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A Cynegetic Reading of Turgenev's Fathers and Children

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A Cynegetic Reading of Turgenev's Fathers and Children ARTICLES THE "HUNTER IN TERROR OF HUNTERS": A CYNEGETIC READING OF TURGENEV'S FATHERS AND CHILDREN Thomas P.Hodge, Wellesley College Life is a terribleconflict, a grandioseand atro cious confluence.Hunting submergesman delib eratelyin thatformidable mystery and therefore containssomething of religiousrite and emotion inwhich homage is paid towhat is divine, tran scendent,in the laws ofNature. -Ortega y Gasset 112 By the 1840s,the Russian literaryscene- likeFrench and English writing was inundatedby sportingliterature (Alekseev 214-16, Odesskaia 240-43). While IvanTurgenev's entry into the world ofprose fictionwith thestories that became Notes of a Hunter [Zapiski okhotnika] can readily be viewed as part of this trend, I propose thathunting and its codes were so deeply ingrained inTur genev's creativepersonality that important aspects of his laterworks too,even Fathers and Children[Ottsy i deti],were suffusedwith theterminology, tech niques,and moral implicationsof fieldsport as itwas practicedby theRussian gentry.If we approachTurgenev throughthe work of SergeiAksakov and othercontemporaneous sporting writers, I suggest,we findfresh intertextual meaning in thismost canonicalRussian author'smost widely read texts. My goal here is todescribe thesporting world of nineteenth-centuryRus sia and demonstratethe profundity of Turgenev's immersionin it; todiscuss how thisexpertise shaped his view of thenatural world andunderstanding of classicalmythology; and finallyto propose a new readingof Bazarov's fate inFathers and Children based on cynegetic elements in that novel -by this I mean imagesof and referencesto thehunter's pursuit of gamewith theassis tanceof dogs. The etymologyand applicationof theRussian termfor hunting [okhota] departdramatically from most West European linguisticpractice. In French, chasse emphasizespursuit, as does theEnglish termchase, Italiancaccia, SEEJ,Vol. 51,No. 3 (2007):p. 453-p. 473 453 454 Slavic and East European Journal Spanish caza, all ofwhich stressthe seeking of game, thoughthey ultimately derivefrom Latin capere [to take,to seize].English hunt descends fromterms meaning "to take,""to capture."Russian okhota,however, is based on the same root fromwhich we have khotet' [towant] -not tomention pokhot' [lust]- and itdenotes desire, keenness to do something,and can be applied to numerouseveryday activities or hobbies thathave nothingto do with thecap tureor killingof animals(Durkin 72-73).1 Inherentin theRussian conception of hunting,therefore, is a connotationof its sourcewithin thepersonality of thehunter rather than in thenature of his or herphysical activity. Etymolog ically,at least,okhota is a feeling,not a practice. This conceptualdistinction aside, Russian sport-huntersin thenineteenth centuryused the techniquesof English,French and German enthusiastsand essentiallyadhered to thesame distinctionsamong various formsof thehunt by theend of theeighteenth century: hawking, netting, shooting, and cours ing (Munsche 32).2With few exceptions,members of theRussian nobility limitedthemselves to these last two activities,both of which depended en tirelyon theparticipation of well-traineddogs and restedupon a generally recognizedcode ofwhat constituted"sporting" behavior.3 The twoprincipal formsof huntingembraced by thegentry and laterthe middle class were based on twovery different tactics. Because itdid notdepend on theuse of firearms,coursing [psovaia okhota, gon'ba] was by far the older form, dating back at least to ancient Egypt, where gazelleswere chasedby ancestorsof themodem greyhound.Coursing consistedof releasinghounds [gonchiesobaki] thatrelied on theirkeen eye sight(gazehounds) or keen sense of smell to rundown game [dich']while hunters[okhotniki], either mounted or on foot,attempted to catchup while the hounds held the game animal at bay, pinned it to the ground, or less de sirably -killed it. If this last eventuality was avoided, hunters could arrive on thescene and kill theirprey at leisurewith spearsor arrows(the practice up throughthe Middle Ages), or a gun (thepractice from the sixteenth century onward).4The most commonlypursued animals inRussian hound-hunting were wolves, bears,deer and hares. 1. It is probable that the basic German term for "hunt," Jagd, is also derived from an Indo European root that can mean both "to chase" and "to wish for"; see Porkorny. 2. The ancient hunting practices I will refer to throughout this essay are gathered chiefly from two works: Hull and Anderson. A late-eighteenth-century, early-nineteenth-century form of Rus sian hawking is described at length by S. T. Aksakov in "Okhota s iastrebom za perepelkami," in his Rasskazy i vospominaniia okhotnika o raznykh okhotakh inAksakov 1956, 4: 480-503. 3. The norms of sport-hunting made it harder to kill and emphasized the means of killing; subsistence-hunting, inwhich the end is all-important, sought tomake the kill as easy as possi ble (MacKenzie 10). 4. The most famous breed of Russian dog, the Russian wolfhound or borzoi [borzaia sobaka], was a gazehound bred expressly to course wolves; a famous literary example of such sport is fur nished by the wolf-hunt in Lev Tolstoy's War and Peace (I, Vol. 2, Part 4, Chapters 3-5). The "Hunter inTerror of Hunters" 455 For thebagging of birds,and sometimeshares, an entirelydifferent and muchmore recentlydeveloped method was necessary:shooting, also known inEnglish as fowlingor fieldsport [ruzheinaia okhota, polevaia okhota].This formof hunting,which originatedin sixteenth-century Europe, depends on the use of a smooth-borefirearm designed to propel a largenumber of pellets.Be forefiring, hunters must be relativelyclose to theirprey- Turgenevin 1876 consideredone hundredpaces a maximum5-and thereforestalking is essen tial.As an aid in thisstealthy pursuit, dogs trainedto listenfor, sniff out, and communicate the presence of game -field dogs [legavye sobaki] - are indis pensable (PSS (Soch.) 10: 274).When suchdogs detectedhidden quarry, they would stopand takeup a set [stoika]-hence theFrench chiens d'arret [stop ping-dogs]-which communicatedthe locationof the intendedvictim. In his Notes of an Orenburg-ProvinceHunter [1852], SergeiAksakov vividlyde scribed a dog's behavior in taking up a set: Only dedicated sportsmencan appreciateall thecharm of thescene when a dog, pausing fre quently,finally goes rightup to a sittingwoodcock, raises itspaw and standstrembling as ina fever,its eager eyes spellboundand seemingto turngreen, fixed to the spotwhere thebird is sitting.It standsas ifgraven in stone,rooted to thespot, as sportsmensay. (1998, 277) In English parlance, as Turgenevexplained it toRussian readers in 1852, short-haireddogs who "set"by stretchingforward and raisingtheir heads to ward thegame were called pointers;long-haired dogs who "set" by sittingor lyingdown were called setters(PSS (Soch.) 4: 510-11).6 Leonid Sabaneev, themost accomplished late-nineteenth-centuryauthority on Russian field sport, asserted in themid- 1890s thatTurgenev owned some of the firstpoint ers inRussia (Sabaneev 427, 462). Unlike coursing,field sport demanded an extraordinarilyclose relationship betweena highlyskilled hunter and an exceptionallyintelligent dog, a dog who had tounderstand numerous complex verbal commands-inmid-nine teenth-centuryRussia, thesecommands were given inFrench-under often ruggedand tryingcircumstances.7 Aksakov held thatthe field dog completed thehunter and furnishedthe essence of fowling: 5. Turgenev, "Piat'desiat nedostatkov ruzheinogo okhotnika i piat'desiat nedostatkov legavoi sobaki"PSS (Soch.) \0:274. 6. Turgenev, "Zapiski ruzheinogo okhotnika Orenburgskoi gubernii. S. A?va. Moskva. 1852 (Pis'mo k odnomu iz izdatelei Sovremennika)." 1. The basic commands were ? terre! [down], Pille! [seize], Apporte! [fetch], Donne! [give], Derri?re! [heel], Cherche! [seek], Tourne! [turn]. In the late eighteenth century, German imper atives were employed; the fashion for French commands arose in the first third of the nineteenth century. In 1852 Aksakov jokingly described the transition: "formerly inRussia broken German was used, and now Russians mangle French" (1956, 4: 161). Kevin Windle's translation of Ak sakov's treatise (1998) omits the early chapters on hunting equipment and dogs. All translations, unless otherwise noted, are my own. 456 Slavic and East European Journal Every hunterunderstands the need fora fielddog: this is the lifeand soul of shooting[...] a hunterwith a field-piecebut without a dog is somethingdeficient, incomplete [...] a dog's searchingcan be so expressiveand clear thatit's exactly as thoughit is speakingwith thehunter [...].A good dog has an unselfishand naturalpassion forseeking out game andwill devote it self to thiswith selflessness;it will love itsmaster warmly too and, unless forcedto, will part with thehunter neither day nornight [...] (1956, 4: 160, 162) Elzear Blaze, who, alongsideAksakov, was Turgenev's favoritehunting au thor,summed up the human-caninerelationship by frequentlyciting the Frenchhunting proverb, "A good dogmakes a good hunter,and a good hunter makes a good dog."8 In general,nineteenth-century Russian hunters,like theirWest European counterparts,preferred either shooting or coursingand tendednot to engage inboth; Lev Tolstoywas an exception.Aleksei Khomiakovwas an enthusi asticbreeder of borzois and an expertin coursing,9while Nikolai Nekrasov, Afanasy Fet, and Turgenevdevoted themselvesto shooting.Of all these prominentliterary hunters, only one- Turgenev- approachedthe passionate devotionto fieldsport for which his
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