1. Introduction

1. INTRODUCTION

Catla catla is endemic to the riverine system in northern India, Indus plain and adjoining hills of Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Myanmar has been introduced later into almost all riverine systems, reservoirs and tanks all over India. As the species breeds in the riverine ecosystem, its ready seed availability has helped in establishing its aquaculture in the peripheral region of the riverine system in these countries. The natural distribution of catla seems to be governed by temperature dependency rather than latitude and longitude. The minimum tolerance temperature limit is 14 °C. The use of catla as a component in pond culture was a traditional practice in the eastern Indian states, spreading to all other Indian states only during the second half of the 20th century. Its higher growth rate and compatibility with other major carps, specific surface feeding habit, and consumer preference have increased its popularity in carp polyculture systems among the fish farmers in India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Laos, Pakistan and Thailand. The collection of riverine seed was the only source for culture until the 1950s. Success in the induced breeding of the species in 1957 assured subsequent seed supply, thus revolutionising this form of polyculture in India and other south-east Asian countries. The species has also been introduced elsewhere, including Sri Lanka, Israel, Japan, and Mauritius. At present, catla forms an integral component species, both in three-species polyculture with rohu (Labeo rohita) and mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala), and six-species composite carp culture, which adds common carp (Cyprinus carpio), grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus) and silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) (Lamarra, 1975; Cooper, 1987; Koehn et al.,2000). The share of fisheries in total agricultural GDP has increased impressively during the last five years, from 0.84% in 1950-51 to 4.19% in 1999-2000 (Anjani Kumar, 2003).

Catla catla is a eurythermal species that grows best at water temperatures between 25-32 °C. The eggs are demersal at first, gradually becoming buoyant. Early- stage larvae remain in surface and sub-surface waters and are strongly phototactic. 2

The larvae begin to feed three days after hatching, while their yolk sacs persist. As they increase in size, the number of gill rakers and gill filaments also increases, thus assisting them to strain ingested food items. The fry are planktophagic, feeding mainly on zooplankton such as rotifers and cladocerans. Adults feed only in surface and mid-waters; they also are planktophagous, with a preference for zooplankton, mainly crustaceans, rotifers, insects and protozoa, as well as a considerable share of algal and plant material. Catla catla attains maturity in its second year, performing a spawning migration during the monsoon season towards the upper stretches of rivers, where males and females congregate and breed in shallow marginal areas. The spawning season coincides with the south-west monsoon in north-eastern India and Bangladesh, which lasts between May and August and in north India and Pakistan from June to September. Its fecundity generally varies from 100 000-200 000/kg BW, depending on fish length and weight. The resultant seed are brought by water flow to the downstream areas where they are caught by seed collectors.

Since a riverine environment is required, natural breeding does not occur within ponds, even though the species attains maturity; thus hormonal induction is required. Among the three Indian major carps, catla is the most difficult to breed as it requires precise environmental conditions for spawning. Under normal conditions catla grows to 1-1.2 kg in the first year, compared to 700-800 g and 600-700 g for rohu and mrigal, respectively. It attends sexual maturity in two years.

Induced breeding of catla has been catering for almost the entire seed requirement in all the countries where it is cultured, although riverine collection still forms the seed source in certain small areas. Hormonal stimulation for induced breeding often gives poor result in catla, compared to other major Indian carps. This poor breeding response, coupled with a relatively shorter spawning season, results in an inadequate production of hatchery-reared seed, which often fails to cover the entire needs of the farmers in several regions.

The nursery-raised fry of 20-25 mm are further reared for 2-3 months to 80- 100 mm (6-10 g) fingerlings in earthen ponds of 0.05-0.2 ha. Catla fry are reared 3

along with rohu and mrigala in equal proportions at combined densities of 0.2-0.3 million fry/ha. Pond fertilization with both organic and inorganic fertilizers and supplementary feeding with the conventional mixture of rice bran and oil cake are the norm; however, the dosage and form of application vary with the farming intensity and inherent pond productivity. The overall survival in these fingerling rearing systems ranges from 60 to 70 percent.

Being a surface feeder that is highly preferred by consumer, catla forms an integral component in carp polyculture systems in all the countries where it is reared, including India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Laos and Myanmar. It is the fastest growing species among the three Indian major carps. Standardized practice for grow- out in the carp polyculture system includes control of predatory and weed fish through the application of chemicals or plant derivatives; the stocking of fingerlings at a combined density of 4 000-10 000 fingerlings/ha; pond fertilization with organic manures such as cattle dung or poultry droppings and inorganic fertilizers; supplementary feeding with a mixture of rice/wheat bran and oil cake; and fish health monitoring and water management. The level of adoption of these practices varies from country to country, depending mainly on the resource availability and the economic status of the farmers. Normally, the grow-out period is one year, during which it grows to about 1.0 kg. In the Koleru lake area of Andhra Pradesh, the centre of commercial carp farming activity in India with a production water area of over 100 000 ha, the grow-out period extends up to 18 months. In this area, stunted juveniles (i.e. fingerlings reared in crowded conditions for over one year, and 150-300 g in size) are used as the stocking material and the average size of catla harvested is 1.5-2.0 kg. The production levels recorded in carp polyculture systems usually remain at 3-5 tonnes/ha/yr, with catla contributing about 20-30 percent of the biomass.

The fry/fingerlings supplied for grow-out stocking by most of the carp hatcheries/nurseries mainly comprise mixed species, often with a very low proportion of catla; the poor breeding response and comparatively low nursery phase survival of catla is the reason for this. Poor or non-availability of fingerlings of suitable size is another important limiting factor that compels farmers to stock small-sized seed, often 4

leading to poor survival. The high cost of commercial feeds and feed ingredients sometimes restrains the farmers from feeding the correct quantity, thus also limiting production. Catla also forms one of the important components in the sewage-fed carp culture system practiced in an area totalling over 4 000 ha in West Bengal, India. In this form of culture, which includes multiple stocking and multiple harvesting of 300 g fish, primary treated sewage is provided to the fish ponds as the main input. Even without the provision of supplementary feed, this system produces 2-3 tonnes/ha/yr; with supplementary feeding, this can be increased to 4-5 tonnes/ha/yr.

Consumers generally prefer catla to be large 1-2 kg. Thus, farmers often resort to harvesting this species only at the end of the culture period instead of during intermittent harvesting. In waterbodies where multiple stocking and multiple harvesting are practised, the harvesting of larger sized fish over 500 g is usually initiated after 6-7 months of culture, while the smaller ones are returned to the pond for further growth. Manually operated dragnets are the most commonly used gear for harvesting carps. Marketable sized fish are usually harvested through repeated netting. Cast nets are another important gear frequently used for partial harvesting of fish in small and backyard ponds.

Catla catla are marketed mostly in local markets, where they are sold fresh. The marketing of this species mostly relies on domestic markets, where it is sold fresh. In large commercial farms where the harvest is considerable, fish, after washing thoroughly in water, are packed with crushed ice at 1:1 ratio in rectangular plastic crates usually 60 cm x 40 cm x 23 cm in size. Long-distance transport of these ice- packed fish in insulated vans is a common practice in countries like India, where catla are even transported over 3000 km by road to fish-deficit regions. Post-harvest processing and value-addition of this species is almost non-existent at present in any of the producing countries.

Carps are generally cultured in a closed system that involves herbivorous species, in which organic materials are used as the principal input sources, thereby making it a generally environmental-friendly practice. Furthermore, the compatibility 5

of catla in polyculture systems with regard to habitat preference and feeding habits is good. However, the tendency of farmers to increase income per unit area has led to an excessive use of fertilizers, proteinaceous feeds and chemicals that may have detrimental effects on the environment. The compatibility of catla in polyculture systems with other carps has already been established. However, low breeding response of catla has been experienced in several regions; this, together with the low survival of this species in the nursery stages compared to rohu and mrigal, sometimes leads to shortages in seed supply.

During the last several decades, the water quality of the Indian rivers has been deteriorating due to continuous discharge of industrial wastes and domestic sewage (Dyniel and Wood, 1980; Unni, 1984; Sachidanandamurthy and Yajurvedi, 2006; Krishna et al., 2007; Duran and Suicmez, 2007; Smitha et al., 2007).

The physico-chemical parameters, a reflection of the health of an aquatic ecosystem, are of immense significance in determining the trophic status of aquatic habitats. With its implications on the biological processes, abiotic parameters determine the planktonic and neustonic community structure thereby influencing the food chains and food web in natural waters. So, a detailed analysis of the same is always wanting, and consequently, hydrobiologists throughout the globe have always paid attention to this important aspect and subsequently voluminous literature has so far emerged on the said matter of interest. Considerable amount of work on the physico-chemical characters of lentic systems has been carried out by various workers viz. Welch (1952), Hutchinson (1967), Wetzel (1975). All these workers have discussed the importance and influence of various physico-chemical parameters on the water bodies.

Temperature also affects the rate of photosynthesis of plants, the metabolic rate of aquatic animals, rates of development, timing and success of reproduction, mobility, migration patterns and the sensitivity of organisms to toxins, parasites and disease. Life cycles of aquatic organisms are often related to changes in temperature. 6

Temperature ranges for plants and animals can be affected by manmade structures such as dams and weirs and releases of water from them.

Suspended Solids usually enter the water as a result of soil erosion from disturbed land or can be traced to the inflow of effluent from sewage plants or industry. Suspended solids also occur naturally in the water from bank and channel erosion; however, this process has been accelerated by human use of waterways. Turbidity measurements also take into account algae and plankton present in the water. Pollutants such as nutrients and pesticides may bind with suspended solids and settle in bottom sediments where they may become concentrated. Suspended sediments can also smother aquatic plants as they settle out in low flows, and clog mouthparts and gills of fish and aquatic macro invertebrates.

High turbidity affects submerged plants by preventing sufficient light from reaching them for photosynthesis. High turbidity also has the capacity to significantly increase water temperature. Water temperature needs to remain fairly constant so aquatic fauna can survive. Though high turbidity is often a sign of poor water quality and land management, crystal clear water does not always guarantee healthy water. Extremely clear water can signify very acidic conditions or high levels of salinity.

pH varies naturally within streams as a result of photosynthesis. There are a number of reasons that water may have extreme pH values. Acidic values Geology and soils are catchment affect pH. Acid soils (these are different from acid Sulphate Soils) and rocks such as basalt, granite and sandstone contribute to lower pH in water. Acid sulphate soils are a major problem in estuarine areas. These soils form in anaerobic environments that are rich in sulphur, such as at the bottom of estuaries. If these soils are not disturbed and are left in anaerobic conditions, they do not pose any threat. However, when they are uncovered and oxidized, they release sulfuric acid into adjoining water ways. Basic rocks such as limestone contribute to higher pH values. The fertilizers and detergents causes increased alkalinity extreme values of pH can cause problems for aquatic fauna. For example, fish may develop skin irritations, 7

ulcers and impaired gill functioning as a result of water that is too acidic. Death of most aquatic fauna may result from extremely acid or alkaline water.

The amount of oxygen in water, to a degree, shows its overall health. That is, if oxygen levels are high, one can presume that pollution levels in the water are low. Conversely, if oxygen levels are low, one can presume there is a high oxygen demand and that the body of water is not of optimal health. Apart from indicating pollution levels, oxygen in water is required by aquatic fauna for survival. In conditions of no or low oxygen availability, fish and other organisms will die. Oxygen enters water as a result of two processes. One is diffusion of oxygen into water is accelerated when the water turbulence is increased (moving through rapids and waterfalls) and when there is a strong wind blowing. Additionally, oxygen will diffuse into cold water at a higher rate than it will into warm water. Another one is Photosynthesis - during daylight hours, aquatic plants use the sun‟s energy to create energy they can use for growth. A by-product of this process is oxygen which is released into surrounding water.

Water quality generally means the component of water which must be present for optimum growth of aquatic organisms. The determinant of good growth in water body includes dissolved oxygen, hardness, turbidity, alkalinity, nutrients, temperature, etc. Conversely, other parameters like biological oxygen demand, and chemical oxygen demand indicate pollution level of a given water body. In most water bodies, various chemical parameters occur in low concentrations. This concentration level increases due to human activities, and lack of environmental regulation. The fish ponds in Okada and environment play a role in fisheries. Some published data reflect adverse effects at concentrations higher than acceptable limit (GESAMP, 1985).

Fresh water has a great role in sustenance of life of human beings, other organisms of the environment and maintaining the balance of nature. Water resources are being used by human being for various purposes like agriculture, industries, hydropower, fisheries and recreational uses. At present the quality of water largely under threat due to releases of municipal, industrial, domestic and sewage wastes in 8

the surface and ground water reservoirs. Water quality parameters provide current information about the concentration of various solutes at a given place and time and the basis for judging the suitability of water for its designated uses and to improve existing conditions. Due to the increase in population, industrialization, lack of sanitation facilities and improper waste treatment the quality of urban water bodies in India is deteriorating rapidly and a great pressure has been put on the existing water resources. Due to domestic and industrial waste about 80% of urban water supply finds its way back into the drainage system (Gautam, 1990).

Fresh water habitats occupy a relatively small portion of the earth surface as compared to marine and terrestrial habitats, but their importance to man is far greater than their areas. Fresh water is the most suitable and cheapest source for domestic and industrial needs and they provide convenient waste disposal systems. The increased demand of water as a consequence of population growth, agriculture and industrial development building construction has forced environmentalists to determine the chemical, physical and biological characteristics of natural water resources. Temporary ponds are found throughout the world. Though, there are considerable regional differences in their type and method of formation, many physical, chemical and biological properties are quite similar. The worldwide distribution of water body type leads to a large variety of temporary pond type due to climate and geological differences (Solanki et al., 2007).

Stagnant water bodies have more complex and fragile ecosystems in comparison to running water bodies as they lack self cleaning ability and hence, readily accumulate greater quantities of populations. Increased anthropogenic activities in and around the water bodies damage the aquatic systems and ultimately the physicochemical properties of water. The man is abusing water resources at a large scale. The effort to conserve these resources is present need. Factors that influence the sustainability of such lentic systems are temperature, transparency, salinity, biogenic salts, dissolved gases etc. (Munawar, 1970) since, ponds are favorable habitants for a variety of flora-fauna and anthropogenic society, so its regular monitoring is necessary for control. 9

Water quality affects directly or indirectly by physico-chemical parameters. Some factors like source of water, type of pollution, seasonal fluctuation etc, change these parameters widely. Such limnological studies are helpful in interaction between the climate, surrounding environmental conditions and biological processes in the water. In recent year several studies have been made on the limnology of fresh water bodies (Yeole and Patil, 2005; Mushini, 2012).

Water supports life on earth and around which the entire fabric of life is woven. Ponds, as sources of water, are of fundamental importance to man. However pond may have been natural water sources exploited by man at different time to meet different needs or may have been created for a multitude of different purposes (Rajagopal et al., 2010). The increased demand for water as a consequence of population growth, agriculture and industrial development has usurped environmentalists to determine the chemical, physical and biological characteristics of natural water resources (Sawant and Telave, 2009).

The physico-chemical characteristics of the aquatic environment directly influence the life inhabiting it. Fluctuation in these constituents often create an adverse environment to organisms, limiting their growth and interfering in the physiological processes, which reduce their ability to compete with other populations within the environment, ultimately changing the community structure (Kedar and Patil, 2011).

The central region of the country is dotted with many small and large water bodies which form a very important component of its physical environment. Due to heavy anthropological pressure, many have shrunk or become polluted with the discharge of untreated domestic and industrial effluent. Natural characteristics of pond waters can greatly limit possibilities for fish culture. One naturally occurring water quality imbalance is the case of pond waters with high total alkalinity and low calcium concentration. Such waters often have excessively high pH, which can limit fish culture. Many times, site water quality limitations may be alleviated through 10

management, for example alleviating the problem of high pH and low calcium by applying calcium sulfate (gypsum) to the water to increase calcium concentration. Moreover, some pond water quality variables are strongly influenced by pond bottom soil characteristics. Fish do not grow well in ponds with acidic water, which usually are located on acidic soils, but acidity in ponds can be corrected by liming. The present investigation attempts to find out the monthly variations in the physico- chemical parameters and also focus on water quality.

Waste water produced in a community is looked upon today as the residue of resources that the community has metabolized. The approach towards waste water disposal should be utilization of this residue with the concept of their reuse or recycle through an ecologically balanced system involving mainly aquaculture and agriculture. The utility of sewage effluent to enhanced fertility of freshwater ponds were used in many countries of the world. The average annual production of carps from sewage enriched waters in Germany, Rumania, Poland, Hungary, Israel, China and Java is estimated to vary between 3 and 4.5 tonnes / ha.

In India, there are over l32 sewage-fed fish farms covering an area of 12,000 hectares and almost all of them are fed with raw sewage for fertilization. The Vidyadhari sewage-fed fisheries near Calcutta is an example where farmers have taken full advantage of sewage disposal system of Calcutta Corporation for developing fish culture of the area. The annual yield from these fisheries is about

1,258 kg/ha. Raw sewage is inimical to fish life for high values of BOD, OC, CO2,

NH3, H2S, bacterial load and negative oxygen value. The high manurial capacity combined with the potentiality to serve as an additional source of water for maintaining desired depth of fish pond for culture, particularly during dry seasons, are added advantages of using such waste waters for fish culture. For the last few years investigations on sewage fed fisheries have enabled CIFRI (Central Inland Fisheries Resource Institute) to develop technologies for judicious utilization of sewage effluent through fish culture without any other additional nutritional inputs like, feed and fertilizer commonly used in freshwater aquaculture.

Domestic sewage basically contains wastes from toilets, bathrooms, kitchens and other house-hold washings together mixed up with trade water, ground water, storm water, etc. Although there are considerable similarities in the basic constituents, the characteristics of sewage varies not only from place to place but also from hour to hour at the same place depending on the climatic conditions, availability of water, dietary habits, social customs, etc. The salient and basic features of sewage are given below.

Sewage is a black coloured foul smelling fluid or semifluid containing organic and inorganic solids in dissolved and suspended forms carried away from residences, business houses and industrial establishments for final disposal. Generally sewage contains 90-99.9% of water and from a typical Indian urban community, per capita production of waste water is 136 litres / day. In an average, strong, medium and weak sewage contains 1200, 720 and 350 mg/L of total solid; 850, 500 and 250 mg/L in dissolved state; 350, 220 and 100 mg/L in suspended from and 20, 10 and 5 mg/L. as settle able condition respectively.

Macronutrient levels in a typical domestic sewage show 10 to 70 mg/L nitrogen, 7 to 20 mg/L phosphorus, 12 to 30 mg/L potassium, etc. The average values of nitrogen in strong, medium and weak sewage are 40, 25 and 20 mg/L and of phosphorus 15, 8 and 4 mg/L respectively. Organic refuses in the sewage have proteins, carbohydrates and fats in varied proportions depending on nutritional status and food habits of the population. Usually organic matters in sewage have 40-50% protein comprising of several amino acids serving as sources for microbial nutrients. Among carbohydrates, readily degradable starch, sugar and cellulose are detected.

For utilizing sewage in aquaculture, the properties like the concentrations of dissolved and suspended solid, organic carbon, nitrogen and the value of BOD are essential to be recorded. However, any mixing of industrial effluents with domestic sewage may increase the concentration of metallic ions. Usually, BOD at 200C in strong, medium and weak sewages is 400, 220 and 110 mg/L respectively.

A wide range of fish species has been cultivated in aquaculture ponds receiving human waste, including common carp (Cyprinùs carpio), Indian major carps (Catla catlax, Cirrhina mrigala and Labeo rohita), Chinese silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis), grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), crucian carp (Carassius auratus), Nile carp (Osteochilus hasseltii), tilapia (Oreochromis spp.), milkfish (Chanos chanos), catfish (Pangasius spp.), kissing gouramy (Helostoma temmincki), giant gourami (Osphronemus goramy), silver barb (Puntius gonionotus) and freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium lanchesterii). The selection reflects local culture rather than fish optimally-suited to such environments. For example, Chinese carps and Indian major carps are the major species in excreta-fed systems in China and India, respectively. In some countries, a polyculture of several fish species is used. Tilapia are generally cultured to a lesser extent than carps in excreta-fed systems although, technically, they are more suitable for this environment because they are better able to tolerate adverse environmental conditions than carp species. Milkfish have been found to have poorer growth and survival statistics compared with Indian major carps and Chinese carps in ponds fed with stabilization pond effluent in India.

The fish are generally divided into types according to their natural nutritional habits - those that feed on phytoplankton, or zooplankton or benthic animals - several species are known to feed on whatever particles are suspended in the water. There is also uncertainty about the types of phytoplankton fed upon by filter-feeding fish. For example, although blue-green algae are thought to be indigestible to fish, Tilapia has been shown to readily digest these algae and there is evidence that silver carp can do the same.

Aquatic macrophytes grow readily in ponds fed with human waste and their use in wastewater treatment has been discussed. Some creeping aquatic macrophytes are cultivated as vegetables for human consumption in aquaculture ponds and duckweeds are also cultivated, mainly for fish feed. Among the aquatic plants grown for use as vegetables are water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica), water mimosa (Neptunia oleracea), water cress (Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum) and Chinese water chestnut 13

(Eleocharis dulcis). The duckweeds Lemna, Spirodela and Wolffia are cultivated in some parts of Asia in shallow ponds fertilized with excreta, mainly as feed for Chinese carps but also for chickens, ducks and edible snails.

In a successful aquaculture system there must be both an organismic balance, to produce an optimal supply of natural food at all levels, and a chemical balance, to ensure sufficient oxygen supply for the growth of fish and their natural food organisms and to minimize the build-up of toxic metabolic products. Chemical balance is usually achieved through organismic balance in waste-fed ponds because the most important chemical transformations are biologically mediated. It is now recognized that depletion of dissolved oxygen in fertilized fish ponds is due primarily to the high rates of respiration at night of dense concentrations of phytoplankton. Bacterial respiration is not specifically mentioned in this equation but is included in the mud consumption of DO and in the planktonic DO consumption. In a well-managed waste-fed fish pond the DO in the morning should be only a few mg/L whereas in late afternoon the pond should be supersaturated with DO. Mud respiration probably lowers DO by less than 1 mg/L overnight and a fish population weighing 3000 kg/ha would also lower DO by only about 1 mg/L overnight. Phytoplankton photosynthesis is the major source of oxygen during daylight hours and, during the night, the major cause of oxygen depletion is respiration. It has been estimated that respiration of plankton (bacterioplankton, phytoplankton and zooplankton) can lower pond DO by 8-10 mg/L overnight. By far the greatest proportion of the DO depletion overnight is caused by the respiration of the phytoplankton that develops as a result of the nutrients contained in the waste. Phytoplankton provides feed for the largest percentage of fish farmed in Asia. They also exhibit a positive net primary productivity on a 24-hour basis and are net oxygen contributors to a fish pond. The objective in a waste-fed fish pond should be to maintain an algal standing crop at an optimum level for net primary productivity by balancing the production of phytoplankton biomass, in response to waste fertilization, with the grazing of phytoplankton biomass by filter-feeding fish.

Fish mortality in a waste-fed pond can result from at least three possible causes. First, the depletion of oxygen due to bacterial oxygen demand was caused by an increase in organic load. Second, the depletion of Oxygen overnight due to the respiratory demand of a concentration of phytoplankton, having grown in response to an increase in inorganic nutrients, caused by an organismic imbalance. The third possible cause is high ammonia concentration in the waste feed. All three causes of fish mortality have been reported in respect of sewage-fertilized fish ponds. The sensitivity of fish to low levels of DO varies with species, life stage (eggs, larvae, adults) and life process (feeding, growth, reproduction). A minimum constant DO concentration of 5 mg/L is considered satisfactory, although an absolute minimum consistent with the presence of fish is probably less than 1 mg/L (Alabaster and Lloyd 1980). Fish cultured in waste-fed ponds appear to be able to tolerate very low DO concentrations, for at least short periods of time, with air-breathing fish (such as walking catfish (Clarias batrachus) being the most tolerant, followed in decreasing order of tolerance by tilapia, carps, channel catfish and trout. Reducing phytoplankton biomass to maintain a reasonable DO in the early morning hours might well depress fish growth more than exposure to a few hours of low DO. A wastewater fertilized aquaculture system might occasionally require a stand-by mechanical oxygenation system for use during periods when DO would otherwise be very low. However, if the system is well managed to avoid overloading, this expense can be avoided. Unionized ammonia (NH3) is toxic to fish in the concentration range 0.2 - 2.0 mg/L (Alabaster and Lloyd, 1980). However, the tolerance of different species of fish varies, with tilapa species being least affected by high ammonia levels.

Increase in weight of small fingerlings stocked in a pond follows a sigmoidal curve. The first phase of growth is slow, so a high stocking density can be adopted to better utilize the spatial and nutritional resources of the pond. Alternatively, this can be achieved by stocking with larger fish having a higher initial weight, following growth in nursery ponds. Fish yield is positively correlated with the size of the stocked fish at a given stocking density. In south China, tilapia is stocked once a year at rates of either 30g fish or 0.15/m2 or 1.3g fish at 2.3 - 3.0/m2 stocking density. An increase in weight of fish in a pond leads initially to an increase in yield or production 15

but there is subsequently a reduction in the growth rate of individual fish because of the limitation of natural food production in the system. The third phase of slow growth in Fig. 18 is because the total weight of fish in the pond is approaching the carrying capacity. Intermediate harvesting when the rapid growth ceases, at the end of phase 2, should lead to significant increases in total yield. The high yields of tilapia reported in south China sewage-fed ponds are due to high stocking density and frequent harvesting.

Sewage is a major carrier of disease (from human wastes) and toxins (from industrial wastes). The safe treatment of sewage is thus crucial to the health of any community. This article focuses on the complex physical and biological treatments used to render sewage both biologically and chemically harmless. The Auckland region has two sewage treatment plants: one in Albany and one in Mangere. The process described below is that used by the Mangere treatment plant, which was built in 1960 and currently serves Auckland, Manukau and Waitakere Cities and the Papakura District. It is the largest such treatment plant in New Zealand, but its methods are similar to those used throughout the country. The waste treated is a mixture of domestic and industrial waste, with the domestic accounting for slightly more than half of the total. Some stormwater also enters the system through leaks and illegal connections (Bruno et al., 1989).

Water is an elixir of life. It governs the evolution and function of the universe on the earth hence water „mother of all living world‟. Majority of water available on the earth is saline in nature; only small quantity is fresh water. Freshwater has become a scare commodity due to over exploitation and pollution (Ghose and Basu 1968; Gupta and Shukle, 2006; Patil and Tijare, 2001; Singh and Mathur, 2005). Pollution is caused when a change in the physical, chemical or biological condition in the environment harmfully affect quality of human life including other animals‟ life and plant (Lowel and Thompson, 1992; Okoye et al., 2002). Industrial, sewage, municipal wastes are been continuously added to water bodies hence affect the physiochemical quality of water making them unfit for use of livestock and other organisms (Dwivedi and Pandey, 2002). 16

Uncontrolled domestic waste water discharge into pond as resulted in eutrophication of ponds as evidence by substantial algal bloom, dissolve oxygen depletion in the subsurface water leads to large fish kill and other oxygen requiring organism (Pandey, 2003) Effluent is discharge into environment with enhanced concentration of nutrient, sediment and toxic substances may have a serious negative impact on the quality and life forms of the receiving water body when discharge untreated or partially treated (Forenshell, 2001; Miller and Siemmens, 2003; Schulz and Howe, 2003). Water pollution by effluent has become a question of considerable public and scientific concern in the light of evidence of their extreme toxicity to human health and to biological ecosystems (Katsuro et al., 2004). The occurrence of heavy metals in industrial and municipal sewage effluents constitute a major source of the heavy metals entering aquatic media. Hence there should be regular assessment of these sewage effluents to ensure that adequate measures are taken to reduce pollution level to the minimum.

Worldwide water bodies are primary means for disposal of waste, especially the effluents from industrial, municipal sewage and agricultural practices that are near them. This effluent can alter the physical, chemical, and biological nature of receiving water body (Sandoyin, 1991). The initial effect of waste is to degrade physical quality of the water. Later biological degradation becomes evident in terms of number, variety and organization of the living organism in the water (Gray, 1989). Often the water bodies readily assimilate waste materials they receive without significant deterioration of some quality criteria; the extent of this is referred to as its assimilative capacity (Fair, 1971). However, the water quality is deteriorating day by day due to anthropogenic input of dissolved nutrient and organic matter and industrial effluent, which is built up on its bank. So it is of vital importance to monitor and simulate the water quality parameters to ascertain whether the water is still suitable for various uses. Water contaminated by effluent from various sources is associated with heavy disease burden (Okoh, 2007) and this could influence the current shorter life expectancy in the developing countries compared with developed nation (WHO, 2002). 17

The most possible sources of soil, water and plant pollutions are sewage sludge, residues of industrial factories and intensive fertilization. In suburban areas, the use of industrial or municipal waste water is common practice in many parts of the world (Feign et al., 1991; Urie, 1986; Singh et al., 2004). The use of sewage effluents for irrigating agricultural land is a worldwide practice (Feign et al., 1991). The contamination and quality of irrigation water is of the main concern especially in the regions with limited water resources. In such region not only, the water resources should wisely be utilized at the same time should be prevented from contamination. It is especially common in developing countries, where water treatment cost is high. As there is a gradual decline in availability of fresh water for irrigation in India, the use of sewage and other industrial effluents for irrigating agricultural lands is on the rise (Ratan et al., 2005). For the farmers, opportunities exist as sewage effluents from domestic origin are rich in organic matter and also contain appreciable amounts of major and micronutrients. Accordingly nutrient levels of soils are expected to increase with continuous irrigation with sewage water (Yadav et al., 2002).

Waste and sewerage water is still considered most rich in plant nutrients and organic matter. In many cities and towns the sewage water is sold and it is a good source of income to municipalities. However, the situation is changed now. Sewage water is available free of cost to adjoining agricultural fields and enriched with macro and micro nutrients required for the plant growth and therefore, farmers prefer the sewage irrigation for saving the cost of fertilizers and irrigation water. Besides nutrients, heavy metals are also present in the sewage water and leads to bio- accumulation of heavy metals in the cultivated crops there in. Bio-accumulation of heavy metals by the crops irrigated with sewage water was also reported by many authors (Sharma et al., 2001) around Sanganer town, Jaipur. Keeping the above in view has been undertaken to assess the effect of sewage water and canal water irrigation on fertility of soil or changes in the heavy metal concentration and other physicochemical properties of soil due to irrigated with sewage water and canal water of Dehradun city.

Waste water treatment plants (WWTP) are supposed to make the municipal sewage compatible for disposal into the environment (surface and underground water bodies or land), to minimize the environmental and health impacts of the sewage, and to make the sewage fit for recycling and reuse (agricultural and aqua-cultural uses a municipal and industrial uses (Tarundeep, 2010).Water resources on earth are diminishing rapidly and human activities continue to affect detrimentally the quality and quantity of existing fresh water resources (Perks et al., 2003). There are conventional and non conventional approaches for wastewater treatment. For waters already treated to primary and secondary levels, land treatment is a promising tertiary treatment technology. There are a variety of degradation mechanisms in anaerobic zones, such as fermentation or methanogenesis. Fermentation is the conversion of organic compounds from one form to another with no significant loss in COD. In fermentation, organic compounds serve as the electron acceptor as well as the electron donor. Two groups of methanogens carry out methanogenesis: aceticlastic methanogens and hydro genutilizing methanogens. Aceticlastic methanogens split acetic acid, typically produced by fermentation reactions, into methane and carbon dioxide (Grady and Daigger, 1997). Reduction of chemical oxygen demand (COD) from highly concentrated wastewaters prior to discharge into receiving waters or municipal treatment plants is a challenge for many industrial treatment systems. As more information becomes available on the ecological impacts of wastewater discharge, permit limitations are becoming more stringent.

Haque, 1984). Bhuiyan and Islam (1988) observed that the main food items of Xenentodon cancila was zooplankton. Zooplankton also plays a very important role in the food chain as they are in the second trophic level as primary consumer and also as contributors to the next trophic level. Both the qualitative and quantitative abundance of plankton in a fish pond are of great importance in managing the successful aquaculture operation, as they vary from location to location and pond to pond within the same location even within similar ecological conditions (Boyd, 1982). George (1966); Krishnamurty and Visvesvara, (1966); Sreenivasan, (1967) and Michael, (1968) worked in detail on the ecology of zooplankton population from different waters of India. Some of the works which have been done in Bangladesh include those of Das & Bhuiyan, (1974); Islam and Mendes, (1976); Khan et al., (1978); Bhuiyan and Nesa, (1998a and 1998b); and Bhuiyan et al., (1997).

Algae represent the important nutritive base and have a significant effect on the biological productivity of a water body. However, they are considered to be disastrous when in bloom. The ponds used for carp culture often develop dense algae blooms. Among different algae, blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria) form spectacular water blooms in fish production ponds. Nutrient enrichment by the addition of fertilizers, supplementary feeding and other eutrophication processes may cause proliferation of these algae. The factors which are responsible for the preponderance of bluegreen algae over other algal groups are their ability to assimilate a variety of biogenic organic compounds (Smith, 1973), being better adaptable to different environmental factors (Sevrin-Reyssac and Pletikosic, 1990) and the plasticity of their photosynthetic apparatus (Krogmann, 1973). In India, species of blue-green algae such as Microcystis, Oscillatoria, Arthrospira, Spirulina, Anabaena and Raphidiopsis are frequently observed as blooms in fish ponds. These surface water blooms can be very fleeting or they can last several days with harmful consequences such as poor growth and even mass fish mortality, mainly by the deteriorated water quality especially of dissolved oxygen depletion. Furthermore, dense blooms are directly toxic to other aquatic organisms (Bernardi and Giussani, 1990; Shilo, 1967).

Islam et al., (2000) studied ecology and seasonal abundance of some zooplankton of a pond in Rajshahi. Naz, (1992) studied the eutrophic and hypertrophic nature of fish ponds of Rajshahi university campus. Homyra and Naz, (2005) studied limnology of an artificial lake of Rajshahi. Chowdhury and Mamun, (2006) worked on physico-chemical conditions and plankton population of two fish ponds in Khulna. Many researchers worked on the percentage composition, seasonal variation and occurrence of freshwater zooplankton, but little or no information is available on the abundance of zooplankton in culture and non-culture pond in relation to water quality parameters. Among the different systems, the semi-intensive aquaculture encourages the natural food production through fertilization. Thus, the understanding in natural food production in pond especially on the zooplankton production is considered very important for the development of fertilizer based rural aquaculture practice in Bangladesh. Both organic and inorganic fertilizers are used for zooplankton production in our country. Comparatively the organic fertilizer is easily available and low cost than that of the inorganic fertilizer. The changes in the zooplankton production including the physico-chemical parameters with an emphasis to recorded the existing management practices operated by the pond owners in the two ponds.

Predation by fish determines the abundance of herbivorous zooplankton, which in turn regulates the level of phytoplankton (Carpenter et al., 1985). A recent study (Sarvala et al., 1998) revealed that changes in the abundance of planktivorous fish do affect both the phytoplankton and zooplanktoin. However, most of the avalabile information comes from experimental enclosures and much less is known about trophic interactins in large ponds (Brett and Goldman, 1996). Exploitation of fisheries resources in Egypt, as well as elsewhere in Africa, has been carried out in the absence of adequate ecological knowledge of the fish food organisms (Mavuti, 1990). The high percentage of the global fish species found in fresh water and the ability of some species to produce very high fish yields indicate that natural feeding strategies used by freshwater fishes are highly successful (Fernando, 1994). Understanding these strategies will assist in fish culture and management of freshwater fisheries. In the recent years, attention has been turned toward fish farming 21

for increasing fish yield. The Nile tilapia is considered the most important fish species in Egypt. It occupied more than 70% of the Egyptian fish landing (Ishak et al., 1985), Planktivorous fish have a major influence on the structure of the whole plankton where they modify the density and size structure of communities (Carpenter et al., 1985).

Phytoplankton and zooplankton are considered the main natural food for fish culture especially during the early stages. Touliabah (1992) evaluated the impacts of fish production and fertilization on managing phytoplankton in Serw Fish Farm. Shehata et al., (1994) conducted two experiments for six months in the barrage fish farm to determine the optimum fertilizer doses (urea and super-phosphate) which increase phytoplankton and zooplankton populations for tilapia culture in addition to the artificial food. Sweilum, (2001) studied the culture of Oreochromis niloticus in mono, di, and polyculture systems in the Barrage fish farm during the season of study. He reported that the highest growth rate of Nile tilapia was in polyculture system than the mono and diculture. The relationship between phytoplankton, zooplankton and fish culture is of paramount importance in determining the water quality on one hand and the natural productivity and the fish production on the other. This point hadn't been studied before in the farm.

The length-weight relationship forms an important criterion for studying the growth of fish populations (Agarwal and Saksena, 1979). The exponential value must be exactly 3, but in reality, the actual relationship between length and weight may depart from the ideal value due to environmental conditions or condition of fish (Le- Cren, 1951). The condition factor (K) of fish on the other hand presents valuable information regarding maturity spawning, availability of food, its degree of fatness and environmental conditions. The evaluation of the general condition and well being of the fish is also determined through the study of condition factor (K) while, the absolute growth is the daily increment in weight of fish. This relationship serves three purposes viz. i) to determine the type of the mathematical relationship between two variables so if one variable is known, the other could be computed; ii) the relative condition can be estimated to assess the general well being of the fish and type of 22

growth, i.e., whether isometric or allometric and iii) it helps to estimate the potential yield per recruit in the study of fish population dynamics. In fishes, generally the growth pattern follows the cube law. Such relationship for the fishes will be valid when the fish grows isometrically. Both the length-weight relationship and condition factor are important tools (Brody, 1945; Lagler, 1952).

The weight-length and condition factor parameters of hatchery reared Golden Mahseer, Tor macrolepis were analyzed. Log transformed regressions were used to test the growth performance. It was observed that growth in weight was almost proportional to the cube of its length (isometric): log W = -5.045 + 3.143 log TL. The value of the slope b = 3.143 coincides with the slope b = 3.0 for an ideal symmetrical fish. The condition factor (K) shows statistically significant relationship with both length and weight i.e. as fish grows K increases with increasing length or weight were studied by Anser Mahmood Chatta and Muhammad Ayub, (2010).

In the present study deals with the weight-length and condition factor relationship of fish Catla catla. This study has applied value in fish biology (Salam et al., 2005). The weight-length relationship provides a parameter to calculate an index commonly used by fisheries biologists to compare the “condition factor” or “well being” of a fish (Bagenal & Tesch, 1978). Several studies on length-weight relationship have been carried out in other parts of the world (LeCren, 1951; Jhingran, 1952 & 1968; Chakrbborty & Singh, 1963).

Fish play an important role in human nutrition in India, particularly to people of coastal areas. Good and adequate nutrition plays a very important role in the expression of mental, physical and intellectual qualities in humans. To ensure access to the nutritionally adequate food for the improvement in the quality of diet of a poor person in the society, fish is the only medium which can serve the very purpose. They have the ability to reduce blood lipid level, particularly serum triglycerides (Boberg, 1990) and also have a good source for human nutrition due to their therapeutic role in reducing certain cardiovascular disorders (Stickney and Hardy, 1989; Ahmed, 2011). So, success of any fish culture largely depends on a continual supply of food through 23

natural (fertilization) and supplementary food. The combination of three to four species may ensure maximum utilization of available natural and food in ponds because of their different feeding habits. Catla, rohu and mrigala could be considered as surface, column and bottom feeder respectively. Above three species are cultures along with pangas (Pangasius hypophthalmus) by using fertilization and supplementary feeding in polyculture system. Supplementary feeding in fertilized ponds resulted in significantly higher growth rates and greater yields than fertilization alone (Green, 1992; Diana et al., 1994).

Fish has long been recognized as valuable resource of high quality food in human diet. Aquaculture is a low energy expenditure and protein yielding in comparison to other agriculture sectors. Since aquaculture production is affected by multiple factors, many characteristics must be measured and analyzed for production. The physical and chemical characteristic of water bodies, seed quality, stocking density, season, cultural system, feeding and harvesting patterns are important factors. The growth rate of aquaculture species depends on their genetic potential as well as several other factors that influence the growth of fish genetic makeup, behavior, population dynamics and endocrinology. (Sahu et al., 2000).

Fish has attained great nutritional significance in recent years for providing best source of protein and oil. It has been estimated that farmed Labeo rohita is found to be best due to its nutritional as well as commercial value as compared to that of wild fish. Fish lipid has also been assured great nutritional significance owing to their protective role against the developing cardiovascular diseases. Coronary heart diseases have been identified as one of the major source of death in Pakistan, with mortality rate increasing every year (Mahboob et al., 2004). As fish is rich in providing unsaturated fatty acids, so there is no risk of cardiovascular disease and any other blockage in the vessels and also they (lipids) provide energy 9.3 Cal/gm twice than that of protein (Anonymous, 1977).

Fish skins are potential source of gelatin (protein). Gelatin has very broad application in food, pharmaceuticals and photographic industries. Gelatins are 24

produced on a large scale from skin and bones from mammalian origin (mainly beef and pork) by alkaline or acidic extraction, (Gudmunsson and Hafsteinsson, 1997). Choi and Regenstein, (2000) suggested that in addition to producing fish gelatin to meet religious needs, the commercial use of skin and bones which are normally discarded is good waste management and as well as economic benefit. Fish skin and scales that are discarded as dressing losses are an important source of protein, lipids and minerals (Iqbal, 2002).

Composition of the body is a good indicator for the physiological condition of a fish but it is relatively time consuming process. Proximate body composition is the analysis of carbohydrates, proteins and moisture contents of fish. The percentage of water is good indicator of its relative contents of energy, proteins and lipids. The lower percentage of water, greater lipids, protein contents and higher energy density present in the fish (Dempson et al., 2004).

Objectives of the present study

 To analysis the physico-chemical parameters from freshwater and sewage water treated cultured ponds.  To analysis the phytoplankton and zooplankton from freshwater and sewage water treated cultured ponds.  To study the morphometric measurements of carps Catla calta.  To analysis the biochemical composition of freshwater and sewage water treated culture carps Catla calta.

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

In order to comprehend the complex biological interactions occurring within an aquatic ecosystem an assessment of its physico-chemical conditions holds a momentous position. Any changes encountered in these conditions have a direct bearing on the biota inhabiting therein. The physico-chemical conditions of three freshwater ponds of Jammu viz. Dilli Village Pond, Jammu; Botanical Garden Pond, University of Jammu and Fish Pond, University of Jammu, for a period of one year in which some physico-chemical parameters (temperature, transparency, and pH, dissolved Oxygen, free carbon-di-oxide, carbonic acid chloride, calcium and magnesium) were analyzed (Sharma et al., 2009).

The water quality parameters studied for the current study were water temperature, pH, acidity, total alkalinity, free CO2, dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen demand, chloride, sulphate, phosphate, nitrate, calcium, magnesium and total hardness. The values obtained were compared with values recommended in water quality standards by WHO (World Health Organization), BIS and USPHS. The high phosphate and nitrate concentrations were attributed to water leached surface soil runoff, as well as the addition of organic manure (cow dung and poultry manure) to the ponds. It will be necessary to delimit cattle and poultry manure access points to the ponds to reduce this type of organic pollution in the water bodies. Based on the results of present study it is concluded that the fish ponds are moderately hard to hard category were studied by Kiran, (2010).

Ehiagbonare and Ogunrinde, (2010) suggested that the values of the parameters ranged from pH 6.75 - 7.10, conductivity 0.012 - 0.017 mS/cm, TDS 22 - 906 mg/L, COD 162 - 397 mg/L, turbidity (NTU) 5 -170, TSS 85 -206 mg/L, BOD 1.69 - 3.38 mg/L, DO 9.3 - 16.2 mg/L, acidity 100 - 575 mg/L, alkaline 35 - 135 mg/L, calcium 16.01 - 50.06 mg/L, magnesium 1.21 - 5.46 mg/L, hardness 0.40 - 1.47 mg/L, chloride 7.1 - 10.65 mg/L, sulphate 0.66 - 0.96 mg/L, phosphate 1.40 - 4.51 mg/l, nitrate 2.21 - 4.91 mg/L, copper 0.01 - 0.07 ppm, and zinc 0.01 - 0.07 ppm; cadmium and lead were not detected in the samples. There was significant variation of 26

values from location to location; generally there was no significant difference from desirable and acceptable standards. Although there is economic advantage to the fish farmers, there is the desirable need to analyze the fish pond water at regular intervals. This quality assurance process is to ensure that there are no toxic substances in ponds leading to possible bio-accumulation and magnification. In this way the good health of aquaculture, humans and the environment can be guaranteed.

Almatti reservoir is one of the major perennial water resource located at about 63 km away from Bijapur is mainly used for drinking and irrigation. Monthly and seasonal variations of physico-chemical characteristics were studied from February, 2003 to January 2005 to study the various ecological parameters such as rainfall, humidity, air and water temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen, free carbon dioxide, total alkalinity, total hardness, calcium, magnesium, chloride, nitrate, phosphate, sulphate, bicarbonate, total dissolved solids. The study revealed that there exist seasonal fluctuations of the factor and from data it was also apparent that various correlations between the factors could be seen. However, it is obvious that the absence of significant difference between sampling stations for all these parameters in the Almatti reservoir indicated fairly homogeneous conditions and the water quality is also found to be homogeneous. Study also indicated that the water is quite suitable for irrigation and pisciculture were analysed by Hulyal and Kaliwal, (2011).

Water is essential for living organisms especially like Flora and Fauna. The comparative study of the periodic and aperiodic variations of Physico-chemical status of two lakes belongs of Lodra Lake and Nardipur Lake of Gandhinagar District, Gujarat India. Different data are collected and observed through various field trips. Comparative studies of the periodic and aperiodic variations of Physico-chemical status of two lakes were studied in year January to June 2011. Both the lakes are biotically affected by various anthropogenic activities. In the present study water characteristics of two lakes have been compared the water quality. Different parameters like pH, fluoride, COD, BOD, chloride, alkalinity, total hardness, calcium, 27

calcium hardness, magnesium, magnesium hardness, DO, EC and TDS analyzed (Patel and Patel, 2012).

For such assessment the water quality for parameters like water temperature, pH, acidity, alkalinity, dissolved oxygen, chloride and calcium, magnesium and total hardness, phosphate, nitrate, total solids were analyzed. Samples were collected from selected site of the pond. The analysis was done based on the standard methods. The results indicate that most of all the parameters were within permissible limits for potable water standards of WHO except water temperature, pH. Throughout the study period water was alkaline in nature. Chloride showed positive relation with water temperature. Water temperature showed high significant negative correlation with dissolved oxygen. Phosphate showed negative correlation with most of all parameters except acidity and dissolve oxygen. Nitrate showed negative correlation with most of all parameters except water temperature and phosphate. It also showed significant negative correlation with total hardness. Only total hardness showed significant monthly variation (Pathak Neelam and Mankodi, 2013).

The seasonal variations in the physico-chemical parameters of Pindavani pond of central India, located near Bhadrawati town of Chandrapur district of Maharashtra were determined included temperature, pH, transparency, conductivity, dissolved oxygen (DO), free carbon dioxide, alkalinity, hardness (calcium, magnesium), chloride, biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and phosphate, sulphate and nitrate concentrations. The atmospheric temperature was found to be higher than the water temperature and as expected, the maximum water temperature was recorded during the summer and minimum during the winter season. Maximum transparency was recorded during winter and minimum during the monsoon season, while maximum conductivity, pH and BOD were recorded during summer and minimum during the monsoon season. Free carbon dioxide, total hardness, calcium and magnesium hardness, chemical oxygen demand and phosphate and sulphate concentration were maximum during summers and minimum during the winter season while DO and chloride showed the maximum levels during the summer and minimum during the monsoon season. Alkalinity and nitrate showed maximum 28

level during the monsoon and minimum during the winter season. The comparative higher value of conductivity, total alkalinity, chloride, phosphate and nitrate in Pindavani pond indicates its contaminated status were reported by Harney et al., 2013. Radha Krishnan et al., (2007) were reported the various constituents monitored include the physico-chemical characters like pH, total solids, total dissolved solids, total suspended solids; chemical parameters like total alkalinity, acidity, free CO2, dissolved oxygen, total hardness, calcium, magnesium, chloride, salinity and bacterial parameters like standard plate count (SPC), total coliform count (TCC), faecal coliform count (FCC), faecal streptococcal count (FSC). Most of the physicochemical characters of drinking and borewell water were within the ISI permissible level. However in water samples from all the sites, bacterial count exceeded the recommended permissible level of WHO. Introduction of sewage into the drinking and borewell water was the main reason for the bacterial contamination. The boiling of water is therefore advisable before consumption. The physicochemical and bacterial characters of the sewage water were unworthy. The sewage water recycling was necessary to minimize the water born diseases.

Sanganur canal is the major open drainage system which has intricate linkage with storm water supply, domestic sewage and industrial effluent disposal. Water samples from various stations were collected and analyzed for physico-chemical parameters to assess the water quality of the Sanganur canal system. The study revealed that physic-chemical parameters like pH, EC, TDS, DO, BOD, COD exceeded the permissible limit, clearly indicating the need of proper treatment of waste water before discharge into the Noyyal river (Binu Kumari et al., 2006).

An aquaculture-based sewage treatment system, integrating duckweed and fish as biological components was evaluated in an urban area (Vanivihar) of Bhubaneswar city, India. The 4.5 MLD (million litres per day) system receiving continuous sewage flow comprised a sedimentation tank (0.185 ha, 3 m), three duckweed ponds (1.13 ha, depth 0.5-0.75 m) and two fish ponds (0.8 ha, depth 1.5 m). The raw sewage, after a short retention in sedimentation tank, was allowed to pass through the duckweed and 29

fish ponds with retention periods of three and two days, respectively. The duckweed ponds with Lemna and Spirodela were provided with intermittent staggering walls for longer traversing distance of the sewage. With the doubling time of the weeds being 3-4 days, 50% of fully covered mats were harvested twice a week, keeping the residual material for further growth. The fish ponds were stocked with five carp species at a density of 10,000 fingerlings ha-1 and no additional inputs were provided. Treatment efficiency of the system was assessed through bimonthly monitoring of important chemical and microbiological parameters of water from sewage source, exit point of duckweed pond and outlet of the fish ponds for two years, during August, 2003 - August, 2005. The observations revealed mean reduction levels of 88% ammonia, 85% nitrite, 55% nitrate, 71% phosphate, 79% biological oxygen demand (BOD), 75% chemical oxygen demand (COD) and 70% total suspended solids from the source to the outlet. Similarly, aerobic heterotrophs, total coliforms, faecal coliforms, faecal streptococci, Salmonella and Shigella population recorded reduction levels of 66.8, 85.7, 92.0, 92.4, 99.4 and 85.6% respectively (Jena et al., 2010).

The effects of sewage water and canal water irrigation were compared by their physicochemical properties and heavy metals concentration in soil. The mean values of different physico-chemical parameters and heavy metals were : bulk density (gm/cm3) 1.26, water holding capacity(%)-53.60, temperature(ºC)-16.33, electrical conductivity (dsm-1)- 0.122, pH-7.5, organic carbon (%)-1.95, available phosphorous (mg/kg)-108.44, available potassium (mg/kg)-121.66, nitrogen (%)-2.22, available Calcium (%)-2.18, available Magnesium (%)-0.09 and heavy metal concentration in soil were Pb-52.72, Cu-49.03, Zn-264.09 and Cd-24.66 in sewage water irrigated soil. The observed concentration of Pb, Cu, Zn was below the Indian standards except Cd. The Enrichment factors calculated for sewage water irrigated soil in Pb (3.79), Zn (4.12), Cu (3.12) and Cd (2.21) were moderate enrichment while pollution index values in the samples were calculated to be lower than permissible pollution limit of 1.0 were studied by Swapnil Rai et al., (2011).

The physico-chemical parameters of water and waste waters in and around Vijayawada were studied in the months of January- December 2007 for a period of 30

one year from seven different sites. Selected sites are Krishna river water (site-I), exit canal near Vijayawada thermal power plant (site-II), canal near agricultural fields (site-III), water present in agricultural fields (site-IV), drain water near SIRIS company (site-V), drain water near railway station ( site-VI) and drain water near bus stand (site VII). Water samples were analyzed for various physical parameters like pH, temperature, turbidity, conductivity and total dissolved solids and chemical parameters like DO, BOD, COD, phosphates, sulphates, chlorides, hardness, alkalinity and nitrates. The results obtained were compared with standards of WHO. From the results it was found that the some of the water samples (sites I, II and III) are slightly polluted while waste waters of sites IV,V, VI and VII are highly polluted as a result of contamination with industrial, agricultural and domestic wastes. It is therefore recommended that more strict methods of waste effluent management should be adopted to reduce the inputs of pollutants into the river and surrounding waters (Jayalakshmi et al., 2011).

The physico-chemical parameters of waste water from the paper industry which is using waste-paper as a raw material. The wastewater from the paper industry is characterized by colour, extreme quantities of COD, BOD, pH, TDS, DO and SS .The wastewater samples were collected from the inlet and outlet of the effluent treatment plant of paper mill. The samples were analyzed and compared with the Indian standards of effluent discharge. The raw wastewater consists of pH of 6.8-7.1, Suspended Solids of 1160-1380mg/L, Total Dissolved Solids ranges from 1043- 1293mg/l, BOD and COD varies 268 - 387 mg/L and 1110 –1272 mg/L respectively. After treatment pH varies 7.1 -7.3, Suspended Solids 322-505 mg/L, Total dissolved solids ranges from 807-984 mg/L, BOD and COD ranges from 176- 282 mg/L and 799-1002 mg/L, respectively. Result shows that the pH and TDS is in the permissible limits and COD, BOD, SS does not meet the permissible standards after treatment. The paper mill does not meet the Standards set by Central Pollution Control Board, India were reported by Kesalkar et al., (2012).

The parameters of waste stabilization technique were using anaerobic and facultative ponds. The waste water samples were taken from raw sewage & final 31

treated water and analyzed physicochemical parameters like conductivity, total hardness and chemical oxygen demand in the 2009. The efficiency of conductivity, total hardness and chemical oxygen demand was significant. The waste water treatment plant system using different materials showed excellent potential for conductivity, total hardness and chemical oxygen demand removal from waste water treatment plant. The results of analysis of treated water for conductivity, total hardness and chemical oxygen demand (COD) indicate that the final treated water can be used for industrial cooling and agricultural purposes (Kushwah Ram Kumar et al., 2012).

Water quality monitoring facilitates evaluation of nature and extent of pollution and effectiveness of pollution control measures, water quality trends and prioritisation of pollution control efforts. These qualities which make water so useful also make it easy for water to be polluted, or made dirty with things that are dangerous or harmful. Wastewater is any water that has been adversely affected in quality by anthropogenic influence. It comprises liquid waste discharged by domestic residences, commercial properties, industry, and/or agriculture and can encompass a wide range of potential contaminants and concentrations. The analysis of physicochemical parameters like transparency, pH, bicarbonate, carbonate, total alkalinity, salinity, total hardness, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulphate, nitrate, silica and phosphate of sewage water samples of different regions of Bikaner city were conducted (Vikas Modasiya et al., 2013).

The effect of simultaneous multiple intrinsic and extrinsic factors on the characteristics of S fax activated sludge wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), located in Southern East Tunisia. The plant performance was evaluated through descriptive and statistical analysis of quantity and quality data of both raw wastewaters and treated effluent over a period of three years (2008 – 2010). Despite the rehabilitation, poor performance was shown to be attributed to raw wastewaters quality, civilization populations, bad functioning of the aerators and the industrial fallouts and deposits. Therefore, the downstream values of BOD5, COD, SS, FC, FS, TKN and TP are enough to achieve a final effluent that would meet the Tunisian standards limit. 32

Multiple regression analysis showed that removal efficiencies of BOD5, COD and SS can be predicted to reasonable accuracy (R2 = 0.973, 0.946 and 0.925, respectively). Goodness of the model fit to the data was also evaluated through the relationship between the residuals and the model predicted values of BOD and COD. The advantage of this model is that it would allow a better process control (Dalel Belhaj et al., 2014).

Adel Mageed and Adel Konsowa, (2002) were studied fish culture had obviously influenced the intraplanktonic dynamics, Chlorophyceae occupied the first predominant position at the fishponds and constituted about 60% of the total crop followed by Bacillariophyceae (25.8%) and Cyanophyceae (14%). Diatoms replaced green algal position at the River Nile water and contributed about 70% of the total numerical density. The small rotifers and nauplius larvae of copepods were the most dominant in fishponds in spite of the large forms in the main feeder.

The effects of different algal blooms on the water quality, plankton diversity and density and fish production of carp culture ponds. For the present study, three carp culture ponds located in the West Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh, India, were selected with Microcystis, Oscillatoria and Anabaena blooms respectively. In the three ponds, physico-chemical parameters of water, phytoplankton and zooplankton and fish productions were studied. The results indicated that the fish yield was lower with concomitant fish mortalities in a pond with Microcystis bloom followed by the ponds with Anabaena and Oscillatoria blooms. The disastrous effects of algal blooms with regard to the ecology of pond water, the diversity and density of plankton and fish production were analyzed and discussed (Padmavathi and Durga Prasad, 2007).

Zooplankton constitute important food item of many omnivorous and carnivorous fishes. The study was conducted with an aim to study the zooplankton production including physico-chemical parameters with an emphasis to the existing management practices taken by the operators. The study was carried out in a culture and a non-culture pond of Rajshahi University campus was carried out from September, 2004 to February, 2005. Monthly fluctuations of some physico-chemical 33

parameters were noted. The ponds showed alkaline in nature with moderate bicarbonate alkalinity. Diurnal change of water temperature, free CO2 and dissolved Oxygen were also studied. Four groups of zooplankton were identified, of which copepods (1260 units/l and 973.33 units/l in pond-1 and pond-2 respectively) were most dominant. A total of 9 genera of zooplankton were identified of which Cyclops (68.25% and 60.28% of total copepods) was most abundant in both ponds. Total zooplankton showed positive correlation with pH, carbonate alkalinity (CO3) and bicarbonate alkalinity (HCO3) in both ponds and DO, carbon dioxide (CO2) in pond-1. Present findings indicated that the culture pond showed better result than that of the non-culture pond regarding zooplankton production were suggested by Sharmeen Rahman and M. Afzal Hussain, (2008).

Plankton is the natural food of many species of fishes, especially zooplankton constitute important food item of many omnivorous and carnivorous fishes. The larvae of carps feed mostly on zooplankton (Dewan et al., 1977) because zooplankton provides the necessary amount of protein for the rapid growth and specially that of the gonad. According to Prasad & Singh (2003), the zooplankton forms the principal source of food for fish within the water body, zooplankton contributes about 82% of the food items of Anabas testudineus (Shafi and Mustafa,1976), 32% of Notopterus notopterus (Mustafa & Ahmed, 1979), 47.06% of Catla catla and 6.37% of Labeo rohita (Ali and Islam,1981), 24.19% of Oreochromis nilotica (Ismail et al., 1984), 38.5% of Rohtee cotio (Ali et al., 1984) and 30% of Mystus vittatus (Bhuiyan and Haque, 1984). Bhuiyan and Islam, (1988) observed that the main food items of Xenentodon cancila was zooplankton. Zooplankton also plays a very important role in the food chain as they are in the second trophic level as primary consumer and also as contributors to the next trophic level. Both the qualitative and quantitative abundance of plankton in a fish pond are of great importance in managing the successful aquaculture operation, as they vary from location to location and pond to pond within the same location even within similar ecological conditions (Boyd, 1982). George (1966), Krishnamurty and Visvesvara, (1966); Sreenivasan, (1967) and Michael, (1968) worked in detail on the ecology of zooplankton population from different waters of India. Some of the works which have been done in Bangladesh include 34

those of Das & Bhuiyan (1974), Islam and Mendes (1976), Khan et al., (1978), Bhuiyan and Nesa, (1998a and 1998b); and Bhuiyan et al., (1997).

Islam et al., (2000) studied ecology and seasonal abundance of some zooplankton of a pond in Rajshahi. Homyra and Naz, (2005) studied limnology of an artificial lake of Rajshahi. Chowdhury and Mamun, (2006) worked on physico- chemical conditions and plankton population of two fish ponds in Khulna. Many researchers worked on the percentage composition, seasonal variation and occurrence of freshwater zooplankton, but little or no information is available on the abundance of zooplankton in culture and non-culture pond in relation to water quality parameters. Among the different systems, the semi-intensive aquaculture encourages the natural food production through fertilization. Thus, the understanding in natural food production in pond especially on the zooplankton production is considered very important for the development of fertilizer based rural aquaculture practice in 35

Bangladesh. Both organic and inorganic fertilizers are used for zooplankton production in our country. Comparatively the organic fertilizer is easily available and low cost than that of the inorganic fertilizer. The changes in the zooplankton production including the physic-chemical parameters with an emphasis to recorded the existing management practices operated by the pond owners in the two ponds.

rohita (Ali and Islam,1981); 24.19% of Oreochromis nilotica (Ismail et al., 1984); 38.5% of Rohtee cotio (Ali et al., 1984) and 30% of Mystus vittatus (Bhuiyan and Haque, 1984). Bhuiyan and Islam, (1988) observed that the main food items of Xenentodon cancila was zooplankton. Zooplankton also plays a very important role in the food chain as they are in the second trophic level as primary consumer and also as contributors to the next trophic level. Both the qualitative and quantitative abundance of plankton in a fish pond are of great importance in managing the successful aquaculture operation, as they vary from location to location and pond to pond within the same location even within similar ecological conditions (Boyd, 1982). George (1966); Krishnamurty and Visvesvara, (1966); Sreenivasan, (1967) and Michael, (1968) worked in detail on the ecology of zooplankton population from different waters of India. Some of the works which have been done in Bangladesh include those of Das and Bhuiyan, (1974); Islam and Mendes, (1976); Khan et al., (1978); Bhuiyan and Nesa, (1998a and 1998b) and Bhuiyan et al., (1997).

Phytoplankton and zooplankton are considered the main natural food for fish culture especially during the early stages. Touliabah (1992) evaluated the impacts of fish production and fertilization on managing phytoplankton in Serw Fish Farm,Planktological studies in four sewage-fed experimental ponds at Rahara, West Bengal, India, were conducted for a period of 8 months commencing from October 1991 to May 1992 and coinciding the cultural duration fourteen genera of Zooplanktons and nineteen genera of phytoplanktons were identified. Phytoplankton population was always dominant over zooplankton population. The monthly fluctuations of density and occurrence of different genera of plankton population and its correlation with some physico-chemical variables have been discussed (Bhowmik et al., 1993).

Shehata et al., (1994) conducted two experiments for six months in the barrage fish farm to determine the optimum fertilizer doses (urea and super- phosphate) which increase phytoplankton and zooplankton populations for tilapia culture in addition to the artificial food. Sweilum, (2001) studied the culture of Oreochromis niloticus in mono, di, and polyculture systems in the Barrage fish farm 37

during the season of study. He reported that the highest growth rate of Nile tilapia was in polyculture system than the mono and diculture. The relationship between phytoplankton, zooplankton and fish culture is of paramount importance in determining the water quality on one hand and the natural productivity and the fish production on the other. This point hadn't been studied before in the farm. The aim of the present study is to determine these relations in the Barrage fish farm as a freshwater fish farm.

Nutrient recycling (converting nitrogen back to protein) through different polyculture systems could be more practical and efficient than controlling or treating the effluents associated with traditional, intensive monoculture practices. Phytoplankton and zooplankton occupy sizable respiratory (oxygen consumption) niches in the production pond environment and have no market value. Careful selection of suitable filter feeding fish and mollusks for polyculture could open up these niches for production of species with greater economic value. It might be more desirable to culture channel catfish with paddlefish and some species of freshwater mussel than to face bankruptcy because it has become illegal to discharge effluents from production ponds used for intensive monoculture. Ultimately, sustainability may be the aquaculture industry's ability to adapt on a planet with an ever increasing human population which continues to consume its limited supply of non-renewable resources at an alarming rate (William A. Wurts, 2000).

The composition of phytoplankton and zooplankton communities related to the dynamics of a fish farm; Methods: Samples were collected every other day, within a period of twenty consecutive days, during the dry and rainy seasons. Two samples were collected upstream from the fish pond (reservoir); the other four samples were collected in the fish farm area; Results: Rotifera and Chlorophyceae species were found in high densities at almost all sampling sites during both seasons under analysis. The higher phytoplankton species richness from site P3 to P6 was influenced by the management employed within the fish farm. The zooplankton community showed low values of density, species richness and equitability during the dry season. The continuous water flow and the addition of fertilizers (organic and inorganic) in 38

the fish ponds had an influence on the plankton community, leading to a reduction in water quality and Cyanobacteria dominance.

The growth and development of the plankton constituents was studied in this regime. The natural planktonic rhythm was found to be modified by the polluted condition existing in the lake. The phytoplankton exhibited four peaks in March, May, August, and November while, the zooplankton showed three peaks in February, July and October. The abundance of zooplankton during the annual cycle oscillated with that of the phytoplankton. There was much more evenness in the zooplankton population in comparison to the phytoplankton. Analysis of both, the zooplankton as well as the phytoplankton population was done using the Bray-Curtis dissimilarity index, importance value index and Shannon-Weaver diversity index. The importance value index was found to provide a better evaluation of the plankton community than the diversity index were noted by Mukherjee et al., (2010).

Plankton abundance studies in freshwater fish pond at Malwan, Etah, were conducted for a period of 8 months commencing from October 2009 to May 2010. Thirteen genera of Zooplanktons and sixteen genera of phytoplankton were recognized. Phytoplankton populations were always dominant over zooplankton population. The monthly fluctuations of density and occurrence of different genera of plankton population and its correlation with some physico-chemical variables have been discussed (Meera Singh, 2011).

Gilles et al., (2013) reported the zooplankton production is then consumed by tilapia, particularly by the fry and juveniles, when water is returned to the main circuit. Chlorella sp. and Brachionus plicatilis are two planktonic species that have spontaneously colonized the brackish water of the prototype, which was set-up in Senegal along the Atlantic Ocean shoreline. In our system, water was entirely recycled and only evaporation was compensated (1.5% volume/day). Sediment, which accumulated in the zooplankton pond, was the only trophic cul-de-sac. The system was temporarily destabilized following an accidental rotifer invasion in the main circuit. This caused Chlorella disappearance and replacement by opportunist algae, 39

not consumed by Brachionus. Following the entire consumption of the Brachionus population by tilapias, Chlorella predominated again. Our artificial ecosystem combining S. heudelotii, Chlorella and B. plicatilis thus appeared to be resilient. This farming system was operated over one year with a fish productivity of 1.85 kg/m2 per year during the cold season.

The growth performance of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) was evaluated by the individual as well as collective applications of organic fertilizers and supplementary feed. The objective was to (1) to obtain an integrated view on the effect of pond ecosystem of monoculture of common carp and artificial feed and (2) to investigate the contribution of organic manure to fish production when combined with artificial feed. The cow dung was used as organic fertilizer and standard diet containing 30% protein formulated from corn gluten meal (30% CP), sunflower meal (35% CP) and rice polish (10% CP) was used as supplementary feed. There were three treatments and a control. Control (T0) group did not receive any cow dung while treatment 1(T1) received cow dung only, treatment 2 (T2) supplementary feed alone and treatment 3 (T3) received both cow dung and supplementary feed. The fertilization was done on weekly basis @ 0.10g N/100g and supplementary feed was offered @ of 2% of wet fish body weight daily. Overall average weight gain in T0, T1, T2 and T3 was 273.3±6.26, 406.8±4.51, 443.2±2.78 and 482.3±3.80g, respectively. Net fish production was 429.46, 647.09, 706.98 and 775.87kg ha-1 yr-1. Treatment 3 (T3) (combination of organic fertilizers and supplementary feed) displayed maximum growth and then T2, T1 and T0 ranked in the decreasing order respectively (Muhammad Noman et al., 2011).

The length-weight relationship of carps was studied in Raipur reservoir, Gwalior from April, 2009 to March, 2011. Four major carps species, viz., Catla catla, Labeo rohita, Cirrhinus mrigala and Cyprinus carpio were cultivated in the reservoir. The growth of carps was studied from April, 2009 to March, 2010 during first year, while in second year growth studies were conducted during August, 2010 to March, 2011. In the year 2010-11, however, the reservoir dried up during the period from April, 2010 to July, 2010 due to low rains during the rainy season and high 40

evaporation during the summer. The values of „n‟ for C. catla, L. rohita, C. mrigala and C. carpio were 2.438, 3.399, 2.844 and 2.358 respectively in this water body during 2009-10, while the values of „n‟ for C. catla, L. rohita, C. mrigala and C. carpio are 2.856, 2.827, 2.771 and 2.394 respectively were during 2010-11. The value of coefficient of correlation (r) between length and weight shared a perfect positive relationship in all the fishes studied during both the years of study. A total of 200 specimens of each of four species were taken and a logarithmic graph plotted between length and weight has shown a straight line in all the four carps. The condition factor „K‟ for C. catla revealed that with the progression of growth of the fish, the well being of fish decreased as this factor is showing a decreasing pattern while in L. rohita fish attains good growth and size in comparison to other fishes and a positive pattern of condition of fish was observed. The condition factor „K‟ for C. mrigala revealed that with the progression of growth of the fish, the well being of fish increased with increased age and in C. carpio a decreasing pattern with the progression of growth in the fish was shown, thus the well being of fish was also low. The absolute growth may be concluded that the growth increment during first year of culture the growth was highest in L. rohita in comparision to other carps while in second year maximum growth was exhibited by C. catla and minimum growth by C. carpio. It was found that rohu had good absolute growth in the reservoir in the first year. However, in second year of study, it was catla who had a little edge over rohu. C. carpio grew the least in comparison to other carps. On the basis of physico- chemical characteristics of the Raipur reservoir, it may be classified as mesoeutrophic one (Saxena and Saksena, 2013).

The Length-weight relationships (LWRs) were investigated in eleven (11) fish species from Ogudu Creek between December 2010 and October 2011. Specimens were caught with non return valve traps, gill and cast nets. They were sorted to the lowest taxonomy level and identified using identification manuals. The morphometric data such as fish‟s eye diameter (ED), head length (HL), body depth (BD) and total length (TL) measurements were determined from Vernier caliper and measuring board and body weight (BW) from Sartorious weighing balance. The growth coefficients of the LWRs were determined using the SPSS and Microsoft office Excel 41

software. The fish assemblages consisted of 191 individuals belonging to 8 families, 10 genera and 11 species of freshwater and marine origins. The fish size varied between 7 cm TL (10.7 g BW) in Psettias sebae and 25.1 cm TL (136.1 g BW) in Liza falcipinnis. Growth coefficient, b ranged from 1.84 (Elops lacerta) to 5.20 (Chiromidotilapia guentheri) and correlation coefficient, r2>0.60. The eight (8) species exhibited allometric (b<3

The proximate composition of head of wild and farmed Catla catla under three different weight categories because head is mainly disposed. The moisture contents in head from wild and farmed Catla catla were recorded as 63.06 ± 0.46% and 54.91± 0.53%, respectively. Protein contents in head from wild and farmed Catla catla were measured as 14.77 ± 0.37% and 19.92 ± 0.44%, respectively. Lipids contents were recorded as 7.56 ± 0.46% in head of wild and farmed Catla catla respectively. There were 12.26 ± 0.52 % and 12.40 ± 0.31% ash contents in head of wild and farmed Catla catla respectively. The total nitrogen free extract were 2.31 ± 0.05% in wild and 0.74 ± 0.03% in farmed Catla catla. It was concluded that farmed fish contain more lipid and protein contents as compared to that of wild fish. No significant differences were found in case of ash contents. For each parameter seven samples were used and statistical analysis revealed that there are significant differences in case of wild and farmed fish (Hussain at al., 2011).

The body composition of Indian major carp‟s catla, rohu mrigala and freshwater fish, pangas using the body composition as an index of growth studies in cultured ponds. Among the four fish species meat composition moisture percentage mean value under all the treatments mean values showed that the mrigala had highest (78.6%) moisture contents followed by rohu (78.2%), Catla catla (77.9%) and for pangas (76.8%) which differ non-significantly (P>0.05) from each others. The comparison mean of crude protein values under treatments showed that rohu has highest (18.5%) crude protein followed by catla 16.5%), mrigala (15.6%) and pangas 42

(13.5%). Among all the treatments T3 goes to better mean value of crude protein. In all the four species total mean fat was recorded in catla (1.66%). Statistical analysis showed the highly significant difference in the percentage of total fat contents among the species, treatments (P<0.01). The comparison of ash percentage showed that mrigala had highest ash contents 1.55%, followed by pangas 1.40%, rohu 1.23% and catla 1.22%.The highest mean value of carbohydrates from all the treatments found to be 1.50% in mrigala and the lowest mean carbohydrate percentage was found to be 1.10% in catla. Statistical analysis revealed the highly significant difference in the percentage of carbohydrates contents among the species, treatments and interaction among the species and treatments (P< 0.01). The results of the present study revealed that an increase in the level of incorporated Probiotics with supplementary feed resulted in significant effect on the flesh crude protein content in the major carp‟s catla, rohu, mrigala and pangas (cat fish). This trend continued total fat, total ash and carbohydrates also. Changes in body composition in relation to type of food ingested are common phenomenons in all species of fishes were reported by Suresh Babu et al., (2013).

A 120 day experiment was conducted to investigate the dietary protein requirement of stunted fingerlings of the Indian major carp Catla catla, during the grow-out period. Fingerlings of average weight 7.10 g were fed on three different formulated diets with varying protein levels (20, 25 and 30%). Growth, survival, protein efficiency ratio (PER), food conversion ratio (FCR), specific growth rate (SGR) and ratio of protein deposition in the carcass were measured. Water quality parameters were analysed and found to be optimum for culture. The results indicated that fish fed diet containing 25% protein showed better growth performance in terms of the parameters measured (Ramaswamy et al., 2013).

The effects of dietary lipid and carbohydrate, and their interaction, on growth performance and body composition of juvenileblunt snout bream Megalobrama amblycephala were investigated. Fish were fed one of eight isonitrogenous (32% crude protein) diets containing 4% or 7% lipids and 25%, 30%, 35%, or 40% carbohydrate for nine weeks. Weight gain, feed conversion ratio, protein efficiency 43

ratio, and nitrogen and energy retention improved significantly as the dietary lipid level increased, while there were no significant differences in these parameters within the tested range of carbohydrate levels. The interaction between the lipid and carbohydrate levels had positive effects on weight gain, feed conversion ratio, and protein efficiency ratio when fish were fed increased carbohydrates and 7% lipid. The intraperitoneal fat ratio and liver lipid content were significantly affected by the dietary carbohydrate level and reached maximum values in fish fed 40% and 30% carbohydrates, respectively. Further, the dietary lipid and carbohydrate levels significantly affected body moisture and lipid content while there were no significant differences in body protein, ash, energy, or muscle and liver glycogen contents. Results indicate that the optimal dietary carbohydrate content for juvenile M. amblycephala is approximately 30% when dietary lipid is 4%. However, juvenile M. amblycephala can efficiently utilize 40% dietary carbohydrates with a dietary lipid content of 7% were suggested by Xiang-Fei Li et al., (2014).

3. METHODOLOGY

3.1. Study area For the present investigation, the study areas chosen were the culture pond freshwater carp Catla catla cultured ponds at Tiruchirapalli area in Tiruchirapalli District, Tamil Nadu, India. The observed in the semi-intensive carp culture ponds were located at Tiruchirapalli during the study period from January 2011 to December 2012. In the selected area, freshwater was used for carp culture pond-I (Assoor) and treated sewage water pond-II (Panjapu). The average area of each pond was 1.5 acre (Fig. 1 and 2). The seeds of Catla catla were collected from Assoor fish farm with uniform size, shape and socking density of 25 per square meter as per standard methods.

3.2. Collection of water samples For the present investigation water samples were collected from the fresh water carp culture ponds carp culture pond-I (Assoor) and treated sewage water pond- II (Panjapur) in Tiruchirapalli district. The samples for dissolved oxygen were collected just below the surface of water in order to avoid direct contact with air. The determination of temperature, turbidity, pH, dissolved oxygen, calcium, phosphate, nitrate and ammonia were carried as the sample collected care was taken to minimize the duration between the sample collection and analysis of sample. The water samples were analyzed by using standard methods.

3.3. Analysis of water quality parameters The following water quality parameters were monthly intervals analyzed in the semi intensive freshwater carp culture pond-I (Assoor) and treated sewage water pond-II (Panjapur) in Tiruchirapalli district.

3.3.1. Determination of Temperature Normally temperature measurement is made with any good, mercury filled Celsius. Thermometers as a minimum the thermometer should have a scale marked 45

for every 1°C with marking edged on the capillary glass, for field operators a thermometer having a metal case to movement breakage (APHA 1998).

Procedure The surface temperature was measured by dipping the thermometer directly in the water for about a minute and read the temperature on the scale of the thermometer. The sub surface temperatures were samples. From desired depth and reading the temperature as quickly as possible, the atmospheric temperatures were taken directly by using the thermometer.

3.3.2. Determination of turbidity Turbidity of water is measured by using standard Sacchi disc meter scale, with pin (APHA 1998).

3.3.3. Determination of pH Hydrogen ion concentrations of the culture pond water were estimated with the help of pH meter. For this water samples were first collected and transferred to the beaker. There are various methods for determining the pH of the water samples. These may be broadly divided into electro metric method and calorimetric method. Here the hydrogen ion concentration was determined with B.D.H. wide range pH papers in the field and later the values were collected with pH meter in the laboratory. In the electrometric method the glass electrodes were wiped dry with filter paper and dipped into the sample. And the pH was recorded caliberation of the scale was necessary and so buffer solution was prepared. The instrument was standardized. A buffer tablet (commercial) dissolved in 100 ml of distilled water will form a buffer solution of pH.

3.3.4. Estimation of dissolved oxygen The sample is fixed soon after collection and taken to the laboratory for analysis. The dissolved oxygen is determined by the Winkler‟s method (Winkler 1888). This method is based on the following reactions.

MnSO4 + 2KOH  K2SO4 + Mn(OH)2

2Mn (OH)2 + O2  MnO (OH)2

MnO (OH)2 + 2H2SO4  Mn(SO4+3H2O)

Mn (SO4)2 + 2KI  K2SO4 + MnSO4 + I2

2Na2 S2O3  Na2S4O6 + 2NaI

Reagent required i) Manganous sulphate ii) Alkalaine iodide 750 g of potassium hydroxide and 150 g of potassium iodide were dissolved in 750 ml of distilled water. iii) Sulphuric acid – Conc. iv) Sodium thiosulphate (0.01N) 2.482 g of the salt dissolved in 1000 ml of distilled water. v) Starch indicator 1 g of starch powder dissolved in 100 ml of distilled water and then boiled.

Procedure The volume of the narrow mouthed reagent bottle was first noted by filling the bottle water and measuring the contained water with a measuring jar. Water sample collected into the sample bottle without allowing any air bubble in it and was stoppered. To the water sample 2 g of manganous sulphate solution followed by 1 ml of alkaline iodide was added keeping the tip of the pipette well below the sample of water. The bottle is stoppered and shaken vigorously. It was removed to a dark place to prevent any photochemical reaction and kept therefore 10 minutes, After 25 minutes it was taken out and sufficient amount of Conc. H2SO4 added till the precipitate was dissolved. The precipitate was completely by shaking thoroughly. 25 ml of sample which low contains the liberated iodine was measured and put in to a conical flask to this was added 4 (or) 5 drops of 1% starch solution and sample turned 47

blue. This was titrated against 0.025 N sodium thiosulphate solutions. The first disappearance of the blue colour was taken as the end point.

Calculation Oxygen content in CC/lit

K x 200 x volume of Na2S2O3 x 0.698 ______Vol. of the sample = mg/lit. when Volume of sample bottle K = ______Volume of reagent bottle – Vol. of reagent added

3.3. 5. Estimation of Alkalinity Reagents

1. Standard H2SO4 (0.02 N): prepare 0.1 N H2SO4 by dilution 3.0 ml conc.

H2SO4 to 1000 ml. standardize it against standard Na2CO3 0.1 N. Dilute

appropriate volume of H2SO4 (approx 0.1 N) to 100 ml to obtain standard 0.02

N H2SO4. 2. Phenolphthalein indicator: Dissolve 5 gm of 500 ml 95 per cent ethyl alcohol. Add 500 ml distilled water. Add drop wise 0.02 N NaOH till faint pink colour appears.

3. Methyl orange indicator: Dissolve 0.5 gm and dilute to 1000 ml with CO2 free distilled water.

Procedure 25 or 50 ml sample was taken in a conical flask and added 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator. This solution was titrated with 0.02 N H2SO4 pink colour develops till it disappeared (pH = 8.3). Noted the volume of H2SO4 required. Added 2-3 drops methyl orange to the same flask and continue titration till pH down to 4.5 or orange colour changes to pink. More the volume of H2SO4 added. In case pink colour did not appear addition to phenolphthalein continued as in 3 above.

3.3.6 Estimation of Chloride using Silver Nitrate Principle This test measured the soluble chloride Ion concentration in the mud filtrate. The chloride can come from sodium chloride, calcium chloride or potassium chloride. Also, for the titration to work correctly the pH of the filtrate needs to be only weakly basic (pH = 8.32). This is the reason for the first step in the procedure. There are two chemical reactions taking place simultaneously during the titration (APHA,1998).

Reagent required i) 0.01N Silver Nitrate solution ii) 5% Potassium chromate solution 1. Ag (+) + Cl  AgCl (+) 2- 2. Ag + CrO4  Ag2 CrO4

This first reaction the formation of silver chloride, accounts for the appearance of the white specs or milky appearance during the titration. The formation of the silver chromate, which is red, will not start until all the chloride Ions are tied up as silver chloride. The silver nitrate will then react with the chromate from the potassium chromate indicator to form silver chromate.

Procedure Take 100 ml of sample in conical flak and add 1 ml of potassium chromate indicator. Titrate against silver nitrate. Appearance of the pinkish yellow colour that indicates the presence of chloride in the sample.

Calculation Tit. Value x 0.0141 x 35.45 x 100 / Volume of the sample.

3.3.7. Estimation of Nitrate (Brucine method) Principle Nitrate and brucine react to produce a yellow colour, the intensity of which can be measured at 410 nm. The reaction is highly dependent upon the heat generated 49

during the test. However, it can be controlled by carring out the reaction for a fixed time at a constant temperature. The method is suitable for the samples having a wide range of salinity.

Reagents 1. Brucine-sulphanilic acid solution Dissolve 1 g brucine sulphate and 0.1 g of sulphanilic acid in about 70 ml of hot distilled water. After addition of 3 ml of conc. HCl, it was make upto the volume of 100 ml. The pink colour was developed slowly, did not affect the sensitivity.

2. Sulphuric acid solution

Add 500 ml concentrated H2SO4 in 125 ml distilled water and cool.

3. Sodium chloride solution Dissolve 300 g Nacl in distilled water and dilute to 1 liter.

4. Sodium arsenate solution

Dissolved 5 gm of NaASO2 in distilled water and make 1 liter of the solution.

5. Standard nitrate solution (1 mg N/L)

Dissloved 0.722 g of KNO3 in distilled water and make up to the volume of 1 litre. This solution contains 100 mg N/L. Dilute it to 100 times to prepare a solution having 1 mg N/L (10 ml 1000 ml).

Procedure Free chlorine interferes with the nitrate determination. If the sample was having residual chlorine, removed it by addition of 0.05 ml of sodium arsenite solution for each 0.1 mg of chlorine. One drop was added in excess to a 50 ml sample portion. 10 ml of sample or an aliquot was diluted to 10 ml in a 50 ml test tube. All the test tubes were placed in a test tube stand. The stand was placed in a cool water bath and 2 ml of Nacl solution was added. 10 ml of H2SO4 solution was added after mixing the contents thoroughly swirling by hand. 0.5 ml brucine reagent was added 50

and mixed thoroughly. The stand was placed in a hot water bath with boiling water, exactly for 20 minutes. The contents were cooled again in cold water bath and the reading was taken at 410 nm. The concentration of NO3-N from the standard curve was pound out. A standard curve was prepared between concentration and absorbance by taking the dilution from 0.1 to 1.0 mg N/L at the interval of 0.1 employing the same procedure as for the sample.

3.3. 8. Estimation of Sulphate Reagents

1. Standard sulphate solution (Na2SO4). Dissolved 1.42 of Na2SO4 in 10 ml distilled water (conc. 100 mg ml-1). 2. NaCl HCl solution. Dissolved 1 g of sulphanilamide in 10 ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid and 60 ml distilled water. Diluted this solution to 100 ml. 3. N-1-Naphthyl ethylene diamino dihydrochloride (NED) Dissolved 60 g of NaCl in 200 ml distilled water. To this 5 ml of concentrated HCl was added. Makeup the solution fo 250 ml distilled water.

4. Barium chloride (BaCl2) 5. Dry crystals 0.15 g.

Procedure To 50 ml of sample 10 ml of NaCl, HCl, glycerol and ethanol was added. When the stirrer, 0.15 g of barium chloride was added and mixed for 60 sec. Reading was taken at 420 nm against suitable blank. Similar experiment was done with standard sulphate solutions and standard graph was plotted. The amount of sulphate was measured from the standard curve

3.3. 9. Determination of Biological Oxygen Demand Reagents

1. Phosphate buffer: Each 8.5 g KH2PO4, 21.75 g K2HPO4, 33.4 g

Na2HPO4.7H2O and 1.7 g NH4Cl were dissolved in distilled water to prepare 1 liter of solution (pH = 7.2). 51

2. Magnesium sulphate: 82.5 g MgSO4.7H2O dissolved in distilled water to prepare 1 liter of solution.

3. Calcium chloride: 27.5 of anhydrous CaCl2 was dissolved in distilled water to prepare 1 liter of solution.

4. Ferric chloride: 0.25 g FeCl3.6H2O was dissolved distilled water to prepare 1 liter of solution.

5. Sodium sulphite solution 0.025 N: 1.575 of Na2SO3 was dissolved and dilute to 1000 ml solution should be prepared freshly.

Procedure 1. Prepared dilution water in a glass container by bubbling compressed air in distilled water for about 30 minutes. 2. 1 ml each of phosphate buffer, magnesium sulphate, calcium chloride and ferric chloride solutions were added for each liter of dilution water and mix thoroughly.

3. Neutralize the sample to pH around 7.0 by using 1 N NaOH or H2SO4. 4. Since the DO in the sample was likely to be exhausted, it was usually necessary to prepare a suitable dilution of the sample according to the expected BOD range. 5. Dilution was prepared in a bucket or a large glass through, mixed the content thoroughly fill 2 sets of BOD bottles. 6. One set of the bottles was Kept in BOD incubator at 20°C for 5 days and the DO content was determined in another set immediately. 7. DO was determined in the sample bottles, immediately after the completion of 5 days incubation. 8. Similarly for blank, 2 BOD bottles was taken for dilution water. In one, the DO content was determined and the other incubated with the sample to determine DO, after five days.

3.3. 10. Determination of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) Reagents 1. Potassium dichromate solution 0.25 N. 12.259 g of was dissolved and dried

A.R grade K2Cr2O7 in distilled water to make 1 litre of solution.

2. Potassium dichromate solution 0.025 N diluted 0.25 N K2Cr2O7, 10 times (100 ml 1000 ml). 3. Ferrous ammonium sulphate 0.1 N. 39.2 g of FAS in water was added 20 ml

conc. H2SO4 to make 1 m of solution. Standardized this solution with

K2Cr2O7, for standardization, dilute d10 ml of K2Cr2O7 to about 100 ml,

added 30 ml of conc. H2SO4 and titrated with ferrous ammonium sulphate using ferroin as an indicator. 4. Ferrous ammonium sulphate 0.01 N. 0.1 N ferrous ammonium sulphate to 10 times (100 ml 1000 ml). 5. Kerroin indicator: 1.485 g of 1.10 phenonthroline was dissolved and 0.695 g of ferrous sulphate was distilled water to make 100 ml of solution. 6. Sulphuric acid (conc.). 7. Diphenylamine indicator: 1 g of litre indicator was dissolved in 100 ml of

conc. H2SO4.

8. Mercuric sulphate (HgSO4) solid.

9. Silver sulphate (Ag2SO4) solid.

Procedure 1. 20 ml of water sample was taken in a conical flask and add a few glass beads.

2. Mixed exactly 10 ml of 0.025 N K2Cr2O7 to the water samples and then added slowly 30 ml of conc. sulphuric acid. 3. Then the water is likely to contain large amount of chloride, added a few crystals of silver sulphate to the flask to overcome the interference of these ions. 4. The conical flask was attached to a refluxing condenser and reflux for 2 hours. 5. After refluxing, washed the inside residues of the condenser into the flask, diluted with about 75-80 ml distilled water. 53

6. After the dilution 10 ml of ortho phosphoric acid was added to prevent interference of ferrous ions during titration. 7. 1 ml of diphenylamine indicator was added to develop a blue colour in the solution and titrated with standard FAS until the blue colour flushes to green. 8. A blank was prepared the same procedure with all the reagents excepting the samples.

3.4. PLANKTONS ANALYSIS The plankton samples for the present study were collected once in a month from the two years of fresh water culture pond and sewage treated pond at Tiruchirappalli area during the study period (January 2011 to December 2012). The collection were made early in the morning by using the standard plankton net nylobolt (no.25) with 30 cms mouth diameter and length of 1 m. The integrated samples were made by pooling the samples collected from two sides and centre of the river. In case of the river the samples across the river were collected from various points including both banks. One hundred liters of water was filtered through plankton net for qualitative estimation of plankton. Samples were preserved in 5% formalin. Then the samples were made up to 100 ml and counting was done in a Sedwick-Rafter cell (Welch, 1952). From this, the number of cells per litre was calculated and the percent composition of various groups of phytoplankton and zooplankton were computed and graphically represented.

Fresh water planktonic diatoms were collected using phytoplankton net (mesh size 20) from different stations in Grand Anicut canal. All the genera were collected from different stations. Water samples were centrifuged and pellet of diatom samples were collected and fixed in 4 % formalin. For better viewing and identification, diatom cells were washed with saturated solution of chromic acid (potassium dichromate dissolved in conc. H2SO4). The slides were prepared by mounting in glycerine and photomicrographs of the frustules were taken using microscope and canon 5 megapixel digital camera.

3.5 ANALYSIS OF MORPHOMETRIC MEASUREMENT 3.5.1 Measurement of marphometric characters The morphometric of specimen Catla catla were recorded from January 2010 to December 2010. The length (cm) of fish were measured by using scale and weight (g) of fish were measured by using electronic digital top-pan balance (Chyo, Japan). K values (or) condition factor were calculated using the following formula

Weight (g) K = ------x100) L 3 (cm)

3.6 BIOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS The initial and final concentration of biochemical constituents, such as total protein, carbohydrate and total lipid were estimated in test fishes.

3.6.1 Estimation of total carbohydrate (Dubois et al., 1956) Principle Sulphuric acid hydrolysis the oligossacharides into monosaccharide and convert the monosaccharide furfural derivatives which react with anthrone and produce a complex coloured product.

Reagents required Stock standard solution : 1 g of glucose was dissolved in 100 ml of Benzoic acid. Benzoic acid : 1g Benzoic acid was dissolved in 100 ml of distilled water. Anthrone reagent : 2 g of Anthrone was diluted with

100 ml of 98% concentrated H2So4. 5% TCA : 5 g TCA was dissolved in 100 ml distilled water.

Sample Extraction 100 mg of the sample was homogenized with 5% TCA the sample were transferred into centrifuge tube and centrifuged for 10 minutes at 4000 rpm. The supernatant was used for the estimation of carbohydrate.

Procedure: For plotting the standard curve a set of standard were run with 10 ml, 20 ml etc of the standard solution taken in a series of test tubes and 4 ml of anthrone reagent was added and shaken well. The tubes were kept in boiling water bath for 10 minutes. Later the tubes were cooled in room temperature. The samples were developed a green colour. The absorbance was read at 630 nm against a reagent blank in spectrophotometer. Calculate the amount of carbohydrate per mg of the sample.

Calculation; OD of Unknown ______X Concentration of standard = Con. Of Carbohydrate in OD of known unknown sample

3.6.2 Estimation of protein (Lowry’s et al., 1951) Cured protein is the total amount of nitrogen converted to a protein equivalent. The nitrogen may come from a variety of substance in feed other than protein. Therefore, cured protein does not reveal the source of the nitrogen, the amino acid content (amino acids are building of protein), or whether the protein used was heat damaged, poorly processed or spoiled.

Principle The final blue colour is a result of biuret reaction of protein with copper ion in alkali and reduction of the phosphomolybdic – phosphotungstic reagent by the tyrosine present in the treated protein.

Chemical Required 1. Sodium carbonate 2. Sodium hydroxide 3. Potassium tartarate 56

4. Copper sulphate 5. Alkaline copper reagent 6. Folin- Ciocalteau’s reagent 7. TCA – Buffer 8. Bovine serum albumin

Reagent Preparation 1. Sodium carbonate 20% (w/v), Reagent – A: 20 gm of sodium carbonate was dissolved in 100 ml of distilled water. 2. Sodium hydroxide 10% (w/v), Reagent – B: 10 gm of sodium hydroxide was dissolved in 100 ml of distilled water. 3. Potassium tartarate 1% (w/v), Reagent – C: 1 gm of potassium tartarate was dissolved in 100 ml of distilled water. 4. Copper sulphate 0.5% (w/v), Reagent – D: 5 gm Copper sulphate was dissolved in 100 ml of distilled water. 5. Alkaline Copper sulphate : 50 ml of reagent – A, : 20 ml of reagent B : 10 ml of reagent C: 10 ml of reagent D and 10 ml of distilled water. 6. Folin-Ciocalteau’s Reagent: Commercially available Folin-Ciocalteau‟s (2) was dissolved with distilled water at the ratio of 1:16. 7. TCA – Buffer 10% (pH 8.6): 10 gm of TCA was dissolved in 100 ml of distilled water and used as buffer to homogenate tissue samples. 8. Bovine serum alnumin : 500 mg of BSA was dissolved in 100 ml of distilled water with 1% SDS.

Sample Extraction 1 g tissue was taken from the pooled tissues and homogenized in 10% TCA buffer. The homogenate was centrifuged at 1000 rpm for 15 minutes. The soluble and insoluble phases were separated.

Sample analysis To the soluble phase, 0.5 ml alkaline copper reagent was added and incubated at room temperature for 10 minutes. Then 2 ml of diluted 2N Folin-Ciocalteau‟s reagent was added to the mixture with vigorous shaking and incubated at room temperature 57

for 10 -15 minutes. The optical density of blue colour was read at 650nm, using spectrophotometer (spectronic 20D+).

Calculation: The amount of protein present in the sample = OD of Test / OD of standard X conc. of standard.

3.6.3 Estimation of Lipids (Folch method, 1957) Nearly 0.5 tissues were homogenized in 2 ml of chloroform: methanol 2:1 ratio, and then centrifuged at 3000 rpm for minutes. The process was repeated thrice, the supernatant were cooled and concentrated at 40-450C in flask under vacuum evaporator.

Principle

Lipids react with vanillin in an acidic medium of H2So4 and phosphoric acid to form a chromogen, the colour intensity is directly proportional to the lipid content of the sample.

Reagents 1. Chloroform : Methanol (2:1) 20 ml of Chloroform was mixed with 10 ml of methanol. 2. 0.9% Sodium Chloride : 900 mg of sodium chloride was distilled in 100 ml of digital water. 3. Vanillin reagent : 600 mg of the vanillin in 100 ml distilled water. 4. Phosphovanillin reagent : 35 ml of vanillin reagent was made up to 100 ml with concentrated Orthophosphoric acid.

5. Concentrated Sulphuric acid (H2So4) 6. Standard : 60 ml of Olive oil was taken in 10 ml volumetric flask and diluted to 100 ml with absolute ethanol and mixed well. This standard is stable for one month when stored at 4 – 70C (v/v). 7. Blank Preparation : 0.2 ml Chloroform was taken and allowed to dry for blank.

Procedure

Nearly 0.2 ml of concentrated H2So4 was added to 0.2 ml of lipid extract and mixed well. All the tubes were kept at 1000C in an oven for 10 minutes and cooled in cold water for 5 minutes and add 20 ml of phosphovanillin. The content were mixed well and incubated at 370C in water bath for 15 minutes. Then the tubes were cooled down to room temperature and colour developed was measured at 540nm. A reagent blank and a set of standard (Olive oil) were run simultaneously. The amount of lipids present in the sample was calculated.

Sample Extraction 1 g of sample was taken, homogenized with 1 ml chloroform : methanol mixture. The homogenized solution was left overnight.

Sample analysis 1 ml of chloroform : methanol mixture and 1 ml 0.9% NaCl added to supernatant and left undisturbed for 10 minutes. 2 ml of Conc. Sulphuric acid was added to each test tube, boiled for 20 minutes in a hot water bath, cooled and 5 ml of 2% phosphovanillin is added, allowed to stand for 10 minutes. The colour developed was measured in spectrophotometer (spectronic 20D+) at 540 nm against blank.

Calculation: O.D. of the sample Con. Of lipid in sample (mg) = ------X Con. of the Standard O.D. of the standard

4. RESULTS

4.1 Physico–Chemical parameters of freshwater and treated sewage water culture ponds In the present study, physico–chemical parameters of freshwater and treated sewage water carp Catla catla cultured ponds in pond-I (Assoor) and treated sewage water pond-II (Panjapur) in Tirchirapalli district. Tamilnadu, India were investigated from January 2011 to December 2012 (Table 1 – 4).

4.1.1 Freshwater Fish Culture Pond Temperature Pond – 1 (January 2011 to December 2011) The water temperature fluctuated from 23.83 ± 0.76 to 32.83ºC ± 0.29 in freshwater carp culture pond – I. It was found to be low (23.83ºC ± 0.76) in the month of December 2011 and high (32.83ºC ± 0.29) in May 2011 (Table 1 and Fig. 4).

Pond – 1 (January 2012 to December 2012) The freshwater carp culture pond – I water temperature ranged between 24.5 ± 0.5 to 32.17ºC ± 0.29. The maximum (32.17ºC ± 0.29) range was recorded in the month of June 2012 and minimum (24.5ºC ± 0.5) was recorded in November 2012 (Table 2 and Fig. 5).

Temperature of treated Sewage water pond Pond – II (January 2011 to December 2011) The sewage treated water temperature fluctuated from 21.50 ± 1.11 to 30.17ºC ± 1.17). It was found to be low (21.50ºC ± 1.11) in November 2011 and high (30.17ºC ± 1.17) was recorded in May 2011 (Table 3 and Fig. 4). 60

Fig. 4. Showing the Temperature (0C ) of freshwater and treated sewage water ponds ( January 2011 – December 2011)

Fig. 5. Showing the Temperature (0C ) of freshwater and treated sewage water ponds ( January 2012 – December 2012)

Pond – II (January 2012 to December 2012) The sewage treated water temperature varied between (22.47ºC ± 0.87 to 30.60ºC ± 1.11). The maximum temperature (30.6ºC ± 1.11) was recorded in the month of April 2012 and minimum (22.47ºC ± 0.87) in November 2012 (Table 4 and Fig. 5).

4.1.2 Turbidity of the freshwater fish culture pond Pond – I (January 2011 to December 2011) Turbidity of the freshwater carp culture pond in the culture pond depends on availability of either zooplankton or phytoplankton and suspended soiled particles. The transparency of the freshwater fish culture pond varied from 22.17 ± 0.45 to 50.3cm ± 0.1). It was found to be low (22.17cm) in the month of June 2011 and high (50.3cm) in November 2011 (Table 1 and Fig. 6).

Pond – I (January 2012 to December 2012) The transparency of the freshwater carp culture pond ranged from (28.33 ± 0.35 to 47.23 ± 0.21). It was found to be low (28.33cm) in the month of May 2012 and high (47.23cm) in October 2012 (Table 2 and Fig. 7).

Turbidity of the treated sewage water pond Pond – II (January 2011 to December 2011) Turbidity of the sewage treated water varied between 20.5 ± 0.89 to 35.23 ± 0.65. The maximum turbidity (35.23cm) was recorded in the month of November 2011 and minimum (20.5cm) in May 2011 (Table 3 and Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Showing the Turbidity (cm ) of freshwater and treated sewage water ponds ( January 2011 – December 2011)

Fig. 7. Showing the Turbidity (cm) of freshwater and treated sewage water ponds (January 2012 – December 2012) 63

Pond – II (January 2012 to December 2012) Turbidity of the sewage treated water ranged from (20.93 ± 0.74 to 34.63 ± 1.55). It was found to be low (20.93cm) in the month of May 2012 and high (34.63cm) in November 2012 (Table 4 and Fig. 7).

4.1.3 pH of the freshwater fish culture pond Pond – I (January 2011 to December 2011) pH is another important biological parameter. The pH of the fish culture pond water showed alkaline ranges throughout the study period. It varied from 7.73 ± 0.15 to 8.33 ± 0.6. It was found to be minimum (7.73) in August 2011 and maximum (8.33) in the month of May 2011 (Table 1 and Fig. 8).

Pond – I (January 2012 to December 2012) The pH of the fish culture pond varied between 7.7 ± 0.1 to 8.27 ± 0.06. It was found to be high (8.27) in April 2012 and low (7.7) was recorded in the month of February 2012 (Table 2 and Fig. 9). pH of the treated sewage water water pond Pond – I (January 2011 to December 2011) The pH of the sewage treated water ranged from 7.10 ± 0.06 to 7.80 ± 0.17. It was found to be low (7.10) in January 2011 and high (7.80) was recorded in the month of May 2011 (Table 3 and Fig. 8).

Pond – I (January 2012 to December 2012) The pH of the sewage treated water ranged between 6.33 ± 0.25 to 8.33 ± 0.15. It was found to be low (6.33) in the month of December 2012 and high (8.33) was recorded in June 2012 (Table 4 and Fig. 9).

4.1.4 Dissolved Oxygen content in freshwater fish culture pond Pond – I (January 2011 to December 2011) The dissolved oxygen is important biological factor. The freshwater fish culture of the dissolved oxygen content ranged from 5.17 ± 0.07 to 6.81 ± 0.03. It was found to be low (5.17mg/L) in June 2011 and high (6.81mg/ L) in January 2011 (Table 1 and Fig. 10).

Pond – I (January 2012 to December 2012) The dissolved oxygen content varied between 4.91 ± 0.04 to 6.48 ± 0.06. It was found to be low (4.91mg/ L) in the month of May 2012 and high (6.48mg/ L) in December 2012 (Table 2 and Fig. 11).

Dissolved Oxygen content of the treated sewage water pond Pond – II (January 2011 to December 2011) The dissolved oxygen content of the sewage treated water ranged between 3.95 ± 0.23 to 4.98 ± 0.11. It was found to be low (3.95mg/L) in the month of June 2011 and high (4.98mg/L) in October 2011 (Table 3 and Fig. 10).

Pond – II (January 2012 to December 2012) The dissolved oxygen content ranged from 3.49 ± 0.40 to 5.38 ± 0.24. It was found to be low (3.49mg/L) in May 2012 and high (5.38mg/L) in the month of February 2012 (Table 4 and Fig. 11).

Fig. 8. Showing the pH of freshwater and treated sewage water ponds (January 2011 – December 2011)

Fig. 9. Showing the pH of freshwater and treated sewage water ponds (January 2012 – December 2012) 66

Fig. 10. Showing the Dissolved oxygen (mg/L.) of freshwater and treated sewage water ponds ( January 2011 – December 2011)

Fig. 11. Showing the Dissolved oxygen (mg/L.) of freshwater and treated sewage water ponds ( January 2012 – December 2012)

Fig. 12. Showing the Alkalinity (mg/L ) of freshwater and treated sewage water ponds ( January 2011 – December 2011)

Fig. 13. Showing the Alkalinity (mg/L.) of freshwater and treated sewage water ponds ( January 2012 – December 2012)

4.1.5 Alkalinity Pond – I Freshwater fish culture pond (January 2011 to December 2011) The freshwater carp culture pond of the alkalinity ranged between 80.67 ± 0.58 to 144.67. The maximum alkalinity (144.67mg/L) was recorded in the month of June 2011 and minimum (80.67mg/L) in February 2011 (Table 1 and Fig. 12).

Pond – I (January 2012 to December 2012) The alkalinity of the freshwater carp culture pond varied between 91.33 ± 0.58 to 140.17 ± 0.76. It was found to be low (91.33mg/L) in the month of February 2012 and high (140.17 mg/L) in the month of April 2012 (Table 2 and Fig. 13).

Alkalinity of the treated sewage water ponds Pond – II (January 2011 to December 2011) Alkalinity of the sewage treated water ranged from 111.37 ± 1.00 to 145.80 ± 1.61. It was found to be low (111.37mg/L) in December 2011 and high (145.80mg/L) was recorded in the month of April 2011 (Table 3 and Fig. 12).

Pond – II (January 2012 to December 2012) The alkalinity content ranges between 141.53 ± 1.92 to 166.43 ± 1.30. It was found to be low (141.53mg/L) was recorded in the month of November 2012 and high (166.43mg/L) in June 2012 (Table 4 and Fig. 13).

4.1.6 Chloride content of the freshwater fish culture pond Pond – I (January 2011 to December 2011) The chloride content ranged from9.2 ± 0.1 to 30 ± 0.79. It was found to be high (30mg/L) in the month of August 2011 and low (9.2mg/L) was recorded in December 2011 (Table 1 and Fig. 14).

Fig. 14. Showing the Chloride (mg/L) of freshwater and treated sewage water ponds ( January 2011 – December 2011)

Fig. 15. Showing the Chloride (mg/L) of freshwater and treated sewage water ponds ( January 2012 – December 2012)

Fig. 16. Showing the Nitrate (mg/L) of freshwater and treated sewage water ponds ( January 2011 – December 2011)

Fig. 17. Showing the Nitrate (mg/L) of freshwater and treated sewage water ponds ( January 2012 – December 2012)

Pond – I (January 2012 to December 2012) The chloride content of freshwater fish culture pond ranged between 10.5 ± 0.1 to 29.23 ± 0.42. It was found to be low (10.5mg/L) was recorded in the month of January 2012 and high (29.23mg/L) in May 2012 (Table 2 and Fig. 15).

Chloride content of the treated sewage water pond Pond – II (January 2011 to December 2011) Chloride content of sewage treated water varied from 21.80 ± 0.75 to 72.97 ± 1.68. It was recorded maximum (72.94 mg/L) in the month of May 2011 and minimum (21.80 mg/L) in January 2011 (Table 3 and Fig. 14).

Pond – II (January 2012 to December 2012) The chloride content of sewage treated water fluctuated from 42.80 ± 1.61 to 82.53 ± 0.94. It was found to be low (42.80 mg/L) in the month of December 2012 and high (82.53 mg/L) in July 2012 (Table 4 and Fig.15).

4.1.7 Nitrate content of the freshwater fish culture pond Pond – I (Freshwater fish culture pond water: January 2011 to December 2011) Nitrated content fluctuated from 0.55 ± 0.02 to 1.73 ± 0.05. It was found to be low (0.55 mg/L) in the month of March 2011 and high (1.73 mg/L) in October 2011 (Table 1 and Fig. 16).

Pond – I (January 2012 to December 2012) The nitrate content of the freshwater fish culture pond varied from 0.46 ± 0.03 to 1.58 ± 0.03. It was found to be low (0.46 mg/L) in the month of April 2012 and high (1.58 mg/L) in September 2012 (Table 2 and Fig. 17).

Nitrate content of the treated sewage water pond Pond – II (January 2011 to December 2011) The nitrate content of the sewage treated water fluctuated from 4.73 ± 0.17 to 8.81 ± 0.19. It was found to be low (4.73 mg/L) in the month of June 2011 and high (8.81 mg/L) in December 2011 (Table 3 and Fig. 16). 72

Pond – II (January 2012 to December 2012) The nitrated content ranged between 6.15 ± 0.72 to 9.09 ± 0.19. It was found to be maximum (9.09 mg/L) in the month of October 2012 and minimum (6.15 mg/L) in March 2012 (Table 4 and Fig. 17).

4.1.8 Sulphate content of the freshwater fish culture pond Pond – I (January 2011 to December 2011) Sulphate content of the freshwater fish culture pond fluctuated from 24.03 ± 0.42 to 50.33 ± 0.21. It was found to be low (24.03 mg/L) in the month of December 2011 and high (50.33 mg/L) in April 2011 (Table 1 and Fig. 18).

Pond – I (January 2012 to December 2012) The sulphate content fluctuated from 24.57 ± 0.32 to 55.9 ± 0.89. It was recorded maximum (55.9 mg/L) in the month of May 2012 and minimum (24.57 mg/L) in November 2012 (Table 2 and Fig. 19).

Sulphate content of the treated sewage water pond Pond – II (January 2011 to December 2011) The sulphate content of the sewage treated water varied between 22.87 ± 0.75 to 35.07 ± 1.47. It was found to be low (22.87 mg/L) in the month of February 2011 and high (35.07 mg/L) in April 2011 (Table 3 and Fig. 18).

Pond – II (January 2012 to December 2012) Sulphate content ranged from 23.77 ± 1.03 to 32.63 ± 0.85. It was found to be maximum (32.63 mg/L) in May 2012 and minimum (23.77 mg/L) was recorded in the month of December 2012 (Table 4 and Fig. 19).

4.1.9 BOD (Freshwater fish culture pond) Pond – I January 2011 to December 2011) The freshwater pond biological oxygen demand (BOD) ranged from 1.17 ± 0.06 to 3 ± 0.1. It was found to be low (1.17 mg/L in the month of April 2011 and high (3.00 mg/L) in August 2011 (Table 1 and Fig. 20). 73

Fig. 18. Showing the Sulphate (mg/L) of freshwater and treated sewage water ponds ( January 2011 – December 2011)

Fig. 19. Showing the Sulphate (mg/L) of freshwater and treated sewage water ponds ( January 2012 – December 2012)

Fig. 20. Showing the BOD (mg/L) of freshwater and treated sewage water ponds ( January 2011 – December 2011)

Fig. 21. Showing the BOD (mg/L) of freshwater and treated sewage water ponds ( January 2012 – December 2012)

Fig. 22. Showing the COD (mg/L) of freshwater and treated sewage water ponds ( January 2011 – December 2011)

Fig. 23. Showing the COD (mg/L) of freshwater and treated sewage water ponds ( January 2012 – December 2012)

Pond – I (January 2012 to December 2012) The freshwater fish culture pond BOD ranged from 1.13 ± 0.06 to 0.15. It was found to be low (1.13 mg/L) in the month of May 2012 and high (2.93 mg/L) in January 2012 (Table 2 and Fig. 21).

BOD (treated Sewage Water pond) Pond – II (January 2011 to December 2011) The BOD of the sewage treated water ranged between 5.46 ± 0.29 to 7.61 ± 0.16. It was found to be low (5.46 mg/L) in the month of July 2011 and high (7.61 mg/L) in December 2011 (Table 3 and Fig. 20).

Pond – II (January 2012 to December 2012) BOD of the sewage treated water ranged between 6.24 ± 0.49 ± 8.63 ± 0.81. It was found to be low (6.24 mg/L) in the month of May 2012 and high (8.63 mg/L) in December 2012 (Table 4 and Fig. 21).

4.1.10 COD of Freshwater fish culture pond Pond – I (January 2011 to December 2011) The chemical oxygen demand fluctuated from 20.4 ± 0.26 to 30.4 ± 0.36. It was found to be low (20.4 mg/L) in the month of August 2011 and high (30.4 mg/L) in December 2011 (Table 1 and Fig. 22).

Pond – I (January 2012 to December 2012) Chemical oxygen demand ranged from 20.83 ± 0.45 to 27.83 ± 0.35. It was found to be low (20.83 mg/L) in the month of July 2012 and high (27.83 mg/L in November 2012 (Table 2 and Fig. 23).

COD (treated sewage water pond) Pond – II (January 2011 to December 2011) The chemical oxygen demand of the sewage treated water fluctuated between 48.58 ± 1.06 to 62.52 ± 0.91. It was recorded maximum (62.52 mg/L) in the month of January 2011 and minimum (48.58 mg/L) in April 2011(Table 3 and Fig. 22). 77

Pond – II (January 2012 to December 2012) Chemical oxygen demand ranged from 61.5 ± 1.14 to 81.03 ± 1.68. It was found to be high (81.03 mg/L) in the month of December 2012 and low (61.5 mg/L) in April 2012 (Table 4 and Fig. 23).

4.2 Phytoplankton 4.2.1 Bacillariophyceae The seasonal fluctuation of phytoplankton (Bacillariophyceae) density of carp culture pond and treated sewage water ponds are present in Table. 5. This study was conducted for a period of two years from January 2011 to December 2012.

In the present study 25 species of Bacillariophyceae were recorded from freshwater fish pond (Station – 1) and treated sewage water (Station – II) in different seasons. The phytoplantons of Navicula sp were dominant at both stations. The maximum (335) numbers was recorded during summer in station I & II and minimum (104) density of bacilliariophyceae was recorded during winter at station–I. The monsoon season 230 species was recorded in station–II and 164 species of bacillariophyceae was recorded in station–I.

4.2.2 Cyanophyceae The seasonal fluctuation of cyanophyceae density of freshwater fish culture pond (Station – I) and treated sewage water ponds are present in Table. 6. This study conducted for a period of two years from January 2011 to December 2012.

In the present study, a total 25 species of cyano phyceae were recorded from station – I and station – II during winter, summer and monsoon seasons. The phytoplankton of oscillatoria sp was dominant in both stations.

The maximum numbers of cyanophyceae (366) recorded during summer at station – II and 256 species of phytoplankton were observed during summer in station – I. The minimum density of cyanophyceae (122) was recorded in station – I and 126 species were recorded in station – II during winter. A total 198 species of 78

cyanophyceae was recorded in station – II and 144 species was recorded in station – I during monsoon (Plate I ).

4.2.3 Chlorophyceae The seasonal fluctuation of chlorophyceae density of freshwater fish culture pond (station – I) and treated sewage water (station – II) are present in Table. 7. This study conducted for a period of two years from January 2011 to December 2012.

In the present study, a total 26 species of chlorophyceae were recorded from station – I and station – II during winter, summer and monsoon seasons. The phytoplanktons of Ankistrodesmum sp., Chlorella sp., and Oedogonium sp., were dominant during the study periods in both stations.

The density of chlorophycea, maximum (417) species in station – II and 314 species were recorded station – I during summer. The minimum (120) and (150) species were recorded during winter. A total 261 species of chlorophyeae was recorded in station – II during monsoon and 159 species of cholorophyceae were recorded during monsoon in station – I (Plate II).

Table 5. Bacillariophycae phytoplankton of carp culture pond and treated sewage water pond ( January 2011 – December 2012) Biotic Station – I Freshwater Station – II Sewage water S.No. composition Winter Summer Monsoon Winter Summer Monsoon Asterionella 1 2 7 6 - 9 6 formosa Asterionella 2 5 11 - 5 12 8 glacialis Bacillaria 3 - 10 8 4 11 5 paradoxa Cymbella 4 1 6 4 - 8 7 cymbliformis 5 Cymbella straita 3 12 10 - 14 9 Cyclotella 6 - 11 9 3 13 9 catenata Diatoms 7 11 19 15 12 21 17 moniliformis 8 Diatomsvulgaris 5 11 - - 12 6 Eucampia 9 4 7 5 - 8 3 zoodiacus Fragillaria 10 1 5 3 2 8 - biceps Fragillaria 11 - 9 8 - 11 8 ulnasippen Gomphonema 12 4 14 12 - 9 4 acuminatum Gomphonema 13 5 10 - 5 16 13 clavatum Hantzschia 14 9 17 13 2 11 9 amphioxys Hemiaulus 15 - 10 9 8 19 14 sinensis Leptocylindrus 16 6 11 8 4 12 8 danicus 17 Melosira varians 8 11 - 2 14 11 Navicula 18 6 13 9 3 15 12 henneydii Navicula 19 - 7 4 2 8 5 gregaria 20 Navicula mutica 11 18 15 14 21 19 Pinnularia 21 7 12 - 7 15 12 viridis 22 Pinnularia laevis 7 11 9 -- 14 8 Rhizosolenia 23 - 9 3 - 13 6 alata Stephanodiscus 24 6 15 12 4 20 16 alphinus Triceratium 25 3 9 7 9 21 15 favus Total number of 104 275 164 86 335 230 planktons

Table 6. Cyanophycae phytoplankton of freshwater and treated sewage water ponds ( January 2011 – December 2012) Station – I Freshwater Station – II Sewage water S.No. Biotic composition Winter Summer Monsoon Winter Summer Monsoon 1 Anabaena sp. 10 12 - 4 15 9 2 A. acqunatis - 8 6 - 12 7 3 Aphaenizomenon sp. 7 14 12 9 17 12 Cylindrospermosis 4 5 9 - - 10 4 sp. 5 Crococcus sp. 12 15 11 11 18 9 6 Gloetrichia sp. - 11 8 13 19 11 7 Gorophosphaeria sp. 5 9 7 - 11 5 8 Lyngbya sp. 9 18 16 5 21 17 9 Microcystic sp. 11 12 11 7 16 10 Merismopedia 10 4 7 3 4 12 7 minima Merismopedia 11 - 5 4 - 8 3 punctata 12 Melosira granulate 1 4 3 - 9 6 13 Navicula hustedtii 10 11 - 2 13 4 14 Nostac sp. 2 4 1 - 9 3 15 Oscillatoria gardhii - 14 11 6 23 17 16 Oscillatoria chlorina 9 10 7 9 18 12 17 Oscillatoria formosa 13 14 9 - 21 14 18 Oscillatoria geminata - 12 - 12 19 - 19 Oscillatoria nitida 4 9 6 7 14 9 Phormidium 20 2 7 4 5 9 4 ambigum Phormidium 21 1 5 3 4 8 - foveolarum 22 Phormidium tenue - 16 12 13 21 17 23 Spirulina major 7 11 - - 15 11 Synechococcus 24 6 9 4 7 12 9 crassa 25 Ulothrix sp. 4 5 2 8 16 - Total number of 122 256 140 126 366 198 planktons 81

Table 7. Chlorophycae phytoplankton of freshwater and sewage treated water ponds (January 2011 – December 2012)

Biotic S.No. Station – I Freshwater Station – II Sewage water composition Winter Summer Monsoon Winter Summer Monsoon Acanthosphaera 1 8 14 - 7 18 12 fluviatile Ankistrodesmus 2 3 11 9 - 13 9 fusiformis Ankistrodesmus 3 - 16 9 10 21 17 gracilis Ankistrodesmus 4 4 12 10 5 15 9 flacatus 5 Cosmarium sp. 11 23 14 6 28 21 Chlorella 6 9 11 - - 14 11 vulgaris Closterium 7 - 3 22 3 9 6 aciculare Cosmarium 8 - 12 8 5 16 12 pachydermum Dictyosphaerium 9 2 5 - 4 8 4 pulchellum 10 Eudorina elegans 5 19 4 - 22 17 Golenkinia 11 8 11 - 7 16 13 radiata 12 Gonium pectorale 7 18 12 9 20 16 Kirchneriella 13 1 4 2 - 7 2 contorta Kirchneriella 14 - 5 3 6 13 9 obesa Lagerheina 15 1 5 2 - 7 2 balatonica Lagerheina 16 9 10 - 8 19 12 ciliata Micractinium 17 - 7 3 - 8 2 pusillum Monoraphidium 18 - 12 6 8 14 11 griffithii Oedogonium 19 13 24 18 21 29 25 striatum Oedogonium 20 5 10 6 - 12 9 oblongellum Oedogonium 21 13 24 17 18 27 24 anomalum 22 Pediastrum sp. 7 13 10 11 15 - Pediastrum 23 - 21 17 9 23 - duplex 24 Scenedesmus sp. - 27 2 - 8 - Schroederia 25 17 20 - 9 22 17 indica 26 Volvax sp. 3 12 5 7 13 - Total number of 120 314 159 150 417 261 planktons 82

Table 8a. Zooplankton of freshwater and treated sewage water ponds (January 2011 – December 2012) Biotic Station – I Freshwater Station – II Sewage water S.No. composition Winter Summer Monsoon Winter Summer Monsoon Protozoa 1 Ceratium fusus 4 28 19 12 33 22 Paramecium 9 21 12 - 29 17 2 bursaria Verticella 6 13 - 4 24 15 3 microstoma Rotifera Asplanchna 15 31 27 8 39 32 4 bright welli Asplanchna 13 25 15 5 31 24 5 priodonta Brachionus 7 28 12 - 37 21 6 durgae Brachionus 18 32 25 11 39 18 7 angularis Brachionus 7 11 - - 16 12 8 diversicornis Brachionus 3 8 - - 14 8 9 clayciflorus Brachionus 16 26 21 12 35 25 10 pallas Cephalodella 6 15 8 - 25 13 11 gibba Euchianis 3 4 - - 8 6 12 dilatata 13 Filinia bory 1 3 - - 9 5 14 Rotaria rotatoria 2 9 4 3 12 8 15 Keratella vulga 9 21 11 - 24 13 Keratella 5 10 4 - 19 9 16 cochlaeris Trichocerca 4 7 - - 11 8 17 stylata 83

Table 8b. Zooplankton of freshwater and treated sewage water ponds (January 2011 – December 2011) Station – I Freshwater Station – II Sewage water S.No. Biotic composition Winter Summer Monsoon Winter Summer Monsoon Cladocerans 18 Alona intermedia 18 28 23 14 39 31 19 Alona pulchella 17 32 26 12 36 26 Bosmina 1 3 - - 12 5 20 longirostris Ceriodaphnia 3 7 -- 7 28 15 21 cornuta 22 Daphnia carinata 1 12 7 4 21 13 23 Nauplius sp. 2 6 4 2 15 9 24 Monia micrura 1 4 - - 19 7 25 Veliger sp. 3 6 - 6 20 11 Copepods 26 Cyclops sternous 9 22 17 12 29 16 27 Diaptomus edax 12 27 22 21 35 27 Heliodiaptomus 15 36 31 26 42 35 28 viduus Ostracods Cyclocypris 6 29 23 14 35 23 29 globosa 30 Cypris subglobosa - 24 17 9 31 26 Nekton 31 Notonecta glauca 1 5 - - 12 9 Bivalvia - 4 2 - 9 4 Dreissena - 4 2 - 9 4 32 polymorpha Total number of planktons 235 537 330 172 788 513 (Table 8a and 8 b)

4.2.4 Zooplankton The qualitative and quantitative analysis of zooplankton contents showed the presence of 32 taxa from seven groups. The result of the analysis of zoo plankton is given in Table. 8. This study conducted in different seasons for a period of two years from January 2011 to December 2012.

In the present study, about 32 species of zooplanktons belonging to seven major groups namely protozoa, rotifers, cladocerans, copepods, ostracods, nekton and bivalvia. Out of which 3 species of protozoa, 14 species of rotifers, 8 species of cladocerans, 3 species of copepods, 2 species of ostracods, one species of nekton and one species of bivalivia were identified and recorded in Table 8a, 8b & Plate IV. Among the zooplankton rotifers and cladocerans were dominant group than the other group of zooplankton.

The quantitative study maximum 788 species of zooplankton were recorded during summer from sewage treated water fish culture pond station – II and 537 species were recorded in station – I during summer. The minimum numbers of zooplankton (172) was recorded in winter station – I and maximum 235 species were recorded in station – II during winter. In the present study 513 species of zooplankton was recorded in station – II and 330 species was recorded in station – II during monsoon season (Plate III).

4.3. Morphometric measurement of freshwater and sewage water treated ponds carps Catla catla The length weight relationship and condition factor for Catla catla was calculated as Table. 9. The length weight relationship in fishes was considered a parameter to predict and evaluate the degree of fish health and condition conductive for its growth. Fish weight may be considered as a function of the length. This relationship of length and weight follows approximately the cube law relationship expressed by the formula, K = W/L3 in which „W‟ is symbol for weight (g) and „L‟ is the symbol for the length condition factor were calculated by using the formula K = (W x 100) / (TL)3. The different length group of fish Catla catla were collected from 85

freshwater fish culture pond (Station–I) and sewage treated water (Station–II) during January 2011 to December 2011.

4.3.1 Total length Station – I The initial and final total length of carp Catla catla values were recorded as 10.4, 13.6, 15.2, 16.8, 19.1, 22.3, 25.6 and 27.9, 31.7, 34.8, 38.4 and 40.5cm during January 2011 to December 2011 and minimum length was recorded in the month of January 2011 (Table 9 and Fig. 24)..

Station – II The initial and final length of Catla catla values were recorded as 11.1, 14.7, 16.4, 20.5, 23.3, 27.1, 30.6, 33.2, 36.3, 39.2 and 42.4 during January 2011 to December 2011. The maximum total length (42.4cm) was recorded in the month of December 2011 and minimum total length (11.3cm) was recorded in the month of January 2011 (Table 9 and Fig. 24).

4.3.2 Total Weight Station – I The initial and final total weight of Catla catla values were recorded as 75, 163, 321, 410, 552, 690, 803, 953, 1136, 1384, 1567 and 1738gm during the period from January 2011 to December 2011. The maximum total weight (1738gm) was recorded in the month of December 2011 and minimum total weight (75gm) was recorded in the month of January 2011 (Table 9 and Fig. 25).

Station – II The initial and final total weight of Catla catla was recorded as 80, 170, 355, 475, 603, 748, 885, 1053, 1226, 1514, 1735 and 1914 gm during the period from January 2011 to December 2011. The maximum total weight (1735gm) was recorded in the month of December 2011 and minimum total weight (80gm) was recorded in the month of January 2011 (Table 9 and Fig. 25).

4.3.3 Condition Factor Station – I For the Catla catla the total values of condition factor was noted as 6.67, 6.48, 9.14, 8.64, 7.92, 6.22, 4.79, 4.39, 3.57, 3.287, 2.77 and 2.62 (K)g/cm3, during the period from January 2011 to December 2011. The highest value of condition factor was found to be 9.14 (K) g/cm3 during the month of March 2011 and minimum (2.77 (K) g/cm3) was recorded in the month of December 2011 (Table. 9).

Station – II For the Catla catla the total values of condition factor was noted as 5.54, 5.35, 8.05, 7.99, 6.99, 5.91, 4.45, 3.68, 3.35, 3.17, 2.88 and 2.51 (K) g/cm3 during the period of January 2011 to December 2011. The highest value of condition during the month of March 2011 and minimum (2.51 (K) g/cm3) was recorded in the month of December 2011 (Table. 9).

4.3.4 Correlation co-efficient between the physico-chemical parameters of freshwater and length, weight of the freshwater carp Catla catla . The negative correlation are observed between temperature and total weight of fish Catla catla (r = -0.500 > 0.05) significant at 0.05 level. Turbidity and total weight of fish catla catla was not significant. The negative correlations are observed between chloride, sulphate and total weight of fish Catla catla were not significant. The positive correlations were observed between pH, DO, Alkalinity, Nitrate, BOD, COD and total weight of fish Catla catla was not significant (Table 10).

The negative correlation are observed between temperature and total length of carp Catla catla (r = -0.486 > 0.05) significant at 0.05 level. The negative correlation are observed between turbidity, chloride, sulphate and total length of carp Catla catla were not significant. The positive correlations were observed between pH, DO, Alkalinity, Nitrate, BOD, COD and total weight of carp Catla catla was not significant (Table 10).

4.3.5 Correlation co-efficient between the physico-chemical parameters of treated sewage water and length, weight of the treated sewage water carp Catla catla . The negative correlation are observed between temperature and total weight of carp Catla catla (r = -0.820 > 0.01) significant at 0.01 level. Alkalinity and total weight of carp Catla catla was observed (r = -0.581 > 0.05) significant at 0.05 level. The negative correlation are observed between pH, chloride, sulphate and total weight of carp Catla catla were not significant. The positive correlations were observed between Dissolved oxygen and total weight of carp Catla catla (r = 0.765 > 0.05) significant at 0.05 level. The positive correlations were observed between Turbidity, Nitrate, BOD, COD and total weight of fish Catla catla was not significant (Table 11).

The negative correlation are observed between temperature and total length of carp Catla catla (r = -0.849 > 0.01) significant at 0.01 level. Alkalinity and total length of carp Catla catla were observed (r = -0.550 > 0.05) significant at 0.05 level. The negative correlations are observed between pH Chloride, Sulphate, COD and total length of carp Catla catla were not significant. The positive correlations were observed between Dissolved oxygen and total weight of carp Catla catla (r = 0.782 > 0.05) significant at 0.05 level. The positive correlations were observed between Turbidity, Nitrate, BOD, and total weight of carp Catla catla was not significant (Table 11).

Table 9. Showing the morphometric measurement of freshwater (Assoor) and treated sewage water ponds (Panjapur, Trichy) carp Catla catla ( January 2011 – December 2011)

Station - I Station - II Months Condition Condition & Year Weight Length Weight Length factor (K) factor (K) (G) (cm) (G) (cm) 3 3 g/cm g/cm

Jan-11 75 10.4 6.67 80 11.3 5.54

Feb-11 163 13.6 6.48 170 14.7 5.35

Mar-11 321 15.2 9.14 355 16.4 8.05

Apr-11 410 16.8 8.64 475 17.8 7.99

May-11 552 19.1 7.92 603 20.5 6.99

Jun-11 690 22.3 6.22 748 23.3 5.91

Jul-11 803 25.6 4.79 885 27.1 4.45

Aug-11 953 27.9 4.39 1053 30.6 3.68

Sep-11 1136 31.7 3.57 1226 33.2 3.35

Oct-11 1384 34.8 3.28 1514 36.3 3.17

Nov-11 1567 38.4 2.77 1735 39.2 2.88

Dec-11 1738 40.5 2.62 1914 42.4 2.51

Fig. 24. Showing the Length (cm) of freshwater and treated sewage water ponds carps Catla catla (January 2011 to December 2011)

Fig. 25. Showing the weight (G) of freshwater and treated sewage water ponds carps Catla catla (January 2011 to December 2011) 90

4.4. BIOCHEMICAL COMPOSITION 4.4.1 Protein Station – I In the present study, the protein content of were analyzed from freshwater carp Catla catla are present in Table 12. The protein values were noted in 10, 20, 30 and 40 days.

The protein content was measured from different tissues (muscle, intestine and gills) of carp Catla catla. The maximum amount of protein (20.79mg/g) was recorded in muscle tissue for a period of 20 days and minimum protein content (8.41mg/g) was recorded in gill tissue of Catla for a period of 10 days (Fig. 26).

In the present study, the protein values 18.63 ± 0.79, 17.26 ± 0.75, 18.70 ± 0.52 (mg/g) was recorded in muscle tissue of Catla catla for a period from 10, 30 and 40 days (Fig. 26). The protein content 12.69 ± 0.48, 13.68 ± 0.42, 13.17 ± 0.91 and 12.48 ± 0.64 (mg/g) was observed in the tissue of intestine for a period of 10, 20, 30 and 40 days (Fig. 27). The protein content 9.27 ± 0.75, 9.85 ± 0.49, 10.73 ± 0.59 was recorded in gill tissue of Catla catla, for a period from 20, 30 and 40 days (Fig. 28).

Station – II (Treated Sewage water) In the present study, the protein content were analyzed from different tissues of carp Catla catla in sewage treated water culture pond for a period of 10, 20, 30 and 40 days. The results are present in Table 12.

The protein value ranged between 12.28 to 26.21mg/g. The maximum amount of protein (26.21mg/g) was recorded in muscle tissue of Catla catla for a period of 30 days. The minimum amount of protein (12.26 mg/g) was observed in gill tissue of Catla catla for a period of 20 days (Table 12). 91

Table 12: Showing the protein content (mg/g) in tissues of fresh water culture pond fish and treated sewage water culture fish Catla catla (Means ± SD )

Days Station -I Freshwater culture fish Station –II Sewage water fish Muscles Intestine Gill Muscles Intestine Gill

18.63 ± 0.79 12.69 ± 0.48 8.41 ± 0.84 23.49 ± 0.27 13.96 ± 0.30 12.28 ± 0.23 10 days

20.79 ± 1.25 13.68 ± 0.42 9.27 ± 0.75 23.95 ± 0.38 14.94 ± 0.46 12.26 ± 0.27 20 days

17.26 ± 0.75 13.17 ± 0.91 9.85 ± 0.49 26.21 ± 0.66 14.71 ± 0.44 12.92 ± 0.16 30 days

18.70 ± 0.52 12.48 ± 0.64 10.73 ± 0.59 22.32 ± 0.78 15.12 ± 0.17 13.67 ± 0.14 40 days

Table 13: Showing the carbohydrate content (mg/g) in tissues of fresh water culture pond fish and treated sewage water culture fish Catla catla (Means ± SD )

Days Station -I Freshwater culture fish Station –II Sewage water fish Muscles Intestine Gill Muscles Intestine Gill

2.24 ± 0.47 1.51 ± 0.36 1.11 ± 0.17 2.65 ± 0.22 2.19 ± 0.09 1.47 ± 0.18 10 days

2.65 ± 0.26 1.59 ± 0.27 1.34 ± 0.20 2.62 ± 0.22 2.42 ± 0.19 1.63 ± 0.20 20 days

2.46 ± 0.49 1.62 ± 0.28 1.40 ± 0.26 2.70 ± 0.24 2.56 ± 0.07 1.66 ± 0.28 30 days

2.18 ± 0.59 1.71 ± 0.35 1.48 ± 0.42 2.73 ± 0.19 2.37 ± 0.19 1.59 ± 0.12 40 days

Table 14. Showing the Lipid content (mg/g) in tissues of fresh water culture pond fish and treated sewage water culture fish Catla catla (Means ± SD ) Station -I Freshwater culture fish Station –II Sewage water fish Days Muscles Intestine Gill Muscles Intestine Gill

0.26 ± 0.20 0.16 ± 0.04 0.04 ± 0.01 0.68 ± 0.14 0.23 ± 0.05 0.13 ± 0.02 10 days

0.45 ± 0.05 0.27 ± 0.07 0.08 ± 0.01 0.74 ± 0.18 0.32 ± 0.07 0.20 ± 0.04 20 days

0.42 ± 0.25 0.29 ± 0.13 0.08 ± 0.02 0.49 ± 0.18 0.35 ± 0.08 0.27 ± 0.04 30 days

0.33 ± 0.24 0.25 ± 0.09 0.08 ± 0.01 0.72 ± 0.14 0.31 ± 0.11 0.31 ± 0.06 40 days

Fig. 26. Showing the protein content of muscles (mg/g) in tissues of freshwater and treated sewage water fish Catla catla.

Fig. 27. Showing the protein content of intestine (mg/g) in tissues of freshwater and treated sewage water fish Catla catla.

Fig. 28. Showing the protein content of gill (mg/g) in tissues of freshwater and treated sewage water fish Catla catla

Fig. 29. Showing the carbohydrate content of muscles (mg/g) in tissues of freshwater and treated Sewage water fish Catla catla.

Fig. 30. Showing the carbohydrate content of intestine (mg/g) in tissues of freshwater and Sewage treated water fish Catla catla. 95

Fig. 31. Showing the carbohydrate content of gill (mg/g) in tissues of freshwater and treated sewage water fish Catla catla.

Fig. 32. Showing the lipid content of muscles (mg/g) in tissues of freshwater and treated sewage water fish Catla catla. 96

Fig. 33. Showing the lipid content of intestine (mg/g) in tissues of freshwater and treated sewage water fish Catla catla.

Fig. 34. Showing the lipid content of gills (mg/g) in tissues of freshwater and treated sewage water fish Catla catla 97

In the present study, the protein values 23.49 ± 0.27, 23.95 ± 0.38, 22.32 ± 0.78 was recorded in muscle tissue of Catla catla for a period of 10, 20 and 40 days (Fig. 26). The intestinal protein value 13.96 ± 0.30, 14.94 ± 0.46, 14.71 ± 0.44, 15.12 ± 0.17 (mg/g) were recorded for a period of 10, 20, 30 and 40 days in Catla catla (Fig. 27). The gill protein content 12.28 ± 0.23, 12.92 ± 0.16, 13.67 ± 0.14 was recorded in sewage treated water culture fish Catla catla for a period of 10, 30 and 40 days (Fig. 28).

4.4.2 Carbohydrate Station – I (Freshwater carp fish Catla catla) Carbohydrate content was analyzed from freshwater carp Catla catla. The results are present in a period from 10, 20, 30 and 40 days (Table 13).

In the present study, carbohydrate values ranged between 1.11 to 2.65 mg/g. The maximum carbohydrate (2.65mg/g) was recorded in muscle tissue of Catla catla during the period from 20 days. The minimum carbohydrate content (1.11mg/g) was recorded in gill tissue of Catla catla during the period of 10 days.

The muscle carbohydrate content 2.24 ± 0.47, 2.46 ± 0.49, 2.18 ± 0.59 (mg/g) were observed from fresh water carp Catla catla during the period of 10, 30 and 40 days (Fig. 29). The intestinal carbohydrate content 1.51 ± 0.36, 1.59 ± 0.27, 1.62 ± 0.28, 1.71 ± 0.35 was recorded in carp Catla catla during the period from 10, 20, 30 and 40 days (Fig. 30). The gill carbohydrate content 1.34 ± 0.20, 1.40 ± 0.26, 1.48 ± 0.42 (mg/g) were recorded in carp Catla catla during 20, 30 and 40 days (Fig. 31).

Station – II (Treated sewage water carp Catla catla) The carbohydrate amounts were recorded from sewage treated water carp Catla catla in different tissues of muscle, intestine and gills for a period of 10, 20, 30 and 40 days. These results were present in Table 13.

In the present study, the carbohydrate amount 2.65 ± 0.22, 2.62 ± 0.22, 2.70 ± 0.24, 2.73 ± 0.19 in muscle tissues (Fig. 29), the intestinal carbohydrate content range 98

from 2.19 ± 0.09, 2.42 ± 0.19, 2.56 ± 0.07, 2.37 ± 0.19 (Fig. 30), the gill carbohydrate ranged from 1.47 ± 0.18, 1.63 ± 0.20, 1.66 ± 0.28 and 1.59 ± 0.12 mg/g were recorded from treated sewage water carp Catla catla during the periods of 10, 20, 30 and 40 days (Table. 13 and Fig. 31).

The maximum amount of carbohydrate content (2.73 ± 0.19 mg/g) was recorded in muscle tissue of carp Catla catla for a period of 40 days the minimum amount of carbohydrate (1.47mg/g) was recorded in gill tissue of Catla catla, during the period of 10 days.

4.4.3 Lipid Station – I (Freshwater carp Catla catla) Lipid values were measured from freshwater fish Catla catla in different tissues (muscle, intestine and gills), during the period of 10, 20, 30 and 40 days. These results are present in Table 14.

In the present study the lipid level 0.26 ± 0.20, 0.45 ± 0.05, 0.42 ± 0.25, 0.33 ± 0.24 mg/g were recorded in muscle tissue (Fig. 32), the intestinal lipid values 0.16 ± 0.04, 0.27 ± 0.07, 0.29 ± 0.13, 0.25 ± 0.09 mg/g were recorded in carp Catla catla (Fig. 33), the gill lipid level 0.04 ± 0.01, 0.08 ± 0.01, 0.08 ± 0.02, 0.05 ± 0.01 were recorded in Catla catla during the period of 10, 20, 30 and 40 days (Fig. 34).

The maximum value of lipid (0.45 mg/g) was recorded in muscle tissue, during the period of 20 days and the minimum lipid value (0.04 ± 0.01) was recorded in gill tissue of carp Catla catla during the period from 10 days.

Station – II (Treated sewage water carp Catla catla) The lipid content were analysed from sewage treated water carp Catla catla in muscle intestine and gill tissues during the period of 10, 20, 30 and 40 days (Table 14).

In the present study, lipid values 0.68 ± 0.14, 0.74 ± 0.18, 0.49 ± 0.18, 0.72 ± 0.14 mg/g were observed from muscle tissue (Fig. 32), the intestinal lipid values 0.23 ± 0.05, 0.32 ± 0.07, 0.35 ± 0.08, 0.31 ± 0.11 mg/g was recorded in carp Catla catla (Fig. 33). The gill tissue of lipid values 0.13 ± 0.02, 0.20 ± 0.04, 0.27 ± 0.04, 0.31 ± 0.06 mg/g were recorded in treated sewage water carp Catla catla during the period of 10, 20, 30 and 40 days (Table 14 and Fig. 34).

The maximum level of lipid content (0.74mg/g) was recorded in muscle tissue of carp Catla catla, during the period of 20 days and the minimum level of lipid content (0.13mg/g) was recorded in gill tissue of Catla catla for a period of 10 days (Fig. 32).

100

5. DISCUSSION

In the present study, physico–chemical parameters such as temperature, pH, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, chloride, nitrate, sulphate, BOD and COD of the freshwater and sewage treated water of the fish culture pond showed significant fluctuation. The various physico–chemical parameters of the fish culture pond are mainly controlled by rainfall, humidity, direction of wind etc. The study period was conducted during January 2011 to December 2012.

Temperature is defined as the degree of hotness or coldness in the body of a living organism either in water (or) on land. As fish is a cold blooded animal, its body temperature changes according to that of environment affecting its metabolism changes according to that of environment affecting its metabolism and physiology and ultimately affecting the production. Higher temperature increases the rate of bio chemical activity of the microbita, plant respiratory rate and so increase in oxygen demand. It further cause decreased solubility of oxygen and also increased level of ammonia in water (Boyd, 1982). In the present study, the temperature ranges was recorded maximum in May 2011 at freshwater fish culture pond (Station–I) and minimum was recorded in November 2012 at sewage treated fish culture pond (Station–II). Temperature of water may not be important in pure water because of the wide range of temperatures tolerance in aquatic life, but in polluted water temperature can have profound effects on dissolved oxygen (DO) and biological oxygen demand (BOD) (Kesalkar et al., 2012).

The physico-chemical factors levels were low and high range during the study period, at the same time carp culture ponds physico-chemical parameters level were slightly fluctuated throughout the study period. A good water quality is essential for any aquaculture operation. Similar observations were reported by many earlier workers have been a number of attempts at correlating the fish yields with limnological factors influencing the productivity of water bodies (Rawson, 1955; 101

Garg and Bhatnagar, 1999). Effect of seasonal variations on physico-chemical parameters of the Zaidi fish farm was reported by Ali et al (1984).

Increase in temperature increases metabolism and there by growth, but as the temperature increases the demand for oxygen also increases. At higher temperatures, the demand for oxygen increases to such an extent that physiological capacity of carp fails to meet the demand. The capacity of water to hold oxygen also decreases with increase in temperature. At high temperature carp remain stationary at bottom. If the condition continues, carps get infected and swim disorientedly to the surface or die due to exhaustion. The decreases in temperature reduces metabolism and there by growth and feed consumption. The present study was similar to the report of earlier workers Das and Bhuiyan (1974).

Turbidity is the important factor that showed is maintained in the aquaculture pond. Turbidity is caused by the suspended particle in water brought about both biotic and abiotic factors. In the present study, turbidity were showed maximum in October 2012 at station–I freshwater fish culture pond and the minimum turbidity was recorded in May 2011 at station–II sewage treated water pond. The results of the present study agreed earlier observations Srivastava, et al. 2003; Cairns and Dickson, 1971; Munnawar, 1970. The excessive turbidity in water causes problems with water purification processes such as flocculation and filtration, which may increase treatment cost, elevated turbid water is often associated with the possibility of micro– biological contamination as high turbidity makes it difficult to disinfect water properly (Malariya and Rathore, 2007). Turbidity in water is caused by suspended and colloidal matter such as clay, silt, finely divided organic and inorganic matter, plankton and other microscopic organism.

limnological factors influencing the productivity of water bodies (Rawson, 1955; Garg and Bhatnagar, 1999). Effect of seasonal variations on physico-chemical parameters of the Zaidi fish farm was reported by Ali et al., (1984).

pH is an important factor that determines the suitability of water for various purposes including toxicity to aquatic organisms. In the present study, the pH was recorded maximum in May 2011 at station–I freshwater fish culture pond and minimum pH was recorded in December 2012 at station–II sewage treated fish culture pond. In general the pH values are alkaline in all stations and are close to the permissible limits. The pH changes may be due to the variation in photo synthetic activities of aquatic organisms which increases due to consumption of dissolved CO2 process (Begum and Harikrishna, 2008).

Low value of pH is due to the metabolism of fungus and also metabolic production of acids by indigenous micro flora (Khan et al., 2011). The alkaline pH of water, having pH value of 7 to 7.9 is optimum for many aquatic organisms. pH below 5.0 and above 9.0 is lethal to fishes. Many of the chemical and biological activities in the pond and controlled by the level of pH. The maintenance of pH was promoting the growth of the aquatic organisms. The present study is in agreement with earlier workers (Khan et al., 1978; Thompson et al., 2002).

Water having pH value 7.0 to 8.0 is optimum in carp culture pond. The pH below 5.0 and above 9 is lethal to carps. Many of the chemical and biological activities in the pond are controlled by the level of pH. Ammonia hazard is high at alkaline pH. Acid pH is due to the chemical nature of the soil and water. It can be controlled by water replacement or adding liming. The value of pH remained in the range of 7.0-8.5 which was considered best for all fish species (Afzal et al., 2008). According to Rahman, (1992) reported that the range of pH of a suitable water body for fish culture would be 6.5 to 8.5. The present study is a similar range was obtained lowest pH value was found during winter due to heavy rainfall and dilution effect by Shiddamallayya and Pratima, (2008).

103

Dissolved oxygen is one of the most important parameter less amount of dissolved oxygen was recorded during the monsoon and the highest in the summer season due to increased photo synthetic activity in the water body (Shiddamallayya and Pratima, 2008). The high DO in summer is due to increase in temperature and duration of bright sunlight has influence on the % of soluble gases (O2 and CO2). During summer the long days and intense sunlight seem to accelerate photosynthesis by phytoplankton, utilizing CO2 and giving off oxygen. This possibility accounts for the greater qualities of O2 recorded during summer (Patil et al., 2012). In the present study, the dissolved oxygen content was recorded maximum in January 2011 at station–I (freshwater fish culture pond) and minimum DO content was recorded in the month of May 2012 at station–II (sewage treated fish culture pond).

Oxygen distribution in water bodies is important as it is the direct need of many aquatic organisms and it favours the solubility and availability of many nutrients to the organisms and therefore increases the productivity of the aquatic ecosystem. Air contains 2% of oxygen. Oxygen from air diffuses to water until its pressure in air and water are equal. Solubility of oxygen is increases with increasing pressure, decreases with increasing temperature and decreases with increasing salinity. High density of stocking, feeding and manuring lead to dissolved oxygen depletion. Eventhough rainwater contains plenty of dissolved oxygen continuous cloudy days prevent photosynthesis which results in dissolved oxygen depletion; continuous wind supplies plenty of oxygen to water.

Dissolved oxygen (DO) plays an important role in aquatic environment and is essential for growth of phytoplankton and fish productivity. The inhabitant organisms are affected greatly due the diurnal and seasonal variation in the dissolved oxygen of the ambient water was reported (Kiran, 2010). Dissolved oxygen was one of the most reliable parameters in assessing the trophic status and the magnitude of eutrophication in an aquatic ecosystem was reported (Edmondson, 1966). Its concentration was generally low and ranged from 2.5 mg/L to 6.05 mg/L. The lowest value was recorded during summer and highest value during winter (Sankar Narayan Sinha and Mrinal Biswas, 2011). The WHO (2004) reported that the amount of dissolved oxygen in 104

water depends on the source, temperature, chemical and biological process taking place in the water body. However, water with high dissolved oxygen usually had greater biotic community as observed in pond. The dissolved oxygen values showed a general increasing trend during monsoon periods was reported (Sarma et al., 2002).

Alkalinity is the water ability to changes in pH and is a measure of the total concentration of bases in pond water including carbonate, bicarbonate, hydroxides, phosphates and other compounds in the water. It is composed primarily of carbonate and bicarbonate, alkalinity acts as a stabilizer for pH. Alkalinity affects the toxicity of many substances in the water. Lime leaching out of concrete ponds or calcareous rocks, photo synthesis, denitrification and sulphate reduction is mainly responsible for increasing alkalinity while respiration, nitrification and sulphide oxidation decrease or consume alkalinity and to a lesser degree it increases due to evaporation and decomposing organic matter. But if the alkalinity is low, it indicates that even a small amount of acid can cause a large in our pH (Mitra and Bhattacharya, 1965).

In the present study alkalinity ranges were showed maximum in June 2012 at station–II (sewage treated water) and the alkalinity, minimum were showed in February 2011 at station–I (freshwater fish culture pond). Similar trends reported by (Trivedy and Goel, 1984).

Chloride is the most common inorganic anion present in water. Man and animals excrete high quantities of chloride, therefore, it indicate sewage of chloride (Zhou and Smith, 2002). In the present study, chloride content maximum was recorded in July 2012 at station–II (sewage treated fish culture pond) and minimum range of alkalinity was recorded in December 2011 at station–I (freshwater fish culture pond). Increase dilution may be responsible for relative lower values in rainy seasons (Gupta et al., 2003). Chloride is a common component of most waters and is useful to fish in maintaining their osmotic balance, chloride is the same element found in the form of a salt and chlorine is a gas which is added in water as a disinfectant to control harmful bacteria, both have dramatically different chemical properties. Chloride occur in all natural water is widely varying concentrations. The chloride 105

content normally increases as the mineral content increases (Poonkothai and Parvatham, 2005).

The nitrate is contributed from fertilizers in used agricultural fields near the river region which seeps in to the ground water. Nitrates are the most oxidized forms of nitrogen and the end product of the aerobic decomposition of organic nitrogenous matter. The increasing nitrates level was due to the freshwater in flow, litter fall decomposition and terrestrial runoff water during the monsoon seasons (Mathivanan et al., 2008).

In the present study, the nitrate content values were recorded maximum in the month of October 2012 at station–II in sewage water fish culture pond and minimum nitrate content values were recorded in the month of April 2012 at station–I (freshwater fish culture pond). Similar trend was earlier observations (Extence et al., 1987). Nitrate is one of the important nutrients in fish culture ponds and is the common form of nitrogen in natural water. Nitrate is oxidized to nitrate after entering an aerobic regime. Similarly, plants and micro organisms reduce nitrate into nitrite but nutrition is quickly oxidized back to nitrate once in reenters the water. The observed high monsoonal phosphate value might be due to the regeneration and release of total phosphorus from bottom solid into the water column by turbulence and mixing (Khaiwal et al., 2003).

Nitrate is the highest oxidized form of nitrogen. Nitrate represents the highest oxidized form of nitrogen. The most important source of nitrate is biological oxidation of organic nitrogenous substances produced indigenously in water. The carp culture pond water and soil contains present in the nitrogenous compounds. Atmospheric nitrogen were fixed into nitrates by the nitrogen fixing organisms is also significant contributor to nitrates in the waters.

According to Sankar Narayan Sinha and Mrinal Biswas, (2011) was reported the nitrate content of lake water fluctuated between 0.80 and 1.82 mg/L with the mean value of 1.14 mg/L. The maximum and minimum concentrations were recorded 106

during September and November respectively. The higher nitrate-nitrogen (N03-N) concentration during the rainy season could be due to surface run-offs as well as the decomposition of organic matter. Ufodike et al., (2001), made similar observations for Dokowa Mine Lake. Kennedy and Hain (2002), was reported that nitrate-nitrogen increase with surface run-off and at deeper depths. According to Comin et al., (1983), stated that high value of nitrate concentrations in lake is related to inputs from agricultural lands. Nitrate commonly results from the decomposition of ammonia, which is a component of excretory product. Although nitrates are not as toxic as ammonia or nitrites, they must be monitored to avoid stressing of fish. High amount of nitrates are generally indicative of pollution by the earlier observers (Alabaster and Lloyd, 1980) also noted.

Excess sulphate levels may have a laxative effect on new users and produce an objectionable taste. Regular users tend to become accustomed to high sulphate levels. High concentrations of sulphate in aquatic systems have following effects. Water containing appreciable amounts of sulphate tends to form hard scales in boilers and heat exchanges, sulphate cause with excessive intake. The laxative effect of sulphate is usually noted in transient users of a water supply because people who are accustomed to high sulphate levels in freshwater have no adverse response.

The present study the sulphate content maximum was recorded in May 2012 at freshwater fish culture pond (station–II) and minimum sulphate content was recorded in the month of February 2011 at sewage treated fish culture pond (station–I). The present work agrees earlier workers (Riordan, et al., 1983; Saravanakumar and Ranjithkumar, 2011).

Biological oxygen demand is the measure of the oxygen required by microorganisms while breaking down organic matter. BOD is considered as essential and important parameters to decide about the quality of the freshwater (Kandhasamy and Santhaguru, 1994). In the present study BOD ranges maximum was recorded in the month of December 2012 at sewage treated fish culture pond (station–II) and minimum level of BOD was recorded in the month of May 2012 at freshwater fish 107

culture pond (station–II). Biodegradation of organic material exerts oxygen tension in the water and indicates the bio chemical oxygen demand (Sreenivasan and Sounderaraj, 1967).

Chemical oxygen demand is the measure of amount of oxygen required to breakdown both organic and inorganic matters. High COD levels indicate toxic state of the waste water along with the presence of biologically resistant organic substances (Dilek and Gokcay, 1994). In the present study, COD level maximum was recorded in December 2012 at sewage treated water (station–II) and minimum COD level was recorded in the month of August 2011 at freshwater fish culture pond (station–I). The higher level of COD was observed from sewage treated water than that of freshwater fish culture pond during the study period. Similar trend was earlier reported by (Akhan, 2008). COD are commonly used in waste water treatment but rarely in general water treatment. COD is useful as an indicator or organic pollution in the freshwater (Indra and Sivaji, 2006).

In the present study, the phytoplankton of Bacillariophyceae was observed from the freshwater (station – I) and treated sewage water (station – II) carp culture ponds in Tiruchirapalli. The maximum amount of Bacillariophyceae was recorded in summer at sewage water treated (station – II) and minimum amount was record in winter season at freshwater fish culture ponds (station – I) during the period of January 2011 to December 2011. A total of 25 species was recorded in both stations. The phytoplankton of Navicula species was dominant and other species were not dominant during the study period. Phytoplanktons of cyanophyceae were recorded from the freshwater (station – I) and treated sewage water (station – II) carp culture ponds in Tiruchirappalli. A total of 25 species of Cyano phyceae was recorded during the period of January 2011 to December 2011. The planktons of Ocillatoria sp were dominant when compared to other species.

The cyanophyceae group of phytoplankton maximum was recorded in summer at sewage water treated (station – II) and minimum numbers cyano phyceae was recorded in winter season of freshwater fish culture pond (station – I). The 108

chlorophyceae group of phytoplankton were recorded from the freshwater fish culture pond (station – I) and treated sewage water culture pond (station – II) during January 2011 to December 2011. A totally 26 species of chlorophyceae were recorded in station – I and station – II. The phytoplanktons of Acanthosphaera sp and Oedogenium sp were dominant when compared to other species. The maximum number of chlorophyceae was recorded in summer of station – II and minimum amount of cyanophyceae was recorded in winter at station – I. The zooplankton species of protozoa, rotifers, cladocerans, cope pods, ostracods, nekton and bivalves were recorded in freshwater (station – I) and treated sewage water fish culture ponds (station – II) in Tiruchirappalli region, during the period of January 2011 to December 2011. A total 32 species of zooplanktons were recorded during the study period. The zooplankton of rotifer species was dominant when compared to other species. The maximum amount of zooplankton were recorded in summer at station – II and minimum amount was recorded in winter at station – I.

These observations clearly indicate that the inhibition or stimulation of growth of different algal groups or species may be one aspect of the effect of nutrient status of habitat which modifies the algal population and growth activities. Bhowmik et al. (1993) listed 19 genera of phytoplankton from sewage fed fish ponds of which 10 are Chlorophyceae, 5 Cyanophyceae and 4 Bacillariophyceae. Kumar and Saha (1993) documented 126 taxa of phytoplankton belonging to Bacillariophyceae (60), Chlorophyceae (34) and Cyanophyceae (32) from reservoirs at Bhagalpur. Laxmaiah et al. (1994) reported 17 species of Chlorophyceae belonging to 9 genera, 23 species of Bacillariophyceae belonging to 12 genera and a species of Cyanophyceae, belonging 8 genera. Pati and Sahu (1995) reported Cyanophyceae as dominant among the phytoplankton followed by Chlorophyceae and Bacillariophyceae was the least abundant. Siddiqui and Ahmad (1995) observed 36 species of diatoms belonging to 11 genera from the Dharabhanaga of North Bihar. Ninety-five taxa of desmids were observed from the river Ganges and Narora (UP) and found Chlorophyceae as predominant followed by diatoms, Cyanophyceae, desmids and Euglenophytes. They further reported that conjugators of the family Zignamaceae comprised 20 species and formed 50% of the total aquatic population of Chlorophyceae. Yazdandoost et al. 109

(2000) reported variation in the distribution of phytoplankton among the different rivers in Pune and recorded higher density of Chlorophyceae in the Holkar Causeway (Mula river) and the least density of Chlorophyceae in Kasarwadi (Pauna river), higher density of the Cyanophyceae in Sanghai (Pauna river) and lower density of the same in Bund garden (the Mula Mutha river). Biswas and Konar (2001) reported 31 phytoplankton taxa from the river Damodar at Durgapur. According to them, the Bacillophyceae was dominant during all seasons.

Besides food sources, low predation rate by fish during the wet season caused by their increased breeding activities could encouraged high population density of the zooplankton. The zooplankton population dominated by rotifers in the wet season and ciliates in the dry season in all the ponds was similar to earlier findings (Egborge, 1981b). The alternation in abundance between rotifers and ciliates as shown in the seasonal distribution and abundance of zooplankton in the sampled ponds was regarded as a booster of all year round food for fish in the lake (Egborge, 1981b).

Seasonal variations in zooplankton abundance could be partly explained by invertebrate predation since abundance was recorded when the macroinvertebrates in the Aliakmon decreased in numbers. Unni et al., (1993) reported 23 species of zooplankton from the Tawa reservoir. Trichocera was the dominant one among the 23 species reported from that reservoir. Mahajan and Mandoli (1998) reported seasonal variations in the zooplankton composition of the Adhartal pond and recorded 36 species of zooplankton of which rotifers were higher in winter, copepods were dominant in summer and Cladocerons were dominant in rainy seasons.

The high population density of the zooplankton during the rainy season may be as a result of abundant food source from run-off through nutrient-rich agricultural lands. It has been reported that increase in primary production (phytoplankton), is accompanied by increase in zooplankton abundance (Rocha et al., 1999).

110

During winter, other groups of zooplankton were abundant when compared to other seasons. Hameed and Sherief (1999) observed 32 species of zooplankton from the river Cauveri. Jha and Kaushal (1999) reported one zooplankton species found in the Gobind Sagar, Himachal Pradesh. Isaiarasu et al. (2001) reported 12 species of zooplankton in a tropical pond near Sivakasi, South India in which Rotifer, Cladocera and Copepoda occurred throughout the year.

Biswas and Konar (2001) recorded 8 zooplankton taxa from the river Dhamodar at Drugapur in which rotifer was the dominant taxa irrespective of seasons. Zooplanktons were represented by Protozoa, Rotifera and Cladocera. In the Simsong rotifers and Protozoans were found only in winter season. In the river Bogai, Cladocerans and Rotifers were recorded and in the Jinjiram Cladocerans were more in numbers when compared to protozoans and rotifers.

Prakash et al., (2002) reported 20 species of zooplankton and their dynamics in wetlands of brick-kiln and found maximum density in April and minimum in January. Among them were 8 species of rotifers, 7 species of Cladocerans, 3 species of Copepods and 2 species of Ciliates. The annual periodicity showed that rotifers dominated and constituted 53.95% of the total zooplankton population followed by Cladocerons (23.04%). Also, it had been observed that zooplankton abundance frequently reach their peak during the wet season in ponds (Muylaert et al., 2003).

The population density of these groups in the study period indicates that quantity analysis show completely different distribution than in quality analysis. The total number of Cladocerons and Copepods were small on all study localities. The density of zooplankton population was the higher in the flow section from Nestin to Centai. The numbers of zooplankton organisms were significantly reduced downstream. The density variation of zooplankton population was accompanied with the variation of phytoplankton biomass along the Danube flow (Cadjo et al., 2008).

The length weight relationship is an important tool analysis of fish populations. In the present study the growth performances was recorded in the fish 111

Catla catla. The length and weight relationship was recorded during January 2011 to December 2011 at freshwater fish culture pond (station–I) and treated sewage water fish culture pond (station–II). The maximum length and weight was recorded in sewage treated culture of fish Catla catla during the end of study period and compared than that of freshwater culture of fish Catla catla. The condition factor (K) value maximum was recorded in the month of March 2011 at treated sewage water culture fish (station–II) and minimum (k) value was recorded in the month of December 2011 at freshwater culture fish Catla catla (station–I). Similar trend was also reported by (Hussain et al., 2011). It applications vary from simple estimates of an individual's weight to indication of fish body condition factor (Javed et al., 1993). Fish with high value K are heavy, while fish with a low K value are lighter for its length (Shakir et al., 2008).

It is universal that growth of fishes or any animal increases with the increase in body length. Thus it can be said that length and growth are inter related, length weight relationship is expressed by the cube formula W = aL3 earlier workers (Rao et al., 2005; Kurup and Samuel, 1992). The length weight relationship presented here may assist fish biologists to derive weight estimates for fishes that are measured but not weighted. This information is obligatory by most of models of stock assessment to estimate fishing mortality, population of cohorts and population of spawning stock as well as this investigation could strongly helpful to the researchers and policy makers for the preparation of very helpful and sustainable management plans of fishery resources of the freshwater systems. Length–weight relationships of five fish species were estimated by (Fafioye and Oluajo, 2005).

The negative correlations are observed between temperature, turbidity, chloride, suplhate, and total weight of fish Catla catla. The positive correlations were observed between pH, DO, Alkalinity, Nitrate, BOD, COD and total weight of fish Catla catla.

The negative correlation are observed between temperature, alkalinity pH, Chloride, Sulphate, COD and total length of carp Catla catla. The positive 112

correlations were observed between Dissolved oxygen, turbidity, Nitrate, BOD and total weight of carp Catla catla.

Bio-chemical composition of organisms are known to vary with season, size of animal, stages of maturity and availability of food, temperature etc. Protein is the most prominent bio chemical components of fishes from eggs to adult and is strikingly dominant in younger phase. The quantity of protein in fishes was largely influenced by the extent of fat and water content (Duboi‟s et al., 1956). In the present study, the protein content maximum was recorded in muscle tissue of Catla catla at treated sewage fish culture pond (station – II) and minimum, the protein content was observed in gill tissue of Catla catla at fresh water fish culture pond (station – I). The protein was studied in different days of 10, 20, 30 and 40 days. The different tissues of muscle, intestine and gill protein maximum was found to be sewage treated fish and compared than fresh water fish Catla catla. The same trend was observed by (Achuthan Kutty and Parulekar, 1984).

Biochemical responses can be affected by environmental factors, such as physico-chemical profiles of aquatic medium, seasons, fish nutrition status, age and health (Lohner et al., 2001). Higher feed intake refers to disturbance in metabolism. Variations in the energy reserves (Carbohydrates, protein and lipids) are indicative of long term exposure of toxicant stressor (Mayer et al., 1992). The proximate composition of fish meat of four species shows that the crude protein content were observed maximum in major carps Catla catla in muscle (24,85%) and minimum level of protein content were observed in (16.79%) in gills (Murthy and Naik, 2000). The protein contributed from the supplementary feed and natural diet combination might be efficiently utilized by the fish for synthesis of tissue protein, leaving the scope for diversion to energy production through domination (Dawson and Grimm, 1980). Muscle was rich in proteins, forms mechanical tissue intended for mobility and do not participate in metabolism and other tissues of intestine and gills was found to be reduced protein of Catla catla (Sherekar and Kulkarni, 1989).

113

In the present study, carbohydrate content were observed from different tissues (Muscle, gill,intestine) of carp Catla catla. The carbohydrate ranges maximum was recorded in muscle tissue of treated sewage water fish and minimum level of carbohydrate was recorded in gill tissues, of fresh water fish. The maximum level of carbohydrate was observed sewage treated water fish when compared with that of fresh water fish. Similarly it was reported by (Gopakumar, 2003). Further, Zeitler (1984) reported that the natural food organisms contain low energy, while protein is in excess. Therefore fish consuming only natural food have minimal fat and maximum protein accumulation in their body. The maximum amount of carbohydrate was recorded in muscle tissue and minimum level of carbohydrate was recorded in gill and intestinal tissues of Catla catla was reported by (Afser and Ali, 1981).

In the present study, Lipid content maximum was recorded in muscle tissue of Catla catla (sewage treated water fish) and minimum level of lipid content was recorded in the gill tissue of Catla catla (Freshwater culture fish). Lipid content was recorded in different tissues such as muscle, gill and intestine of Catla catla. All the tissues, maximum level of lipids were observed in sewage treated water fish when compared that the freshwater culture fish during the study period. This results are presented in Table 14 and 17. Similarly it was reported by (Stickney and Hardy, 1989). Lipids are also the storage form of energy‟s like glycogen. The lipid levels also decreased in the tissues of intestine and gills of fish when compared to the muscle tissue of fish (Peyami et al., 2006).

It can be concluded that the present findings indicated that the treated sewage water culture pond showed better result than that of the freshwater culture pond regarding phytoplankton and zooplankton production. Thus, the fish production efficiency varies over a freshwater and the treated sewage water pond. However, average conversion is more effective in treated sewage water pond. Therefore, by direct urine were applying the treated sewage water pond production can be enhanced. Accordingly, it is recommended that the wastewater should be treated before discharge into this culture pond. 114

6. SUMMARY & CONCLUSION

The experimental fish the Indian major carp is extensively cultured in south India ponds. Hence the present investigation has been carried out to study the physico-chemical characterstics, planktons analysis, morphometric measurements and biochemical aspects of the Indian major carp, Catla catla cultured in freshwater fish pond-I (Assoor) and treated sewage water fish culture pond-II (Panjapur) in Tiruchirappalli District, Tamil Nadu, India were investigated.

The water quality analysis showed that the temperature, turbidity, alkalinity, chloride, nitrate, BOD and COD levels were observed in low ranges and pH, dissolved oxygen, sulphate levels were recorded high range in the freshwater fish culture pond. The water quality analysis showed that the temperature, turbidity, alkalinity, chloride, nitrate, BOD and COD levels were observed in high ranges and pH, dissolved oxygen, sulphate levels were recorded low range in the sewage water treated pond during the period January 2011 – December 2012.

A total of 76 species of phytoplanktons were recorded during the study period. Among them 25 species diatoms (Bacillariophyceae), 25 species blue green algae (Cyanophyceae) and 26 species green algae (Chlorophyceae). The maximum density of phytoplankton's ((Bacillariophyceae, Cyanophyceae, Chlorophyceae) were recorded during the summer in station- I and station – II, minimum density of phytoplankton were recorded during the winter in station- I and station – II. Acanthosphaera species were dominant in the study period. A total of 32 species of zooplanktons were recorded during the study period. Among them 3 species protozoa, 14 species rotifers, 8 species cladocerans, 3 species copepods, 2 species ostracods, 1 species nekton and 1 species bivalvia. The maximum density of zooplanktons was recorded during summer and minimum in winter season at station- I and station – II. Rotifers species were dominant during the study period. The maximum number of phytoplanktons and zooplanktons were observed in the treated sewage water pond (Station-II), when compared to freshwater fish culture pond (Station-I). 115

The total weight of carp catla catla ranged between 75 to 1738 gram and total length ranged between 10.4 to 40.5 cm were recorded during the month of January 2011 – December 2012 in freshwater fish culture pond (Station – I). The condition factor values range between 2.62 – 9.14 (K) g/cm3. The maximum value of condition factor (9.4 (K) g/cm3) were observed during the month of March 2011 and the minimum value of condition factor (2.62 (K) g/cm3) were observed during the month of December 2011 (Station – I). The total weight of carp catla catla ranged between 80 to 1914 gram and total length ranged 11.3 to 42.4 cm were recorded during the month of January 2011 – December 2012 in freshwater fish culture pond (Station – II). The condition factor values range between 2.51 – 8.05 (K) g/cm3. The maximum values of condition factor (8.05 (K) g/cm3) were observed during the month of March 2011 and the minimum values of condition factor (2.51 (K) g/cm3) were observed during the month of December 2011 (Station – II).

The results of the present study showed that when the fishes were exposed to freshwater and treated sewage water carp Catla catla. The protein, carbohydrate and lipid content were found to be increased in the treated sewage water pond in different tissues such as muscles, intestine and gills of carp Catla catla.

Thus, the present baseline information of the water quality parameters, biotic composition of planktons, morphometric measurements and biochemical composition of carp Catla catla would form a useful tool for further ecological assessment and monitoring of this freshwater and treated sewage water in Tiruchirappalli district. So the poor water quality conditions in potential problem of fish culture ponds, moreover regular fish health monitoring may also be practiced. It can be concluded that the present findings indicated that the treated sewage water culture pond showed better result than that of the freshwater culture pond regarding phytoplankton and zooplankton production. The plankton abundance is dependent on the nutrient dynamics which is influenced.

Thus, the fish production efficiency varies over a freshwater and the treated sewage water pond. However, average conversion is more effective in treated sewage 116

water pond. Therefore, by direct urine were applying the treated sewage water pond production can be enhanced. Accordingly, it is recommended that the wastewater should be treated before discharge into this culture pond.