the Society. Contents of the newsletters will include notifications of the decisions made by the committee board, reviews or comments contributed by ISMM committee members, conferences or activities to be organized, and the status updated in research, industrialization, and marketing for medicinal mushrooms. The newsletters will be released quarterly, by the first Monday of every January, April, July, and October, with possible supplementary issues as well. The Newsletter is open to organizations or professionals to submit news, comments, or scientific papers relating to medicinal mushroom research, marketing, or industry.
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