RAP PUBLICATION 2010/22

Inland fisheries resource enhancement and conservation in Asia xi RAP PUBLICATION 2010/22

INLAND FISHERIES RESOURCE ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION IN ASIA

Edited by Miao Weimin Sena De Silva Brian Davy

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS REGIONAL OFFICE FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC Bangkok, 2010

i The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.

ISBN 978-92-5-106751-2

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© FAO 2010

For copies please write to:

Aquaculture Officer FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Maliwan Mansion, 39 Phra Athit Road Bangkok 10200 Tel: (+66) 2 697 4119 Fax: (+66) 2 697 4445 E-mail: [email protected]

For bibliographic purposes, please reference this publication as:

Miao W., Silva S.D., Davy B. (eds.) (2010) Inland Fisheries Enhancement and Conservation in Asia. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand. RAP Publication 2010/22, 189 pp.

ii FOREWORD

Inland capture fisheries provide an important source of food and livelihoods for many people in rural areas. In 2008, inland capture fisheries provided 10.2 million tonnes of worldwide (FAO, 2010), which was largely used for direct human consumption. Asia has overwhelmingly contributed to the world’s inland capture fisheries production with a reported total production of 6.8 million tonnes in 2008 (FAO, 2010). The actual contribution of inland capture fisheries, however, is far higher than what is reflected in the above official data. Because of the difficulties involved in collecting data from large numbers of small-scale, scattered and often unregistered fishers, official figures for fish catches tend to be vastly underestimated.

Inland fisheries resources provide not only the material basis for maintaining capture fisheries production, but also serve as a reservoir of aquatic biodiversity. However, over the past few decades inland fisheries resources have come under increasing pressure from overfishing, use of destructive fishing gear/methodologies, water engineering projects, pollution and environment changes and have shown a clear declining trend. This has been well demonstrated by the disappearance of some traditionally important fish and a general reduction in the catch of high valued species.

Fisheries resource enhancement and conservation measures have long been adopted in many Asian countries for sustaining capture fish production, conserving aquatic biodiversity, rescuing endangered species, improving environmental conditions and upgrading recreational fisheries by offsetting the adverse impacts of human activities on inland fisheries resources. The contribution of inland fisheries resource enhancement and conservation to sustained inland capture fisheries and conservation of aquatic biodiversity as well as to nutritional security and improved rural livelihoods has been commonly recognized. On the other hand, external interventions to the aquatic ecosystem from fisheries resource enhancement and conservation activities may have had adverse impacts on the ecosystem and wild fish community, especially when such activities are carried out without a strong scientific basis or adequate evaluation and monitoring mechanisms. There is a general lack of comprehensive understanding as to the effectiveness and impacts of current enhancement and conservation activities in the region.

This publication is the product of a regional review study on inland fisheries resource enhancement and conservation conducted during 2009-2010. It includes ten country review papers and one regional synthesis report generated from a regional expert workshop. The publication provides the most up-to-date, comprehensive information on inland fisheries resources enhancement and conservation in the region, covering practices, methodologies, operational modalities, impacts, constraints and recommendations for the way forward. The synthesis report provides a regional perspective on inland fisheries resources enhancement and conservation practices in Asia, with special focus on identifying common issues and problems, and recommends actions on improved practices for maximizing benefits to the region.

This publication can serve as an important reference for people working in inland fisheries resources management. More importantly, it provides a starting point for anticipated thrusts in promoting better practices of inland fisheries resource enhancement and conservation.

Hiroyuki Konuma Assistant Director-General and Regional Representative for Asia and the Pacific

iii PREPARATION OF THE DOCUMENT

This regional review study is an effort to promote improved inland fisheries management under the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. It covers ten Asian countries with significant inland capture fisheries, namely Bangladesh, , India, Indonesia, the Republic of Korea, Myanmar, , Sri Lanka, Thailand and Viet Nam. The review study was conducted in collaboration with the Network of Aquaculture Centre in Asia-Pacific (NACA). Experts from the ten participating countries prepared a comprehensive review paper for each country during November 2009 to February 2010 following the guidelines jointly developed by the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific and NACA.

A regional expert workshop on inland fisheries resource enhancement and conservation in Asia was subsequently convened by the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific and NACA from 8 to 11 February 2010 in Pattaya, Thailand. The FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, NACA, the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) as well as the ten experts from the ten countries who participated in the review study attended. The workshop participants shared experiences and lessons on inland fisheries enhancement and conservation practices across the region, discussed the impacts of inland fisheries resource enhancement and conservation practices, identified the constraints and related problems from a regional perspective and recommended regional collaborative activities to promote improved practices of inland fisheries resource enhancement and conservation. A regional synthesis report was produced as the major output of the workshop.

All the country review papers were presented, commented on and reviewed by a panel of experts during the workshop. The authors revised their manuscripts following the suggestions made by the review panel. The regional synthesis report was drafted by Sena De Silva (Director General, Network of Aquaculture Centers in Asia-Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand) based on the workshop discussions and further reviewed. The revised country papers were then reviewed and technically edited by an editorial team, which consisted of Miao Weimin (Aquaculture Officer, FAO Regional Officer for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand), Sena De Silva and Brian Davy (Senior Fellow, International Institute for Sustainable Development, Ottawa, Canada) before the authors finalized their manuscripts. The manuscripts were then reedited by the FAO Regional Office staff for final printing after receiving the final confirmed version from the authors.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The completion of the publication was attributable to the joint efforts of all the country review authors and editorial team. Much gratitude is due to the country review authors who made their best efforts in preparing the country papers and showed enormous patience with the many revisions requested of them. Simon Funge-Smith, Senior Fisheries Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific is gratefully acknowledged for his technical advice and contribution to the expert workshop. Special thanks are due to Pornsuda David for her assistance in the final language editing and in facilitating publication of the document.

Finally, Jiansan Jia, Chief of the FAO Aquaculture Management Service is gratefully acknowledged for his technical support.

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

FOREWORD...... iii

INLAND FISHERIES RESOURCE ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION IN BANGLADESH ...... 1

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Inland fisheries resources of Bangladesh ...... 1 1.2 Aquatic Fauna...... 2 1.3 Status of inland fisheries resources in Bangladesh...... 3 1.4 Enhancement and conservation practices ...... 3 2. TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF MAJOR INTERVENTIONS ...... 6 2.1 Rational and purpose of the interventions ...... 6 2.2 The operations ...... 6 2.3 Social aspects and impact assessment...... 10 2.4 Impacts of major enhancement and conservation activities ...... 11 3. CONSTRAINTS AND PROBLEMS ...... 11 3.1 Operational constraints ...... 11 3.2 Technical constraints ...... 12 3.3 Distribution of social benefits ...... 13 4. RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 13 4.1 Technological needs ...... 13 4.2 Improvements in operations and impacts assessments...... 14 5. CONCLUSIONS ...... 14

INLAND FISHERIES RESOURCE ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION IN CHINA ...... 19

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 19 2. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF INLAND FISHERIES RESOURCE ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION PRACTICES ...... 20 2.1 History of inland fisheries resource enhancement and conservation in China ...... 20 2.2 Major practices of inland fisheries resource enhancement and conservation in China ...... 20 3. DETAILED DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF CURRENT PRACTICES OF INLAND FISHERIES RESOURCE ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION ...... 24 3.1 Major enhancement and conservation practices ...... 24 3.2 Operation of fisheries resource enhancement and conservation ...... 25 3.3 Impact assessment mechanism ...... 26 3.4 Important cases of enhancement and conservation activities and its impact ...... 26 4. CONSTRAINTS AND PROBLEMS ...... 29 4.1 Technical constraints ...... 29 4.2 Operational constrains ...... 29 4.3 Distribution of social benefit ...... 30 4.4 Ecological influence and genetic diversity ...... 30

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5. RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 31 5.1 Further research of artificial enhancement ...... 31 5.2 Amelioration of operation and evaluation...... 32

INLAND FISHERIES RESOURCE ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION IN INDIA ...... 35

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 35 2. MAJOR PRACTICES OF ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION ...... 36 2.1 Capture fisheries, culture based fisheries and enhancement ...... 36 2.2 Species of aquatic organisms ...... 37 3. INLAND FISHERIES ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION IN INDIA ...... 39 3.1 Enhancement ...... 39 3.2 Capture fisheries based on conservation of aquatic ecosystems ...... 42 3.3 Operations ...... 47 4. IMPACT OF MAJOR ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION ACTIVITIES AND IMPACT ASSESSMENT MECHANISMS...... 51 4.1 Impact of enhancement activities ...... 51 4.2 Major initiatives on conservation and their impact ...... 52 4.3 Legislative framework for aquatic biodiversity ...... 54 4.4 The major ecosystems/species prioritized for conservation/restoration and major initiatives 54 5. SOCIO-ECONOMIC RELEVANCE OF INLAND FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT AND CONSERVATION OF ECOSYSTEMS ...... 55 6. CONSTRAINTS AND PROBLEMS ...... 55 6.1 Technical constraints ...... 55 6.2 Operational constraints ...... 56 6.3 Distribution of social benefits ...... 56 6.4 Ecological impacts, genetic biodiversity ...... 57 7. RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 57

INLAND FISHERIES RESOURCE ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION IN INDONESIA ...... 61

1. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF INLAND FISHERIES RESOURCE ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION .... 61 1.1 Introduction ...... 61 1.2 Major practices of fisheries resource enhancement and conservation ...... 63 2. DETAILED DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF CURRENT PRACTICES OF INLAND FISHERIES ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION ...... 64 2.1 Technical description of major enhancement and conservation practices ...... 64 2.2 Operation ...... 67 2.3 Impact assessment mechanism ...... 70 2.4 Impacts of major enhancement and conservation activities ...... 71

vi TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

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3. CONSTRAINTS AND PROBLEMS ...... 73 3.1 Technical constraints ...... 73 3.2 Operational constraints ...... 73 3.3 Distribution of social benefits ...... 73 3.4 Ecological impacts, genetic biodiversity ...... 74 4. RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 74

INLAND FISHERIES RESOURCE ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION IN THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA ...... 77

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 78 2. OVERVIEW OF INLAND FISHERIES RESOURCES ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION ...... 78 2.1 History of inland fisheries resources enhancement and conservation ...... 78 2.2 Inland fisheries resource enhancement and conservation ...... 81 3. DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF CURRENT PRACTICES OF INLAND FISHERIES RESOURCE ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION ...... 81 3.1 Major enhancement and conservation practices ...... 81 3.2 Operational aspects ...... 84 3.3 Impact assessment ...... 87 4. CONSTRAINTS AND PROBLEMS ...... 89 4.1 Technical constraints ...... 89 4.2 Operational constraints ...... 89 4.3 Genetic diversity...... 89 5. RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 90 5.1 Carrying capacity ...... 90 5.2 Closed season for fishing ...... 90 5.3 Genetic diversity...... 90 5.4 Climate change ...... 90 5.5 National database ...... 90 5.6 Good, best and worst practices ...... 90 5.7 Public awareness ...... 90

INLAND FISHERIES RESOURCES ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION PRACTICES IN MYANMAR ...... 93

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 93 2. CURRENT STATUS OF INLAND FISHERIES IN MYANMAR ...... 93 2.1 Leasable fisheries ...... 94 2.2 Open water fisheries ...... 95 2.3 Social dimensions of inland fisheries in Myanmar...... 95 3. BIODIVERSITY OF INLAND WATERS ...... 95 4. STOCK ENHANCEMENT PRACTICES OF INLAND WATERS IN MYANMAR ...... 96

vii TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

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5. OTHER ENHANCEMENT PRACTICES ...... 98 6. IMPACTS OF MAJOR ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION ACTIVITIES...... 98 7. BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ...... 98 8. CONSTRAINTS AND PROBLEMS ...... 99 9. RECOMMENDATION ...... 99

INLAND FISHERIES RESOURCE ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION IN NEPAL ...... 101

1. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ...... 101 2. WATER RESOURCES ...... 102 2.1 Rivers ...... 102 2.2 ...... 102 2.3 Reservoirs ...... 103 2.4 Irrigated rice fields ...... 103 2.5 Marshy low lands, ghols, swamps, irrigations canals, etc...... 103 3. FISHERIES RESOURCES...... 103 4. FISHERIES PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY ...... 103 5. AQUATIC RESOURCES AND LIVELIHOODS...... 104 6. CURRENT INLAND FISHERIES PRACTICES ...... 104 6.1 Effect of impoundment on the indigenous in Kulekhani reservoir (Indrasaroboar)...... 105 6.2 Conservation strategies ...... 105 6.3 Water Resources Strategy (WRS) ...... 106 6.4 National Water Plan (2005) ...... 106 6.5 Existing conservation and mitigation measures...... 107 7. CONSTRAINTS AND PROBLEMS ...... 110 8. RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 110

INLAND FISHERIES RESOURCE ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION IN SRI LANKA ...... 113

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 113 1.1 History of inland fisheries resource enhancement and conservation ...... 114 1.2 Major practices of fisheries resource enhancement and management ...... 115 1.3 Fish species cultured ...... 116 1.4 Scale of operation ...... 116 2. CURRENT PRACTICES OF INLAND FISHERIES RESOURCE ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION.... 117 2.1 Seed resources ...... 117 2.2 Contribution of CBF to total inland fish production ...... 117 2.3 Rationale and purpose of inland fisheries enhancement ...... 118 2.4 Technicalities in fisheries enhancement ...... 119 2.5 Operational aspects ...... 119

viii TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

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3. CURRENT PRACTICES OF INLAND FISHERIES ENHANCEMENT ...... 119 3.1 Seasonal reservoirs ...... 121 3.2 Minor perennial reservoirs ...... 121 3.3 Major reservoirs ...... 123 4. REGULATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION ...... 123 5. IMPACT ASSESSMENT...... 124 6. CONSTRAINTS AND PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH INLAND FISHERIES ENHANCEMENT ...... 125 6.1 Technical constraints ...... 125 6.2 Operational constraints ...... 125 6.3 Distribution of social benefits ...... 125 6.4 Ecological impacts of enhancement strategies ...... 126 7. RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 126

INLAND FISHERY RESOURCE ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION IN THAILAND ...... 133

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 133 1.1 Inland fisheries in Thailand ...... 133 1.2 History of inland fisheries resource enhancement and conservation in Thailand ...... 134 2. TECHNIQUES FOR STOCK ENHANCEMENT FOR INLAND FISHERIES ...... 135 2.1 Engineering the environment ...... 135 2.2 Fish stocking programs ...... 135 3. CONSERVATION PRACTICES FOR INLAND FISHERIES IN THAILAND ...... 137 3.1 Closed fishing season ...... 137 3.2 Fish conservation zones (or Closed areas) ...... 137 3.3 Control of fishing gears ...... 137 4. OPERATIONS ...... 138 4.1 Authorized organizations ...... 138 4.2 Funding mechanisms ...... 138 4.3 Management/enforcement/participation ...... 138 5. EVALUATION AND ASSESSMENT ...... 140 5.1 Engineering the environment ...... 140 5.2 Fish stocking in small water body ...... 140 5.3 Fish stocking in large water body ...... 141 5.4 Conservation practices ...... 142 6. IMPACTS OF MAJOR ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION ACTIVITIES...... 143 6.1 Impact of stocked fish on ecosystem...... 143 6.2 Impact of stocked species on the genetic biodiversity of the natural population ...... 143 6.3 Socio-economic benefit ...... 144 7. CONSTRAINTS AND PROBLEMS ...... 145 8. RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 146

ix TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

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INLAND FISHERIES RESOURCE ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION IN ...... 153

1. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF INLAND FISHERIES RESOURCE ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION PRACTICES IN VIETNAM ...... 153 1.1 History of inland fisheries resource enhancement and conservation in Vietnam ...... 153 1.2 Major practices of fisheries resource enhancement and conservation ...... 155 2. CURRENT PRACTICES OF INLAND FISHERIES ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION...... 159 2.1 Inland fisheries resources enhancement ...... 159 2.2 Reservoir fisheries enhancement...... 159 2.3 Culture-based fisheries ...... 162 2.4 Inland fisheries resource conservation ...... 162 3. CONSTRAINTS AND PROBLEMS ...... 164 4. RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 165

ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION OF INLAND FISHERY RESOURCES IN ASIA ...... 169

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 169 2. INLAND WATER RESOURCES AND FINFISH BIODIVERSITY ...... 170 3. INLAND FISHERIES...... 171 3.1 An overall perspective ...... 171 3.2 Overview of Asian inland fishery practices ...... 172 4. STOCK ENHANCEMENT ...... 173 4.1 Reasons for stock enhancement in the region...... 173 4.2 Summary of current stock enhancement practices ...... 174 4.3 Other enhancement practices ...... 176 4.4 Key issues related to stock enhancement of inland waters ...... 177 4.5 Investments/Returns from stock enhancements ...... 178 4.6 Monitoring and impact assessment to releasing and other conservation program ...... 179 4.7 Issues related to marketing...... 180 5. STOCK ENHANCEMENT AND BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION...... 180 5.1 Physical and management measures ...... 180 5.2 Retaining connectivity among waters ...... 180 5.3 Introduction of alien species and indigenous species translocations...... 181 5.4 Genetic aspects related to stock enhancement practices ...... 182 6. SUMMARY OF MAJOR CONCLUSIONS ON STOCK ENHANCEMENT AND BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ...... 182 7. WAY FORWARD...... 183

ANNEXES Annex I. Species used directly in stock enhancement practices and those that are directly and or indirectly impacted through inland fisheries enhancement programs/activities (in at least 2 countries)...... 188 Annex II. Species used directly in stock enhancement practices and those that are directly and or indirectly impacted through inland fisheries enhancement programs/activities in individual country ...... 189

x INLAND FISHERIES RESOURCE ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION IN BANGLADESH

Mostafa A R Hossain Department of Fish, Biology and Genetics, BAU, Mymensingh-2202, Bangladesh E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Bangladesh is endowed with a vast inland waters in the form of rivers, canals, natural and man-made lakes, freshwater marshes, , brackish water impoundments and floodplains. The potential fish resources resulting from these waters are among the richest in the world. This aquatic diversity is attributed to the habitats created by the Bengal Delta wetlands and the confluence of the Brahmaputra, and Jamuna rivers that flow from the Himalayan Mountains into the Bay of Bengal.

There are, however, serious concerns surrounding the slow decline in the condition of open water fish stocks which have been negatively impacted through a series of natural and anthropogenic changes. These include disturbances resulting from the large scale water abstraction for irrigation and the construction of water barrages and , over-exploitation of stocks, unplanned introduction of exotic species and pollution from industry. Also, natural phenomena, regular flooding etc. cause rivers to continually change course creating complications of soil erosion or over siltation of waterways.

In order to reverse the trend and ensure sustainability of inland fisheries resources, various measures for resource enhancement, conservation and management have been adopted from time to time. A number of resource enhancement projects have been undertaken and the focal point of all these initiatives are: restriction on size at capture for certain periods, on the use of gear and mesh size, and catch of species for specific periods, introduction of closed seasons, restriction of fishing by dewatering or any other destructive method.

The needs of Bangladesh’s poor fisher community to eat what they catch and lack of a legal legislative framework means this situation can only worsen. Hope, however, is offered through several new conservation initiatives including habitat restoration, enhancement of depleting fish stocks in rivers and floodplains, transferring fishing rights to true fishers and establishment of fish sanctuaries at strategic points in rivers and floodplains. This paper reviews the progress of the enhancement and conservation approaches, and attempts to identify the problems and constraints then provides some recommendations in the context of overall developments of inland fisheries of Bangladesh.

Key words: Fisheries, fishers, resource enhancement, biodiversity, conservation, Floodplain, rivers, constraints, Bangladesh

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Inland fisheries resources of Bangladesh

Bangladesh (20º 34' to 26º 38' ºNorth; 88º 01' and 92º 41' ºEast) is divisible into three broad physiographic regions. The floodplains, terraces and hills occupy about 80, 8 and 12 percent respectively of the land area. The inland open water fisheries of Bangladesh are highly diversed and unique and are based on extensive networks of floodplains, large and small rivers, beels (relatively large surface, static water bodies that accumulate surface run-off through internal drainage channels), haors (back swamps or bowl-shaped depressions between the natural levees of rivers) and baors (oxbow lakes created due to meandering rivers which changed course, and

1 cut-off from the main course), all offering wide scope and potential for fish production. Bangladesh has also large impounded water areas in the form of man-made ponds, ditches, borrow pits, lakes and enclosures (DOF, 2005). Moreover, it is a country dominated by wetlands having more than 50 percent of its territory under freshwater marshes, swamps, rivers estuaries and the world’s largest contiguous mangrove forest – the Sundarbans. The inland open water fishery resources (Table 1) have been playing a significant role in the economy, culture, tradition and food habits of the people.

Fish have been an integral part of life of the people of Bangladesh from time immemorial. Fisheries, second only to agriculture in the overall economy of Bangladesh, contribute nearly 5 percent to the gross domestic product (GDP), 23 percent of gross agriculture products and 5.71 percent to the total export earnings (DOF, 2008). It accounts for about 63 percent of protein intake in the diet of the people of Bangladesh (DOF, 2005). The people of Bangladesh largely depend on fish to meet their protein needs in both the rural and urban areas. The total fish production from different water areas is given in Table 1.

Table 1. The inland water resource types and the proportionate contribution of each to total fish production in Bangladesh (2007-2008)

Water area Production Contribution Resource type (ha x ’000) (t x ’000) (%) A. Inland Fisheries (i) Capture 1. Rivers & Estuaries 853.86 136.81 2. Beel 114.16 77.52 3. Floodplain & Haors 2 832.79 819.45 4. Kaptai 68.80 8.25 5. Sundarbans 177.7 18.15 Capture Total 4 047.32 1 060.18 41.36 (ii) Culture 1. Ponds & ditches 305.03 866.05 2. Baors 5.49 4.78 3. Coastal farms 217.88 134.72 Culture Total 528.39 1 005.55 39.32 A. Inland total 4 575.71 2 065.72 80.59 B. Marine fisheries – 497.57 19.41 Country Total (A + B) – 2 563.30 100.00 FRSS, 2009

1.2 Aquatic Fauna

Bangladesh is endowed with a very rich aquatic flora and fauna because of its geographical settings and climatic characteristics (Table 2). Bangladesh’s water bodies are known to be the habitat of 267 freshwater fishes under 52 families and 156 genera, 475 marine fishes, 23 exotic fishes, 372 molluscs and a number of other vertebrates and invertebrates.

The major fish groups found in the country’s inland waters are major , large , minor carps, small catfishes, river shads, snakeheads, freshwater eels, feather backs, , loaches, anchovies, gobies, glass fishes, mullets, minnows, barbs and flounders. The total inland capture fishery production of Bangladesh in the year of 2007-2008 (July-June) was 1.06 million tonnes. The catch was dominated by major carps (30 percent) followed by exotic carps (16.4 percent) and snakeheads (5.8 percent).

2 Table 2. Diversity of aquatic in Bangladesh water

Number of Species Animal group Freshwater Marine Finfish 267 475 Shrimp – 41 20 – Mollusc 26 336 Crab 4 11 – 6 10 Turtle & tortoise 24 7 2 1 Snakes 18 6 Otters 3 – Dolphin 1 8 Whale – 3 Total 375 894 Source: Ahmed and Ali, 1996; Ali, 1997 and Banglapedia, 2004

1.3 Status of inland fisheries resources in Bangladesh

Until 1970s, there was an abundance of fish in the natural waters of the country to satisfy the demand. In recent years, however, the availability of several fish species has declined, and many are thought to be critically endangered.

The annual flooding of approximately 2-3 million ha of floodplain has been either controlled or prevented altogether by means of sluice gates or pumps positioned along earth embankments or levees (ESCAP, 1998). This reduction in area is believed to be one of the major reasons for declining floodplain fisheries in Bangladesh (FAP 17, 1994). Siltation has threatened the existence of most of the river and many are gradually being turned in to small canals. The Beel fishery is deteriorating day by day due to over-fishing, uncontrolled use of chemicals, fertilizers and insecticides, destruction of natural breeding and feeding grounds, harvesting of wild brood fishes (Azher et al., 2007). Clearing riparian vegetation and unplanned crop cultivation resulting from myopic leasing practices and lack of land-use policies coupled with pollution from industrial effluents and agro-chemicals continue to impact on the ecological balance, reduce aquatic diversity and diminish fish production. Both Haors and Baors are now under heavy fishing pressure. The construction of dams and other flood control structures have reduced the natural recruitment and contributed to stock depletion in baors. Pond culture fisheries have always been considered as being crucial for the livelihoods of the most vulnerable communities of the country. Selective aquaculture, however, could be detrimental for fish biodiversity as the culture technologies advice farmers to remove all small indigenous fishes from the ponds before releasing the fry of target fish.

The threat to inland open water biodiversity is country-wide and more than 15 percent of the inland open water fishes appear to have disappeared. Only one or two individuals of a further 20 percent of species have been found in the last ten years. The percentage of critically endangered fish described by the IUCN (2000) increased almost five times in recent years (Hossain and Wahab, 2010).

1.4 Enhancement and conservation practices

The government and a number of non-government organizations (NGOs) have taken a number of regulatory and development interventions for sustainable management of the inland fisheries. In order to reverse the negative trends and ensure sustainability of fish biodiversity and production from inland open waters, various measures for protection, conservation and management of fisheries resources have been adopted from time to time. These

3 measures comprise the implementation of different acts and related rules including new fisheries management policy (licensing the fishing rights directly to the true fishers), community based fisheries management (CBFM), establishment of fish sanctuaries at strategic points of the rivers and floodplains, fish stock enhancement through releasing fish seed in seasonal floodplains, and fish habitat improvements through excavation of link canals (between rivers and floodplains) and beels.

1.4.1 History of resource enhancement and conservation – the Acts and Policies

A number of legal instruments have been introduced over the years, some of the latter ones specifically intended to boost inland fish production and habitat conservation are given in Table 3.

Table 3. A list of legal instruments and policies in relation to inland fisheries development and conservation that have been introduced over the years

Act Applicable area Scope Indian Fisheries Act (1887) British India – Conservation and Protection East Pakistan To reverse the declining trends in fisheries of Fish Act (1950) National Environment Policy (1995) Bangladesh Restoration of water bodies for fisheries production National Fisheries Policy (1998) Bangladesh Overall fisheries development; establishment of fish sanctuaries and other conservation measures National Water Policy (1999) Bangladesh Requires fishery aspects need to be taken into account in water management developments National Land Use Policy (2001) Bangladesh Emphasis on maintaining and protecting the decaying inland water bodies

Over time, the main focus has drawn towards community participatory management, or co-management. The government has developed a series of strategies for the implementation of the National Fisheries Policy, one of which covers inland capture fisheries and emphasizes access control rather than revenue generation and community participation, along with setting up of fish sanctuaries, as a key management measure (DOF, 2005).

1.4.2 Inland resource enhancement and conservation projects

In the early 1990s, the government through Department of Fisheries (DOF) re-stocked some open waters with fingerlings produced in government and private hatcheries in order to replenish lost species, particularly indigenous carps. After some initial restocking from the government’s own resources, two major donor funded projects were undertaken (Ali, 1997). The Second Aquaculture Development Project funded by ADB undertaken by the DOF included a component for replenishing indigenous major stocks by stock enhancing beels in the northeastern Bangladesh with carp hatchlings. The project failed due to faulty design and erroneous implementation. In addition, there was no reliable production monitoring system that time. The Third Fisheries Project (TFP) was undertaken by the DOF funded by the World Bank, ODA and UNDP. The project carried out a major stock enhancement program in the floodplain of the western part of the country between 1991 and 1996. In contrast to the Second Aquaculture Project, the TFP identified suitable floodplains and stocked the selected floodplains with large fingerlings at the beginning of the monsoon in June-July. The TFP also established an intensive fish catch monitoring program in the selected floodplains. Due to TFP activities fish production in floodplains increased substantially. Nevertheless the approach used was too top-down, did not involve the fisher communities and mostly lacked the support of the local people.

The largest fisheries project of the government – the Fourth Fisheries Project (FFP 1999-2006) funded by the World Bank, DFID and the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) aimed to support sustainable growth in fish production for domestic consumption and export, and equitable distribution of the benefits generated from the activities. It also intended to contribute to poverty alleviation in Bangladesh by improving the livelihoods of the poor people dependent on fisheries resources. The Community Based Fisheries Management (CBFM) Project

4 1995-1997 was carried out with the partnership of Department of Fisheries (DOF) and five major NGOs. The project was designed to execute a number of action researches to evaluate the feasibility and efficacy of alternative local fishery management arrangements that might achieve greater equity and sustainability. The Management of Aquatic Ecosystem through Community Husbandry (MAECH) project, funded by USAID, started in October 1998 and completed its second phase in 2006. The project realized that a reduction in fishing was the critical part of reviving the wetland fisheries and identified alternative income generating opportunities for fisher households and others directly dependent on wetland resources.

In addition to the major projects a number of smaller projects have also been conducted. One such project funded by Danida and IFAD worked on the baor (oxbow lakes).The small projects emphasized the participation of fisher communities (bottom-up approach) and focused more on social development and conservation of fish stocks for sustainable catches rather than just on stocking.

1.4.3 Scale of operations

Some of the projects were site-specific but the large projects mostly were executed country-wide. The major projects so far carried out are Third Fisheries Project, CBFM Project, Fourth Fisheries Project and MAECH project. Table 4 summarizes the scale and scope of those projects that have had an impact on stock enhancement of inland fisheries in Bangladesh.

Table 4. Summaries of the scope and scale of various projects that have had an impact on stock enhancement in inland fisheries in Bangladesh

Project Scope Third Fisheries Project (1990-1997) Stocking 100 000 ha of floodplains CBFM Project Alternative local fishery management arrangements for enhancing fisheries in 10 rivers (partly), 7 beels and two baor sites in east, north, south and central Bangladesh Fourth Fisheries Project (FFP) Stocking of water bodies with fingerlings, setting up of fish sanctuaries, habitat restoration through re-excavation of canals and beels, and construction of fish passes and fish-friendly regulators to ease river- floodplain migration of fish in 49 sites covering 33 of the 64 districts in Bangladesh MAECH project The Hail Haor in northeast Bangladesh, the Turag-Bangshi site in the central part of the country – the north of Dhaka and the Kangsha-Malijhi site in the north-central part of Bangladesh

1.4.4 Major target species

In stock enhancement programs, in most cases, three Indian major carps – rohu – rohita, catla – Catla catla and mrigal – Cirrhinus mrigala, and – Cyprinus carpio were the target species. In addition, every year the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock (MOFL) through Department of Fisheries (DOF) observe Fish Fortnight/ Week and when fingerlings of Indian major carps, common carp, , and some minor carps are released at upazilla (sub-district) level. In recent years, the Upazilla Fisheries Officers and Farm Managers under Department of Fisheries (DOF) are instructed to produce fingerlings not only of large carps but also some medium-size minor carps and catfishes. One of the components of fourth fisheries project (1999-2006) was developing a socially feasible and ecologically sound management plan for the conservation of hilsa, Tenualosa ilisha fisheries. Other management interventions included the re-excavation of link canals between rivers and floodplains and setting up of sanctuaries targeting the indigenous fish and other aquatic organisms.

5 2. TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF MAJOR INTERVENTIONS

2.1 Rational and purpose of the interventions

Implementation of the acts/regulation has always been very difficult in the inland waters of Bangladesh because of its complexity due to multi-species and multi-gear, widely scattered fisheries in diversified water bodies – river, canals, floodplain, Beels, Haor, Baor, lakes etc. involving the poor and the ultra-poor fishers. Inland water bodies are owned by the State except seasonal floodplain which are mostly privately owned rice fields in the lean season. For administrative convenience, a river is divided into several sections, each section being called a jalmohal (fishery). An individual beel or a group of beels, an oxbow lake and a state owned pond are also called a jalmohal. However, the flowing rivers have been declared as open and free access for fishing since 1995 without any control over-fishing effort and as such rivers are over exploited. The jalmohal measuring up to three acres are managed by local government (the Union Council) and up to 20 acres by the Ministry of Youth and Sports who leases them to unemployed youths for fish production while those above 20 acres are controlled by Ministry of Land (MOL) for revenue collection. The MOFL through DOF is responsible for managing fisheries resources for sustainable production. Again the revenue oriented short term competitive leasing system of jalmohal without consideration of aspects of biological management of fisheries, indulges in destructive fishing leading to depletion of fish stocks. Primary responsibility of implementing the acts/regulations is with DOF, but due to lack of sufficient manpower and in the absence of logistic supports, the laws have never been enforced properly.

In order to ensure sustainable production in inland waters, various regulatory and development interventions were undertaken by the Government. These include the regulatory interventions of the promulgation of Fish Protection and Conservation Act 1950 and the related rules and implementation of different development and management programs/projects, which includes New Fisheries Management Policy (licensing the fishing rights directly to the fishers), community based co-management of fisheries, establishment of fish sanctuaries, enhancing fisheries through stocking of fish fry in seasonal floodplains, fisheries village approach of extension of fisheries, community based floodplain aquaculture and fish habitat improvement through excavation of link canals and beels. Some of the interventions have been proven to be successful and effective for enhancing fish biodiversity and production as well as improving the socio-economic condition of the fishing community.

2.2 The operations

2.2.1 Fingerling stocking in the rivers and floodplain

Stocking generally commences in June-July or even earlier if there is sufficient water depth and continues up to August at a rate of not more than 10 kg/ha, using major carp fingerlings of 9-14 cm in length. The species composition used mostly was rohu (40 percent), mrigal (20 percent), and catla (40 percent). In some instances the fingerlings of exotic common carp are also released. Fingerlings release take place at a point determined by community consensus. In most cases, stock enhancement is being done on a partnership (cost-sharing) basis by the community and the project under the following arrangements. In the first year, the project contribute 90 percent towards the cost fingerlings stocked and the remainder by the community. In the second year, the project contribute 60 percent and the community 40 percent. In the third year, the project contribute 30 percent and the community pay the rest. From the fourth year up, the community is responsible for stocking. The stockings are done in both small and large floodplains and in the part of the rivers. The Fisheries Community Based Organizations (FCBOs) raise money from the fishers for the lease of the water body and the cost of fingerlings. Sometimes they borrow money from banks. Release of fingerlings are followed by a fishing ban, though considering the daily need of subsistence fishers, use of small traps are allowed. FCBOs control the use of gear specially the monofilament gill nets and undersized stocked fish are released after capture.

The large scale fingerling stocking took place during the implementation of forth fisheries project (1999-2006). In recent times, every year MOFL through DOF observe Fish Fortnight/Week during May-June and along with other programs like rally, seminar, fish fair, technology fair, exhibition, boat race, folk music, signboard on engine boat, wall writing, group discussion, T-shirt and cap distribution, use of posters etc., fish fingerlings are released in the rivers and floodplains.

6 2.2.2 Habitat restoration

Silted up beels, baors (oxbow lakes) and link canals have been made through re-excavations by the Local Government Engineering Department (LGED) using the food for work approach at various times, under the Fourth Fisheries Project. Habitat restoration was implemented through active participation of fishers and FCBOs. By 2000 a total of about 8 300 ha water area of ponds, borrow pits, oxbow lakes, dead rivers, canals and beels had been excavated under this program (DOF, 2005). The main objective of habitat restoration was to reopen river- floodplain connections by de-silting natural drainage channels. It also included, in a few cases, planting water tolerant trees and other rehabilitation interventions. In addition, local communities and FCBOs under different projects were made aware and motivated to undertake activities to restore fish habitats on their own.

2.2.3 Fish passes and fish friendly regulators

For the past twenty years between 1970 and 1990, over two million ha of floodplain became unavailable for inland fisheries production because of the construction of levees (Siddiqui, 1990). To control water entering the floodplains, 7 000 regulators have been constructed in Bangladesh to allow the smooth movement of adult fishes (local migrants) and drifting larvae. These fish passes and fish friendly regulators were built, under the Fourth Fisheries Project, to facilitate and maintain natural , reduce larval mortality rates significantly, maintain smooth connectivity between the river and floodplains, reduce turbulence, provide enough flow and depth to attract fish to and fro between river and floodplain and provide an exit and entrance velocity within the swimming speed of fish. There are four examples of such installations in Bangladesh.

Figure 1. Sariakandi Fish Pass in Bangladesh (http://www.bdfish.info/en/2009/11/ sariakandi-fishpass/)

Sariakandi fish pass is located at the western part of the Bolai canal under Sariakandi Upazila, Bogra. Among all the fish passes Sariakandi fish pass is the largest and newest fish pass in Bangladesh allowing fish movement between the Jamuna and Bangali River. Kasimpur regulator and fish pass is on the Manu River, at the western end of Korakadi canal, located between Kushiyara River and Kawadighi Haor at Moulovibazer and Jugini regulator and fish pass is at the east bank of the river Jamuna at Tangail, located on the Lohajong River in Jugni village. Moricherdana fish pass is at the confluence with the Mohanonda River, Chapai-Nawabganj district.

7 2.2.4 Fish sanctuaries

Among all measures, fish sanctuaries have been found to be most effective for fish biodiversity conservation, whereas other measures were difficult to implement in the present administrative and social contexts. The government established fish sanctuaries under different development projects following a number of management approaches since 1960 and more intensively in last decade. Many NGOs have also been involved in fish stock development by establishing traditional sanctuaries in beels and rivers of Bangladesh.

Most of the fish sanctuaries in recent times focus on the need of the involvement of the fisher community and local government in the management system, long tenure of lease periods and also strong monitoring and supervision. Moreover, to safeguard fisher interests, the government policy now is to establish sanctuary in part of the floodplain and the remaining part is open for fishing by the locals. Based on this idea, the government has established a number of sanctuaries involving the fisher communities with support of NGOs. In a government declared fish sanctuary, catching/killing of fish is prohibited and the order of the competent authority at all times in the future or for a specified period mainly with objective of protecting/conserving the fish.

A total of 464 permanent fish sanctuaries covering an area of 1 746 ha have been established in 98 455 ha water bodies by 2007 (Table 5). A number of the sanctuaries have been closed after the projects ended. Management has deteriorated in many sanctuaries due to the conflict of interests among the stakeholders, lack of funding and lack of coordination among the organizations.

Table 5. Fish sanctuaries established in Bangladesh by 2007

Project/Program Water body ha Sanctuary ha No. of Sanctuary FFP 12 233 1 022 63 CBFM-2 9 602 93 182 MAECH 785 76 65 NFMP 1 698 77 21 FDMP in Beel and Chharas 1 294 18 29 ADP-Faridpur 454 11 14 PBAEP 307 26 19 FHRP 3 890 73 45 FDP in Jabai Beel 75 4 4 SEMP-17 50 17 12 CBWM-4 17 4 7 Kaptai Lake 68 000 324 2 BFRF – The Matshyarani 50 1 1 Total 98 455 1 746 464 Modified from Ali et al., 2009

2.2.4.1 Technical aspects of fish sanctuaries

The effectiveness of sanctuaries depends on several key factors such as identification of the type of sanctuary, selection of the water body based on technical and social issues, appropriateness and compliance of the community with the rules Depending on the purpose, the sanctuary may be seasonal/temporary or permanent.

The required sanctuary area will depend on many factors – present state of fish stocks (abundance by species), reproductive capacity (fecundity) of individual species, age at first maturity, longevity, fishing (catches) and natural mortality ( to maturity), productivity of the water body (carrying capacity), etc. To ensure the breeding stock required to sustain the fishery at about “maximum sustainable yield” level in an ecosystem (taking into consideration these factors) is the central theme of technical fisheries management. Mathematical models could give estimates of such areas required based on the above criteria. However this type of study and model has yet

8 to be developed for complex multi-species inland fisheries in diversified and changing habitats. An individual sanctuary should not be too small as it will not be self sustaining because most larvae (fish and other organisms) produced in it could be transported elsewhere, while a large reserve will retain too much of reserve’s productivity releasing too little at the edges to effectively enhance the fishery in surrounding areas. Therefore medium-size sanctuaries could be recommended for enhancing fisheries most effectively.

Fish sanctuaries in Bangladesh are usually constructed when water begins to recede but of reasonable depth, with branches of bushy trees like hizole (Barringtonia acutangula), gamboling (Diospyros pererina), babla (Acacia sp.), shewra (Sterbulus sp.), black berry (Syzygium cumini), jarul (Lagerstroemia speciosa), gab (Diospyros peregrine) and tamarind (Tamarindus indica). The whole sanctuary is supported by large number of poles fixed around it to prevent downstream drifting of tree branches by water current. Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and sometimes Helencha, Enhydra fluctuans are used to cover the part of the sanctuary surface.

Figure 2. A typical fish sanctuary constructed with bamboo poles and water hyacinth. The fish habitats are created at the bottom with bushy tree branches (inset photo). Photo credit- Dr Mostafa A R Hossain

2.2.5 Aquaculture/enhancement efforts

As more fish species of Bangladesh become threatened, there is tremendous need to preserve the disappearing genetic material as well as to conserve the existing gene pools. The ideal strategy for conservation of threatened and endangered fish species is through restoration of the native habitat of the species (in situ approach). Unfortunately, most habitat damages are irrevocable and where remediation is possible it is costly and requires a great deal of time, as the restoration process is slow. One alternative is to maintain ex situ conservation (outside the natural environment) as live populations or in a cryopreserved sperm bank (Pullin et al., 1991).

Domestication of wild fishes in most cases benefits both the farmer and the environment. Investments in domestication have to pay off; therefore, researches should take into account the biodiversity and production scenario and overall socio-economic and environmental outcome at a broader scale. In Bangladesh, to date about 20 fish species have been domesticated and their breeding and rearing protocols have been developed. Around 50 percent of the domesticated fishes are cypriniforms and now under nation-wide aquaculture. Though there is high possibility of working with reduced gene pool, it is optimistically believed that the biodiversity of the domesticated fish are well-preserved.

9 Fish sperm cryopreservation assists conservation of fish biodiversity through gene banks of endangered species, and assists aquaculture by providing flexibility in spawning of females and selective breeding through synchronizing artificial reproduction, efficient utilization of semen, and maintaining the genetic variability of broodstocks (Lahnsteiner, 2004). In Bangladesh, research on fish sperm cryopreservation started in early 2004. The studies have focused on aquacultured or commercial species and so far none of the threatened species have been considered (Table 6).

Table 6. Cryopreservation of sperm of some fish species in Bangladesh

Fish group Fish Indigenous – carp Catla catla Cirrhinus mrigala Labeo rohita Labeo calbasu Puntius sarana Indigenous – , eel Ompok bimaculatus Mastacembelus armatus striatus Rita rita Exotic fishes Cyprinus carpio Hypophthalmichthys molitrix Hypophthalmichthys nobilis gonionotus Oreochromis niloticus Source: Hossain and Wahab, 2010

2.3 Social aspects and impact assessment

The impact assessment surveys carried out by different government organizations (GOs) and NGOs in most cases were short sighted and site specific and often overlooked the wider impact area and associated social dimensions. Mostly the organizations that carried out the enhancement programs also undertook impact assessments which led to a bias towards highlighting the positive impacts. The lack of coordination among the organization also made the outcomes of the impact assessment programs frailer.

The consultation jointly organized by FAO and the DFID-UK (Petr, 1998) focused on a broad range of topics including technical, social, economic and administrative aspects of Third Fisheries Project, ADB Second Aquaculture Project and the Oxbow Lake Project. Among others, MAECH project conducted survey in its three projects site – Hail Haor, Turag-Bangshi, and Kangsha-Malijhee and found that both fish production and number of species gradually increased when compared with the base year (MAECH, 2006). Several authors, individually or under different projects carried out surveys to study the impact of aquatic resource enhancement and conservation (Thompson et al., 1999; Ahmed and Ahmed, 2002; Thompson, 2003; Sultana and Thompson, 2007; Ali et al., 2009)

Floodplains in Bangladesh comprise different types of wetland habitat: river, canal, beel and haors, baors etc. In the surveys conducted, fish catches were monitored by fisheries biologists in specific locations selected to include representative areas of different floodplain habitats in different sites. To assess direct impacts of resource enhancement on livelihoods of poor and middle class people’s fish consumption, a number of studies monitored a panel of households. To assess changes in fish consumption, local men and women were trained as monitors and visited sample households at regular intervals to weigh by species the fish being prepared for cooking and home consumption.

10 2.4 Impacts of major enhancement and conservation activities

2.4.1 Impact on natural population and biodiversity

Impact studies carried out by different projects found that many fish species benefited from the enhancement programs. The biodiversity and production of major carps, small and large catfishes, barbs, minnows, eel and several perches increased in and around the intervention sites (Thompson, 2003; Haque et al., 2007; Ahmed et al., 2007). Although not targeted, the biodiversity of many non-fish aquatic animals and plants – phytoplankton, , mesogastrapods, polychaetes, tubificids, bivalves, oligochaetes and nematodes increased significantly in the water bodies after setting up the sanctuaries (Azhar et al., 2007).

MAECH project reported that both fish production and number of species gradually increased when compared with the base year (MAECH, 2006). Compared with the baseline years the survey found substantial increases in total fish catch and in catch per hectare in all three sites. In the final year of the survey (2004), catch per person day was higher in all three sites than in the baseline year suggesting that fishing was more sustainable than before the intervention started.

Fish sanctuaries in Bangladesh were proved to be one of the most important and efficient tools for management in protection and conservation of fishes and other aquatic organisms (Ali et al., 2009). Since mid 80s, the concept of the involvement/participation of the local fisher communities in setting up and managing sanctuaries has been the government policy. Surveys carried out in most of the sites in which fish sanctuaries were established, found a gradual increase in the species numbers compared with the base year with 2-3 fold increase in fish production. Many rare fish species were repopulated in the beels and rivers with sanctuaries (Haque et al., 2007; Ali et al., 2009).

2.4.2 Socio-economic benefits

The most obvious impacts of the resource enhancement are that fishery management has improved in almost all the sites. Institutional development resulted from enhancement activities did result in greater empowerment of the participating communities which strengthened their access to resources and their facility to make decisions, and would definitely result in more sustainable fisheries in the future (Sultana and Thompson, 2007). In general, significant changes in indicators of empowerment (participation and influence) and institutional efficiency (ease of decision making) were reported in the beels (both closed and open), but the pattern of changes was less clear for rivers. Sustainability (wellbeing) was perceived to have improved mainly in the stocked closed beels probably due to stocking. Based on the case studies in six closed beels/baors, three open beels and 10 river parts, the impact assessment indicated that there were benefits from CBFM in all the open beels, and in closed beels (Thompson et al., 1999). In the rivers some material benefits for fishers have been observed and in two the fishery appeared to be better managed, but in other rivers, open access and conflicts were found to be dominant.

In the intervention sites, fish consumption among landless, marginal and middle class households increased significantly compared to baseline years and the benefits of intervention were shared widely across both poor and better off households. Per capita daily fish consumption of the beneficiaries in the area increased. A comparison between participating and non-participating groups conclusively established that resource enhancement activities contributed to women empowerment as well. (MAECH, 2006)

3. CONSTRAINTS AND PROBLEMS

3.1 Operational constraints

Conflicting policies and lack of coordination among Departments: One of the major problems in the inland fisheries resource enhancement and conservation in public water bodies in Bangladesh is the policy conflict among the government ministries. The Ministry of Land is the custodian of the water bodies and is responsible for collecting the maximum revenue by leasing those water bodies. On the other hand, the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock is mandated to ensure that all of the country’s fisheries including major floodplains are managed to ensure the maximum sustainable yield of fish. The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF) aims to protect natural

11 habitats, maintain biodiversity and ensure an acceptable quality of water. Myopic government policies and acute lack of coordination and a reluctance to support local communities establishing rights over open water fisheries, are some of the serious constraints. Lack of coordination among the target communities and government and/ or concerned NGOs was primarily responsible for the failure of many enhancement and conservation projects.

Lack of proper guidelines: Although the national fisheries policy envisages establishing fish sanctuaries, there is no clear guideline for establishment and management of these. In the last few years, many fish sanctuaries have been established in different waters of different shapes and sizes using different materials. There has been no set rule as to the size and design of the sanctuaries.

Lack of incentives and alternative sources of income: Most of the participating fishers often lack incentives and past experience of cooperation. Stocking of fingerlings, gear bans, and seasonal bans on all or some fishing gears were effective to conserve and enhance resources, but led to the exclusion and suffering of poor fishers. The absence of alternative sources of income during the ban period (seasonal closure) impacted on poor fishers.

Targeting the wrong people: In many cases the Fisheries Management Committees (FMCs) did not represent fishers, nor did the management plans further the interests of fishers. At some sites, rights were not transferred at all or transferred to the wrong people. In executing FFP, too much power was given automatically to the FMCs, often making the village level fisheries sub-committees largely irrelevant. Dominance by the elite in water body management and in the institutions was a persistent problem in many of the sites.

Excessive bureaucratic regulation: The procedure of transferring jalmohals from MOL to MOFL for biological management or for resource enhancement is still a lengthy and a difficult job. After long negotiations and struggle, water bodies could be physically transferred to projects and community management may come into being be only in the middle or close to the end of the project life and only after the project had paid the full revenue due to the government. However, when the project period is over, lease fees cannot be paid from the normal budget of DOF for shortage of funds, and if the community organization can not continue to do this or there is no community organization, then the water bodies are taken back by MOL and are leased to others for same old revenue collection leading to destructive fishing. When this happens, all the effort of fisheries resource enhancement along with its conservation approach would have gone in vain.

Poor database: Documented baseline information on floodplains and rivers in general is scanty. For example, water area, depth, siltation, CPUE, daily catches, fish production, species number and richness, presence fish feed, trends in fish catches by species and gear type, number of different gears and fishers, daily gear operating hours, gear operating days, fisher’s income, numbers of households and their dependence on a fishery, household consumption, supply of species-wise fishes in the fish market and landing center. This gap in documentation hinders enhancement and conservation planning and assessment of management impacts.

3.2 Technical constraints

Unplanned stocking: In the FFP, stocking with carp fingerlings in many water bodies was mostly a failure in terms of returns to fishers, issues of control and access, and sustainability. Stocking was undertaken too early in the establishment of community management, and well before fisher communities could take decisions on what management tools are appropriate for them.

Quality of fingerlings: The quality of the fingerlings and the growth rate of different species is a major problem. The growth rate of the fingerlings released is low for major carp because of inbreeding or other problems. Fingerlings came from poor strains or from hatcheries that do not replace or renew their bloodstocks for years.

Alien stocking: Unplanned stocking of exotic carp fry in different beels coupled with inundation of many culture ponds led to an increasing abundance of exotic fishes in floodplains. In a stocking program, loss of fish biodiversity is a matter of concern. When water bodies are stocked for 3-4 successive years, the percentage of native species was reported to gradually decline in the water bodies, which then functions like a large pond.

12 Effectiveness of fish sanctuary: The performance of different sanctuary materials and their relative size are largely unknown. It has been found that many small-size sanctuaries have been established, which are not s