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Growth and Remodeling of Atrioventricular Heart Valves: a Potential Target for Pharmacological Treatment? Manuel K

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Growth and Remodeling of Atrioventricular Heart Valves: a Potential Target for Pharmacological Treatment? Manuel K Available online at www.sciencedirect.com Current Opinion in ScienceDirect Biomedical Engineering Growth and remodeling of atrioventricular heart valves: A potential target for pharmacological treatment? Manuel K. Rausch Abstract backflow or regurgitation of blood. These vital functions Atrioventricular heart valves, that is, the mitral valve and the depend on a well-orchestrated interplay between the tricuspid valve, play vital roles in our cardiovascular system. valves’ components, that is, the valve leaflets, the valve Disease of these valves is, therefore, a significant source of annulus, the chordae tendineae, and the papillary morbidity and mortality. Unfortunately, current treatment op- muscles, refer Figure 1a. In this role, their central tions are suboptimal with significant rates of failure. It was only components, the valve leaflets, are exposed to hemo- recently that we have begun to appreciate that the atrioven- dynamic shear stresses, radial tensile forces at the tricular heart valve leaflets are not just passive flaps, but chordal insertion sites, circumferential tensile forces at actively (mal)adapting tissues. This discovery sheds new light their annular insertion, biaxial stretch due to the on disease mechanisms and provides, thus, possible path- transvalvular pressure, and compressive forces in the ways to new treatments. In this current opinion piece, we coaptation zone. This complex loading regime is cycli- examine the state of our knowledge about the (mal)adaptive cally repeated with every heartbeat for billions of times mechanisms (physiological and pathological growth and throughout our lifetime [1,2]. Ostensibly, these loading remodeling) of the atrioventricular heart valves. Furthermore, modes determine the valves’ microstructure and we review the evidence that suggests that valve maladaptation consequently their mechanical properties [3]. As a may be a target for pharmacological treatment of diseased result, the valve leaflets are complex laminate structures valves which, in the future, could transform clinical practice. with four distinguishable layers, the atrialis, the spon- giosa, the fibrosa, and the ventricularis. Each layer shows a distinct composition and organization of the structural Addresses Departments of Aerospace Engineering & Engineering Mechanics, elements elastin, collagen, and glycosaminoglycans. Biomedical Engineering, Oden Institute for Computational Engineering Grossly, elastin is diffusively distributed in the atrialis and Sciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA and ventricularis. On the other hand, collagen is pri- marily organized circumferentially throughout the Corresponding author: Rausch, Manuel K (manuel.rausch@utexas. entire leaflet structure but is most dense and organized edu) in the fibrosa. However, in the atrialis hemodynamic shear stresses can result in the deposition of more Current Opinion in Biomedical Engineering 2020, 15:10–15 radially oriented collagen. Finally, glycosaminoglycans This review comes from a themed issue on Biomechanics and Me- are most prominently found in the spongiosa [4]. chanobiology: Growth and remodeling in both mechanics and mechanobiology Heart valve leaflets are not passive flaps but active tis- Edited by Ellen Kuhl and Jay Humphrey sues. Valvular interstitial cells (VICs) are the primary cell types that maintain a distinct extracellular matrix organization. Although there is much to be understood about VICs and their role in valve extracellular matrix https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobme.2019.12.008 maintenance, they likely maintain a homeostatic equi- 2468-4511/© 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. librium through degradation and deposition of structural proteins [5]. It appears that disruption of this mecha- Keywords nobiological equilibrium elicits a phenotypical change in Mitral valve, Tricuspid valve, Adaptation, Disease, Regurgitation, VICs from a quiescent state to a synthetic state (also Insufficiency. called fibrotic state in the pathological setting) [6]. Subsequently, increased matrix turnover may result in Background growth and remodeling [7]. The stimuli interrupting The mitral valve and the tricuspid valve, collectively the tissue’s equilibrium may be physiological or patho- referred to as the atrioventricular valves, separate the logical, leading to adaptive and maladaptive changes, left and right atria from their respective ventricles. They respectively [8]. Thus, VICs may play a central role in function as check valves that ensure unidirectional both physiological growth and remodeling (e.g. during blood flow through the heart. During diastole, they open pregnancy) and pathological growth and remodeling to allow for ventricular filling. During systole, they close (e.g. in response to cardiomyopathy) and thus could be under the transvalvular pressure gradient to prevent viable targets for pharmacological treatment. Current Opinion in Biomedical Engineering 2020, 15:10–15 www.sciencedirect.com Growth and remodeling of atrioventricular Rausch 11 Figure 1 (Mal)adaptation of atrioventricular heart valves. (a) Depiction of the left ventricle and the left atrioventricular heart valve (i) under normal conditions, (ii) after pregnancy-induced, physiological remodeling, and (iii) after ischemic cardiomyopathy-induced, pathological remodeling. (b) Proposed mecha- nisms of (mal)adaptation in the atrioventricular heart valve leaflet during ischemic cardiomyopathy (adapted from the study by [24]). (c) Simplified renin–angiotensin and TGF-b systems illustrating their (inter)actions. Growth & remodeling in health normalizing in late pregnancy. However, there appears to During pregnancy, an increased demand in oxygen to be a disconnection between the monotonically support fetal development drives an increase in increasing leaflet size and thickness and the biphasic, maternal blood volume by up to 45% [9]. This volume nonmonotonic changes in leaflet stiffness. This incon- overload results in cardiovascular adaptation, refer gruency may imply that factors other than leaflet Figure 1a. Increases in both tricuspid valve and mitral thickness, collagen content, and collagen organization valve orifice area have been reported in patients [10,11]. determine leaflet stiffness. For example, between the gestational ages 5 and 38 weeks, mitral valve orifice area in pregnant women in- Although the teleologic reasons for mitral valve growth creases by approximately 12%. This increase in orifice and remodeling in pregnancy are clear, the actual stimuli area correlates with an increase in leaflet size, likely as a that elicit this response are not. One obvious contender compensatory mechanism to maintain proper coaptation is increased leaflet tension after annular dilation. As the and to prevent pregnancy-induced regurgitation. In fact, heart is adapting to increased oxygen demands by ven- in cows, mitral valve leaflets have been reported to grow tricular hypertrophy, dilation of the periannular tissue as much as 33% during gestation. Interestingly, this in- increases the valves’ orifice areas. These geometric crease in area is accompanied by an increase, or at least changes alter the radius of curvature of the leaflets and, maintenance, of thickness. The simultaneous increase through Laplace’s law, their leaflet tension. Presumably, in area and maintenance of thickness implies that this those alterations elicit the phenotypical changes in VICs change is not (entirely) due to elastic deformation but and promote tissue growth and remodeling. Alterna- also due to the addition of mass, that is, growth. This tively, or additionally, systemic changes in hormones increase in mass is accompanied by an increase in total during pregnancy such as relaxin [14] may directly or collagen content. In addition, the microstructure of indirectly promote VIC activation and physiological mitral leaflets remodels during pregnancy. For example, tissue growth and remodeling. As of today, there is little it has been reported that collagen fibers lose organiza- evidence in favor of either hypothesis. tion in the leaflet bellies and increase their fiber crimp length [12]. Not surprisingly, these morphological and Growth & remodeling in disease structural changes are accompanied by changes in me- Valve leaflets respond not only to physiological stimuli as chanical properties [13]. Specifically, mitral valve leaflet in the case of pregnancy but also to pathological stimuli stiffness first decreases in early pregnancy before in disease, refer Figure 1a. It was first observed that www.sciencedirect.com Current Opinion in Biomedical Engineering 2020, 15:10–15 12 Biomechanics and Mechanobiology: Growth and remodeling in both mechanics and mechanobiology patients with heart failure had stiffened leaflets that In summary, data from patients with heart failure, with appeared fibrotic upon histological analyses [15]. Spe- ischemic mitral regurgitation, and dilated cardiomyop- cifically, leaflets from patients with heart failure had athy, as well as several animal models of the same dis- remodeled to have more glycosaminoglycans, more eases indicate that (i) mitral valve leaflets can actively collagen, less water content, and were thicker. Those adapt to changes in their mechanobiological state compositional and structural changes also led to less (owing to ventricular remodeling and annular dilation or leaflet extensibility [16]. Subsequently, it was shown in device implantation) toward preventing regurgitation, a longitudinal study design in sheep models of heart (ii) regurgitation correlates with
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