Rebuilding Afghanistan’s Agriculture Sector

Asian Development Bank

South Asia Department April 2003 © Asian Development Bank All rights reserved

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Principal Author: Allan T. Kelly Supervisors: Frank Polman, Frederick C. Roche Coordinator: Craig Steffensen Editing and Typesetting: Sara Collins Medina Cover Design: Ram Cabrera Cover Photograph: Ian Gill/ADB Page photographs: Ian Gill/ADB Administrative Support: Wickie Baguisi, Jane Santiano Fulfillment: ADB Printing Unit

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Published by the Asian Development Bank P.O. Box 789 0980 Manila, Philippines Website: www.adb.org

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Contents

INTRODUCTION ...... 1 Approach to Needs Assessment...... 1 Sector Background ...... 1 Sector Development Framework ...... 2 Determinants of a Strategic Approach ...... 2 The Strategic Approach...... 2 Objectives ...... 4 NEEDS ASSESSMENT: SUBSECTOR PROGRAMS ...... 5 Natural Resources Management ...... 5 Current Status and Issues ...... 5 Development Framework ...... 6 Water Resources ...... 8 Current Status and Issues ...... 8 Development Framework ...... 9 Community Development Programs ...... 11 Current Status and Issues ...... 11 Development Framework ...... 13 Agriculture...... 14 Current Status and Issues ...... 14 Development Framework ...... 16 Livestock Programs ...... 18 Current Status and Issues ...... 18 Development Framework ...... 19 Agriculture Research and Technology Transfer...... 22 Current Status and Issues ...... 22 Development Framework ...... 22 Off-Farm Employment ...... 23 Current Status and Issues ...... 23 Development Framework ...... 24 NEEDS ASSESSMENT: INSTITUTIONAL REFORMS AND CAPACITY BUILDING...... 25 Natural Resource and Agriculture Sector National Institutional Structure ...... 25 Individual Ministry Structures and Organization ...... 26 Provincial Natural Resource Management Structure ...... 27 Village/District-Level Structures...... 28 Capacity-Building Needs...... 28 NEEDS ASSESSMENT: POLICY REFORMS...... 31 Implementation Strategies ...... 31 Toward a Development Framework Consensus ...... 31 Asserting Government Ownership ...... 33

TABLES Table 1: Natural Resource Management Matrix ...... 7 Table 2: Water Resource Management Matrix...... 10 Table 3: Community Development Program Matrix ...... 13 Table 4: Agriculture Subsector Matrix...... 17 Table 5: Livestock Development Matrix ...... 20 Table 6: Agricultural Research Matrix ...... 23 Table 7: Off-Farm Employment Matrix ...... 24 Table 8: Institutional Development Matrix...... 28 Table 9: Capacity-Building Matrix ...... 39 Table 10: Policy Agenda ...... 32 Terms and Abbreviations

AACA Afghan Assistance Coordination Authority ADB Asian Development Bank AIA Afghanistan Interim Administration AIMS Afghanistan Information Management System ARTTS Agricultural Research and Technology Transfer System CNA comprehensive needs assessment FAO Food and Agriculture Organization GIS geographic information system MAAH Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry MIWR Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources MPW Ministry of Water and Power MRRS Ministry of Rehabilitation and Rural Development NDF National Development Framework NGO nongovernment organization shura traditional governing committee UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund VFU veterinary field unit

Currency Equivalents (as of 30 April 2003)

Currency Unit – Afghani (Af) Af 1.0 = $0.0192 $1.0 = Af 52

NOTE: In this report, “$” refers to US dollars. Foreword

ollowing the Tokyo Conference on Reconstruction Assistance to Afghanistan in January 2002, a mission com- posed of representatives of external funding agencies, led by the Asian Development Bank (ADB), visited FAfghanistan for one week during February 2002 to initiate a needs assessment for the natural resources and agriculture sector. This mission provided the foundation for, and recommended a more detailed analysis of needs by, the current mission, which visited Afghanistan from 7 April to 7 May 2002. The CNA mission was led by ADB and comprised Allan Kelly (ADB, Project Economist/Mission Leader), Ray Shaw (ADB consultant, Agriculture Economist), Richard Smith (ADB consultant, Rural Development Specialist), Elayne Gallagher (ADB consultant, Institutions Specialist), Ted Breckner (ADB consultant, Agriculturalist), Aziz Bouzaher (World Bank, Natural Resource Specialist), Tony Garvey (World Bank, Water Resources Specialist), Rodney Kennard (FAO consultant, Livestock Specialist), Abdul Salkini (International Centre for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas, Agricultural Researcher), and Roma Bhattacharjea (United Nations Development Programme, Gender Specialist). The terms of reference of this mission focused on two requirements, namely (i) the preparation of project profiles for quick-impact interventions, the so-called QIPs, and (ii) a medium-term strategy, policy, and institu- tional development framework for the natural resource and agriculture sector to set the stage for sustainable development into the medium term. For this purpose, the natural resources and agriculture sector is broadly defined to include all aspects of natural resource management, utilization, and protection. The mission consulted extensively with the concerned line ministries: the Ministry of Rehabilitation and Rural Development, the Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources (MIWR), and the Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry. The mission also maintained a close working relationship with the Afghan Assistance Coordination Author- ity (AACA), which maintains an overview of the sector. Discussions took place with all major international agencies and external aid providers, and with key nongovernment organizations (NGOs) working in the sector. Field visits were undertaken to Bamian province, the Panjshir Valley, and the Shamali Plains adjacent to Kabul. In addition, the mission participated in a Water Resources Development Conference sponsored by MIWR and the United Nations Children’s Fund, which was held in Kabul between 29 April and 1 May. The mission is extremely grateful for the time accorded to its activities by the staff of all the various ministries and agencies working in the sector, and whose views have helped to shape this report. The aim is that this report will provide a basis to achieve a consensus on a medium-term vision for this sector, together with the policies, programs, and institu- tional changes needed to realize that vision. Once agreement is reached, the sector framework will provide a basis to ensure that individual projects are supporting priority activities and outcomes.

YOSHIHIRO IWASAKI Director General South Asia Department CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

depends heavily upon food aid. The recent severe drought Approach to Needs has worsened the degradation, but it is not the key underly- Assessment ing factor for the nonsustainable resource use, poor man- agement, and inefficient production systems. The task of recovery is to improve the performance of he preparation of the needs assessment involved a the sector and at the same time rebuild its resilience, two-stage approach: technical specialists through the adoption of technologies that reduce vulner- Tundertook subsector assessments, whose findings ability to drought. Although population pressures are and recommendations were integrated into an overall natu- increasing, Afghanistan has the capacity to mobilize over ral resources and agriculture sector needs assessment and 7.5 million hectares (Mha) of cultivated land, of which medium-term development framework. The reports dis- 60% would be irrigated and 20% would be double-cropped. cuss the needs assessment in two timeframes, a short-term This degree of land and water use amounts to about 0.35 period of 2 years and a longer period of 3–5 years. ha per capita, a relatively generous ratio in a regional con- This report outlines sector strategies and needs, sum- text. In addition, the country has about 29 Mha of range- marizes the subsector report findings, and highlights the land for use by livestock. If productivity can be restored to programming aspects. The key issues, objectives, short- levels similar to those of the rest of the region, then Af- (1–2 years) and medium-term (3–5 years) needs, and ghanistan should be able to resolve medium- to longer- required policy agenda for each subsector are outlined in term food security concerns. a subsector matrix table. Separate sections cover institu- The recovery process outlined in this report has a tional and capacity-building needs, the policy agenda, and 5-year timeframe. In this period the emphasis will be on implementation strategies. achieving a large measure of self-sufficiency, especially in cereal production. This is a household priority, given the Sector Background legacy of the past 25 years, which has left so many families unable to feed themselves. However, while self-sufficiency is a household and social priority, economically it may not The natural resources sector (including agriculture) be the preferred option, because achieving a high level of has suffered from varying degrees of depredation for dependency on domestically grown cereals would depend almost 25 years. A combination of war, civil conflict, ex- on using high-cost irrigation systems. A longer-term ploitation, and enforced neglect have combined to leave a development framework might involve the importation of legacy of degraded natural resources, especially forests and most cereals, while Afghan agricultural production sys- rangeland; damaged infrastructure; and fragmented rural tems focused on a range of cash crop exports. Achieving institutions. While nongovernment organizations this potential will depend on the outcomes of the medium- (NGOs) and United Nations agencies have worked term development framework. effectively with rural communities throughout this period and have had positive impacts at the local level, overall the sector continues to perform poorly, and the country

Introduction 1 Each of these specific factors calls for additional efforts in Sector Development particular locations during the short to medium term. The Framework result of combining all these factors is a complex and di- verse geographical pattern of development needs, which will require a combination of support by external funding The development framework for the sector reflects the agencies, private investment, the transfer of appropriate principles laid down in two key documents, the Tokyo technologies, reshaped institutions, enhanced human re- speech of Interim Administration Chairman Hamid Karzai sources, and the best efforts of the Afghan people. and the National Development Framework (NDF). The principles are as follows: · The people of Afghanistan must own and implement The Strategic Approach the development agenda, within a common strategic framework; In 1978, Afghanistan’s population of 14 million was self- · The private sector should be the principal instrument sufficient in cereals and had a flourishing export market in of economic growth, within an appropriate enabling horticultural products. The present population is estimated policy framework; at about 20 million, with a rural population of around 16.5 · All sections of the rural population should participate million. In the past 20 or so years, agricultural technologies in decision making, and a community-based approach have advanced substantially, enabling agricultural systems to should promote this participation; more than keep pace with population increases. On this basis, · Investment in human capital and maximum use of Af- and assuming a stable and secure political environment, it ghan expertise is essential to the recovery process; and would be realistic to expect Afghanistan’s return to its 1978 · Investment decisions by external funding agencies status in the not too distant future. The process of recovery must sit firmly within the sector framework and re- has started, but requires further elaboration to ensure that all lated budgetary norms. concerned are contributing constructively to this common goal. Recovery of the rural sector will depend upon balancing sustainable natural resource use and population pressures. As Determinants of a Strategic Approach the economy remains overwhelmingly rural and agricul- tural—80–85% of Afghans depend upon natural resources A number of factors, both conventional and specific to for their livelihood—the pace of recovery in the rural sector current circumstances, are relevant to the formulation of a will largely determine the overall rate of economic recovery. medium-term sector development framework. The con- Rural society is structured into numerous settlements ventional factors include (more than 30,000 clustered into about 18,000 communi- · the demand for the sectors’ products, both domestic ties), many of whose access to external assistance and markets and external; is very limited or costly. Although the country’s different ar- · the spatial distribution and quality of resource endow- eas exhibit marked geographical differences in their capacity ments; to generate wealth, village society shows a distinctive cross- · population distribution and the unit size of population section that is irrespective of location or agro-ecological zone. groups; and This cross-section covers landholders, small landholders, · the accessibility of population units to markets and sharecroppers, and landless and female-headed households. sources of raw materials. This geographic dispersal and the corresponding disparities These are the factors that largely determine the geographi- in asset distribution within rural communities require a cal allocation and use of both natural and human resources, development agenda driven by community-determined pri- and the need for differentiated development responses orities. Further, formulation of the agenda should be based depending upon the precise combination of factors in a upon appropriate participatory mechanisms to ensure that all particular location. stakeholders are represented. Logically, this should produce In Afghanistan, the more specific factors include a dual approach to community-based interventions, which · the impact of returning refugees, should include both productivity-enhancing interventions for · food security following 3 years of drought, those with land and employment opportunities and targeted · poppy substitution, and off-farm interventions for the landless or families with small · mined areas. amounts of land. Both types of interventions are likely to be

2 Rebuilding Afghanistan’s Agriculture Sector required, and are complementary. An agro-ecological, or spe- tal) and making the most efficient use of it. The adoption of cific farming, systems approach may be appropriate in spe- such practices, it is estimated, could at least double the produc- cific programs. tivity of agriculture (both rainfed and irrigated), thereby re- This community-based approach to setting the develop- moving major concerns about overall food security. However, ment agenda must be fitted within a natural resource plan- for the landless and small landholders, it will be essential to ning framework, to ensure that natural resource use is sus- complement improved farm productivity with programs aimed tainable, that key resources are protected and shared efficiently, at off-farm income generation. Such efforts should be particu- that proven solutions for sustainable resource use are avail- larly targeted at rural women and woman-led households. able sectorwide, and that the approaches to export market The majority of women in Afghanistan work in agri- penetration are coordinated. Mechanisms to merge the culture. They constitute a large proportion of the agricul- “bottom-up” community approach with the “top-down” tural labor force, an estimate 70%-plus. Women also work resource management approach will need to be carefully prepared, as both perspectives are essential to sustained growth of the rural economy. Three years of drought have severely tested the resilience of the respective rural communities in all agro-ecological zones. Further, it is evident that some communi- ties have coped much better than others. The medium-term frame- work will address the particular concerns of communities within each agro-ecological zone, but give special attention to rebuild- ing the asset base of those com- munities that have proved to be less resilient, where a more ap- propriate balance between natu- Village women draw water at an irrigation project near Kabul. ral resource capacity and popula- tion pressure is needed. Technol- ogy packages, including the transfer of international best prac- as professionals, researchers, and technical staff in the Min- tices, should be applied as appropriate to agroforestry, range- istries of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry (MAAH), land, livestock, and rainfed arable and irrigated arable farm- Rehabilitation and Rural Development (MRRD), and Ir- ing systems. rigation and Water Resources (MIWR). These groups of Within any community, the critical resource is water, women constitute key stakeholders in any strategy devel- basic to most agricultural production and critical for house- opment, planning, and project interventions in the agri- hold consumption. Afghanistan, for the most part, has a low- cultural and natural resource management sectors. House- precipitation regime, which is collected mostly in the form of hold food security is an identified priority. The absence of winter snow and spring rain. Snowmelt is the lifeblood of food security in recent years has had a particularly adverse rural livelihoods. Consequently, the conservation and effi- impact on women: the patriarchal system means that women cient use of water must be the foundation of a fully productive are lowest in the hierarchy of intrafamily food consump- agricultural sector. In most of Afghanistan, considerable tion, and as sources in the United Nations Children’s Fund annual variation in the water available for agriculture is likely (UNICEF) report, food shortages in poor households have to affect both rainfed and irrigated agriculture. Within the resulted in a serious incidence of women’s malnutrition medium term, a strategy that mitigates the impact of these and a very high maternal mortality rate. variations should be developed. This means capturing the The success of the outlined sector development frame- maximum amount of available water (increasing water capi- work will require an implementation strategy that synthe-

Introduction 3 sizes the strengths of the private sector, NGOs, and line improving livelihoods through improved agricultural pro- ministries at the national and provincial levels. The ab- ductivity; substituting other high-value crops and other sence of coherent government over many years has led to alternate activities; and supporting development of off- the involuntary withdrawal of line ministries and their pro- farm employment opportunities. As there will be a lead vincial offices from their traditional roles. In many prov- time while these alternative rural activities are established, inces and in specific areas, these functions have been taken rural livelihood interventions to improve incomes will be over by NGOs and United Nations agencies. In the me- important. The strategies adopted will be fully consistent dium term, it will be necessary to reform the overall insti- with those endorsed by the Government and the United tutional structure of the sector. It will involve defining the Nations Drug Control Program. new core roles of line ministries and their relationship to the collective Objectives NGO and pri- vate sector com- The overall objective in the natural resources and agri- munities. The culture sector is to improve livelihoods for all sections of the scope of line rural community based on economically competitive activi- ministry func- ties, social cohesion, and sustainable use of natural resources. tions and the Specifically, the planned outcome is self-reliant communities mechanisms to that are able to meet their needs through a combination of forge a closer food production, off-farm employment, and trade. A realistic working rela- medium-term target would be a return to 1978 levels of sector tionship with productivity and output within 5 years. NGOs, espe- A cross-sector objective, encompassing all subsectors, cially at the pro- is the need to support gender-based activities, which are vincial and dis- incorporated into the subsector programs. A national gen- trict levels, are der strategic and action plan is required to address key critical elements issues relating to women’s poverty, decision-making roles, of the strategy. underemployment, and unequal opportunities. In terms of An enor- the subsectors, specific interventions include mous amount of · technical skills improvement; Wheat farmer near Sar-e Pol, in technical exper- northern Afghanistan · training in small business enterprises and marketing tise has been lost skills; to the sector over the past 20 years. This loss of human capital · provision of microfinance and credit and the required must be replaced as quickly as possible if the sector is to training to manage money; recover its former vibrancy, reduce dependency on external · introduction of mechanized practices and processes expertise, and enable citizens to fulfill their potential. Thus, a that would lower women’s burden and improve effi- key element of the medium-term strategy must be incentive ciency and productivity; schemes, including training opportunities, designed to pro- · promotion of product exports such as dried fruits, duce quality sector managers, program managers, technical (apricots), raisins, and nuts; staff, and well-informed farmers. · a feasibility assessment of operating an apex market- Before agricultural activity can commence in many ing outlet in Kabul selling products of women with areas, it will be necessary to undertake surveys to deter- labelling stressing their origin; and mine the presence of mines, unexploded ordinance, and · linkage with international fair trade partnerships. bomb craters. Land rehabilitation programs will be needed Specific subsector objectives are detailed in each of the in selected areas determined by the survey. subsector development matrices. Poppy cultivation has increased and, while concen- trated in two provinces, is spread across several provinces. Strategies to be implemented in these areas must focus on

4 Rebuilding Afghanistan’s Agriculture Sector CHAPTER II NEEDS ASSESSMENT: SUBSECTOR PROGRAMS

he following subsector categories have been tenure, user rights, and oversight responsibilities, com- identified as the core of the natural resource and bined with the collapse of government institutions, has led T agriculture sector recovery effort. Each category to the control of resource rents by local elites. Local com- comprises a short description of subsector issues and munities, with the help of NGOs, have attempted to pro- future program needs in both the short and medium term. tect forests, but local leaders have disrupted these efforts, Where relevant, reference is made to any complementary leading to the destruction of physical barriers, such as fenc- institutional and policy issues that are discussed in more ing, and the disintegration of social organizations. detail later in the text. The demand for fuelwood by communities is estimated to be less damaging than illegal logging, but is neverthe- less destructive. The issue needs to be addressed within a Natural Resource policy framework for rural energy needs that incorporates provisions for community or social forestry programs. Simi- Management larly, recent years have witnessed the cultivation of range- land as communities seek ways to mitigate the effects of Current Status and Issues drought and population pressure in some areas. These ac- tivities have resulted in the widespread degradation of both Afghanistan has a total land area of about 65 Mha, of forests and rangeland, flooding, water scarcity, and, in many which approximately 80% is either mountainous or desert; areas, severe soil degradation. forest cover, constituting only about 2% of the land area, Government agencies have had only a limited role in amounts to around 1.3 Mha, down from 1.9 Mha in 1996. conservation work over the last 20 years; NGOs have done The decline is due to community demands for fuelwood and most of it, working directly with local communities and shuras illegal logging: offtake rates are estimated to exceed annual (traditional governing committees). Activities have focused growth rates, resulting in a loss of about 30,000 ha of forest per on livelihood sustenance based on horticulture and agroforestry year. If nothing is done, Afghanistan will have very little natu- interventions. While the NGOs’ contribution has been large, ral forest or its associated wildlife left in 15 years’ time. There little coordination of their efforts has taken place and any evalu- is one national park and five protected areas. On purely con- ation of these would be limited. The NGOs’ experience and servation and environmental grounds, at least 5% of lessons learned will need to be integrated into the planning for Afghanistan’s land area, or about 3.2 Mha, should be forest proposed activities, as will mechanisms to link the vision of cover. This would reduce rangeland and watershed degrada- the Afghanistan Interim Administration (AIA) for reformed tion, loss of biodiversity, and loss of livelihood sources. government agencies working with NGOs as partners, or Illegal logging is largely a function of the current using them as contracted agents. security situation and control of local resources by local By most assessments, the natural resources of commanders in collaboration with Pakistani traders. For- Afghanistan are in poor shape. The extended drought is estry legislation has been in draft form for years, awaiting commonly cited as the principal cause, together with clarification of tenure and land use rights of local tribes in the protracted conflict. While the conflict has undoubt- many parts of the country, and especially along the border edly been an exogenous factor, the impact of drought with Pakistan. The lack of a legal framework clarifying should not necessarily result in a degraded environment.

Needs Assessment: Subsector Programs 5 Afghanistan has a history of droughts of varying sever- tershed) planning and the basins’ subdivisions ity and will continue to experience such periods. Tradi- (microwatersheds), as indicated in the NDF. At the tional coping and mitigation strategies have broken microwatershed level, management plans would be formu- down under growing population pressures, the collapse lated with full community participation; the communities, of the rural economy, and control by local elites. These through the allocation of tenure or user rights, would strategies must be rebuilt within the context of the com- become the custodians of the microwatersheds’ natural munity development approach and effective natural re- resources. The permitted level of natural resource use in source management. In the future, vulnerability to each microwatershed would be determined in collabora- drought must be significantly reduced by incorporat- tion with the agencies responsible for overall natural ing a range of technologies and by strengthening off- resource management (i.e., the river basin authorities and farm income-generating activities. Any tendency to their parent organization). Pilot programs to test misuse natural resources must be countered by appro- microwatershed planning, building upon similar work sup- ported by NGOs, should com- mence within the next 6 months. It is envisaged that this work will take place within the broader context of community empowerment and participatory planning programs. Pilot social forestry projects should be established in those areas worst affected by community fuelwood gathering. These activi- ties could be initiated quickly under the Rural Livelihood (short- term employment generation) Pro- gram, and more widely as a com- ponent of the Community Devel- opment Program. Urban greening projects could be initiated quickly under the Rural Livelihood Pro- gram. In the Shamali Valley, outside Kabul, a group of farmers follow a herd of sheep down a Via a forest and rangeland village road. inventory, the status of the remain- ing forest area and rangeland is to priate environmental management institutions backed be assessed using geographic information systems (GIS) by legislation. At present, no agency in Afghanistan has technology. The possibility of concluding agreements with overall responsibility for the protection of its natural local commanders to help curb illegal logging will be con- resources. sidered. The issues outlined above provide the basis for for- Medium-Term Programs/Investments. The Gov- mulating strategic objectives, identifying short- and ernment should commit itself to a target of 5% forest cover medium-term needs, and deriving policy requirements for within 20 years. This target should be allocated by water- a natural resource management development framework, shed and be made the responsibility of the proposed river which is summarized in Table 1. basin authorities. A similar target should be set for the rehabilitation of degraded rangeland, above a minimum Development Framework altitude. In the medium term, forest policy and forest legisla- tion, implementation of institutional reforms, and social Short-Term Interventions. It is proposed that the forestry activities as part of the community development above issues be addressed within the context of a natural programs will be the major focus. Policy and legislation resource management approach based on river basin (wa- will be required for community joint management of forest

6 Rebuilding Afghanistan’s Agriculture Sector Table 1. Natural Resource Management Matrix

Needs Assessment Key Issue Strategic Objective Policy Agenda Short-Term Program Medium-Term Development

Severe depletion of Restored and enhanced Assess state of remaining Prepare programs to Interim forest policy, natural forest and quality of natural forests, natural forest (using RS/ restore degraded forest including protection biodiversity resources with a long-term target of GIS). and reforestation. measures 5% forest cover

Conversion of pasture- Improved productivity Assess status of rangeland Develop programs to Grazing rights land to cropland and sustainable use of resources and tenure restore degraded integrated into rangeland arrangements. rangeland. microwatershed plans

Timber demand rapidly Illegal logging curbed Reach agreements with Reach agreements to Joint management of increasing local commanders/ enforce off-take using a natural forests with governors. combination of community communities wardens and police.

Urban greening Reduced air pollution Initiate peri-urban tree Labor-intensive and more attractive planting/employment programs urban environment program.

Demand for fuel- An integrated household Establish social forestry Develop soil-forestry Rural energy policy wood for household energy program programs in selected programs as part of energy in excess of areas. community supply microwatershed plans.

Lack of accountability Community-based Formulate pilot micro- Implement microwatershed Community for natural resource microwatershed plans watershed plans in plans including investment responsibility for management and management collaboration with in forest products. plantation forest, communities. pistachio, and other fruit tree forests

Unclear tenure/ Land registry linked to Assess existing rights and Compile a computerized Land tenure policies leasehold rights cadastre records. registry linked to a national cadastre.

Inadequate institutional A reformed DoF Conduct an institutional Develop institutional Policies on line structures review and analysis of DoF. arrangements for ministries’ role in watershed management. natural resources management.

Need for capacity Fully trained staff Implement NDF PAIGs at Develop training programs Policy on upgrading building focused on the new DoF national and provincial based on approved skills of senior line mandate levels. institutional review ministry staff recommendations.

Demolished Effective working Rebuild necessary DoF Create a functioning, Policy on reconstruc- infrastructure environment office and facilities in Kabul reformed agency tion of office and provinces for revised responsible for natural infrastructure. role. resource priorities.

Notes: DoF = Department of Forestry; GIS =geographic information system; NDF = National Development Framework; PAIG = planning and implementation group; RS = remote sensing.

Source: CNA Mission. resources, commercial logging, plantations, biodiversity, resources. Classification and codification of all forms of and developing community forestry. The social forestry tenure rights will be needed to effectively implement these activities will involve community management of forest activities.

Needs Assessment: Subsector Programs 7 The implementation of a participatory natural and built by farmers, and operated and maintained accord- resource management strategy in line with AIA policy will ing to traditional communal customs and practices. require institutional change at the village/district, provin- The effects of war and neglect on these systems have cial, and national levels. At the village/district level, the not been systematically assessed. While substantial finan- representative committees will need to develop planning cial and technical support for rehabilitation since 1989 and management skills, in addition to their traditional has come from NGOs and United Nations agencies, com- conflict resolution role. At the provincial level, line minis- prehensive data on the scale and extent of successful and try staff will have to combine technical competence with sustainable rehabilitation is not available. In 1997, FAO skills in participatory planning, and at the national level estimated that about 1.7 Mha required rehabilitation, and there will be major reform and reorganization. The insti- another 0.68 Mha required improved water management. tutional and policy issues are covered in more detail in A limited number of large formal irrigation systems have Chapters III and IV, respectively, of this report. also been built, operated, and maintained by the State, and are in need of major rehabilitation. Most are currently not Water Resources

Current Status and Issues

Water resources are most precious in Afghanistan and must be managed efficiently and sustainably, as they are fundamentally scarce and drought is a common occurrence. At present, oppor- tunities exist to make water planning, use, and management more efficient: only 15% of runoff contributes to aqui- fer recharge, and irrigation system effi- ciency levels are about 25%, when a level of 40% should be the norm, and can be achieved with feasible levels of invest- In the village of Qadam Joy, in Saram district, Sar-e Pol, a young girl waits her turn ment. Moreover, demands on the re- to draw water at a kanga, or well. Water resources are precious in Afghanistan. source have grown and are expected to continue to grow. The scope also exists to expand irriga- functioning. These large formal schemes raise significant tion area. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) technical, institutional, and social issues, because they will has estimated that long-term water availability is about require infrastructure rehabilitation, and repairs to dams 3 2,800 m per head per year, enough to irrigate 4 Mha, and other major structures; many, particularly those in the which is significantly higher than the current 2.6-Mha plains and in the South, have serious water management command area. problems, including waterlogging and salinity. Total developed irrigated area in 1978 was estimated The Government needs to develop appropriate poli- 1 to be 2.63 Mha, consisting of (i) 1.32 Mha irrigated by cies to manage and monitor groundwater development and traditional methods from perennial rivers; (ii) 0.98 Mha use effectively. Groundwater, whether a part of annual re- irrigated by traditional methods from ephemeral streams, charge or the nonrenewable reserves, could serve as the kareze (underground water channels), and arhads (a kind of most important safeguard in times of drought or low water spring); and (iii) 0.33 Mha by modern systems from availability (a principle mentioned in the 1981 Water Law). perennial rivers. Only 1.44 Mha had sufficient water sup- Legal and regulatory approaches require effective public ply to support double cropping. Approximately 2.3 Mha, institutions and obedience to the rule of law. A more prom- or 90% of total area, uses traditional schemes developed ising approach being applied in many areas of the develop-

1 As reported in the Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy, FAO, ing world is to involve communities directly in joint use 1997. and management of surface and groundwater, in some cases

8 Rebuilding Afghanistan’s Agriculture Sector by forming special groundwater management districts in munity participation, since the community groups will take which all water users (surface and groundwater) have an over the management. effective role in decision making. The issues outlined above provide the basis for formu- While the increase in vulnerability to low rainfall can lating strategic objectives identifying short- and medium- be traced to unsustainable land use practices involving term needs, and deriving policy requirements for the water overgrazing, deforestation, and cultivation of marginal resource subsector development framework, which is sum- lands, these practices are an outcome of increased popula- marized in Table 2. tion density, a shrinking natural resource base, and limited opportunities for alternative employment and income. Development Framework When prolonged drought occurs, farmers deplete assets, produce less, and incur increased indebtedness; low food Short-Term Interventions. Developing a long- supply, poor health, and increased uncertainty sustain a term strategy to manage water resources and reduce vul- downward spiral from which it is difficult to recover when nerability to drought is a government priority. The strategy rainfall returns to normal. For this reason, providing sup- should focus on increasing water capital and improving port to the off-farm rural economy is a high priority: effi- water use efficiency. Specifically, the strategy should in- ciently targeted and implemented labor-intensive inter- clude ventions to rehabilitate rural infrastructure, including · water harvesting and watershed management, includ- roads, provide needed employment and livelihood ing more water storage structures, both small and improvement. large; Given the country’s variable climatic conditions and · effective control of groundwater use; vulnerability to drought, information systems on current · better information systems on water availability; and expected weather, rain, and water accumulation in win- · elimination of unsustainable land use practices; ter snowpack are important, both at the individual level of · improved intake structures and corresponding on-farm farmer decision making and cropping enterprises, and at a water management; macro level in preparing short- and long-term strategies · management transfer of state-owned schemes; and to reduce vulnerability to drought. Such strategies may · extending the irrigated command area. involve water conservation and efficient water use, water In the short term, the emphasis of the strategy and pri- harvesting and watershed management, small storage dams, orities will be on investment in the rehabilitation of tradi- and river basin planning and management. In Afghani- tional small and medium irrigation schemes, with such stan, data on the amount of water stored in the snowpack is programs to play a key role in institutional restructuring especially important, because snowmelt is the primary and capacity building, planning for the rehabilitation of source of spring runoff and river flow. Snow surveys to formal and large-scale schemes, establishment of database measure such water storage and forecast runoff are com- and information systems, and initiating the institutional mon in river basins in many countries. change process. More detailed provisions: The river basin (and subbasin as appropriate) should · Conduct water conservation and harvesting through be the basic unit for planning and management. To man- soil, vegetation, and forest cover management; con- age multisector and often conflicting demands, a national struct check dams, contour bunds, and other facilities water coordination agency should be established with to conserve water; and enhance groundwater recharge responsibility for guiding all aspects of water use across in all watersheds. Global experience has demonstrated, all ministries (planning and regulation), as well as moni- in arid environments similar to Afghanistan’s, that wa- toring, protection, and conservation of the resource base. ter harvesting measures are effective. Water harvest- Sustainable management of rivers and their use for irriga- ing measures are also labor-intensive and offer the tion and hydropower, and management of flood hazards Government an opportunity to generate short-term em- and risks, as well as other uses, are and will be important in ployment. Construction of storage reservoirs in determining the prosperity of the country. selected river basins and watersheds, focusing initially There is scope for transfer of the management of larger on small reservoirs, would support more efficient wa- irrigation schemes to the beneficiaries. The State owns ter use in irrigation by improving farmers’ control of about 0.4 Mha within such schemes. Their rehabilitation water supply. should be based on approaches that result from active com- · Rehabilitate small- to medium-scale irrigation schemes requiring infrastructure repair work that

Needs Assessment: Subsector Programs 9 Table 2. Water Resource Management Matrix

Needs Assessment Key Issue Strategic Objective Policy Agenda Indicator Short-Term Program Medium-Term Development (1–2 Years) Framework (2–5 Years)

Large number of Maximized scale and Address critical rehabilita- Expand rehabilitation Water rights formally set inoperable, damaged efficiency of small-scale tion needs in traditional program progressively in legal framework small-scale irrigation irrigation small-scale systems. based on detailed schemes assessment.

Poorly functioning or Fully functioning major Conduct technical Make major investment in Policy on ownership and nonfunctioning major irrigation schemes assessment and feasibility medium/large schemes, transfer of management informal and formal studies. including appropriate of medium/large-scale irrigation schemes institutional restructuring. systems to user group

Inadequate water Rebuilt knowledge base Assess status of hydrologic Build comprehensive river River basin institutional resources knowledge stations and irrigation basin system databases structures base systems systematically. using latest information tools.

Lack of holistic Community-based Devise pilot schemes to Replicate approved Formalized concept of microwatershed microwatershed develop management models. community-based management management models. microwatershed management

Groundwater depletion Sustainable use of Monitor tubewell develop- Arrange for formal Policy on the use of groundwater ment and impact; if application process to be groundwater necessary, initiate interim approved by river basin licensing requirement or planning and monitoring ban on tubewells. mechanism.

Lack of appropriate A coordination agency Formulate proposals and Establish coordination Regulation on terms of water resources with an overall view of options. agency with subordinate reference for the management/coor- the many demands on river basin authorities. coordination agency and dination mechanisms water resources river basin authorities

Most major rivers are A set of internationally Conduct discussions/ Draw up a clear set of Existing agreements international, requiring binding riparian negotiations with neighbors; water allocations for each reviewed, negotiating riparian agreements. agreements take up seats in existing major river basin. politions prepared regional forums.

Outdated ministry roles Reform of the roles and Initiate the Planning and Implement approved Guidelines on the role and organizational functions of core Implementation Group recommendations of the and core functions of structures ministries concept and undertake full institutional analysis. Government and transfer institutional analysis. of responsibilities to private sector

Damaged physical Adequate working Implement reconstruction Complete reconstruction infrastructure of line environment for program in selected program based on ministries at the reformed line ministry provinces according to institutional assessments. national and provincial staff agreed reforms. levels

Shortage of skilled Full complement of Devise appropriate Restart training programs. Higher education training technicians skilled staff incentives to attract returnees.

Source: CNA Mission.

extends beyond routine preventive maintenance and will be based on a systematic technical assessment of needs resources (funds, technical knowhow and skills, problems and consultation with mirabs and farmers. construction materials) and that farmers and villagers All systems within the basin or subbasin should be are unable to mobilize. The rehabilitation program systematically surveyed and assessed before priorities

10 Rebuilding Afghanistan’s Agriculture Sector are selected and specific projects formulated, in order servation of natural resources. The Government is con- to ensure that traditional water rights and allocations sidering an institutional mechanism for management of are preserved, and that upstream and downstream im- each major river basin of the country. However, an addi- pacts and conflicts are minimized and mitigated. The tional consideration is very important for Afghanistan: each rehabilitation of these systems will be undertaken of its major river basins is shared with its neighbors. within a community development framework, and are Negotiating and monitoring agreements with each of its likely to be linked and associated with rural liveli- neighbors to ensure that Afghanistan has an equitable share hood activities. Pilot projects will also be implemented of the resource will be a demanding task, and will require to support community management of watersheds and establishment of a committee or special body with appro- water harvesting. priate specialized technical staff . · Plan the rehabilitation of formal and large-scale irri- Medium-Term Programs/Investments. The gation schemes. Initial assessment work has com- medium-term interventions will involve expansion of the menced in MIWR, with schemes identified and pre- investment program and implementation of institutional liminary technical assessments to be undertaken. and policy reforms, via the following key activities: Complementary efforts will be needed to facilitate the · Expansion of the traditional small and medium irri- management transfer of these systems to the benefi- gation system rehabilitation program under the com- ciaries. Users will have to be organized into an appro- munity development program; priate institutional framework and water delivery con- · Implementation of an investment program for reha- tracts agreed upon. This will include a water charging bilitation of formal and large-scale irrigation schemes, policy and collection mechanism. In addition, detailed the rehabilitation program to be based on feasibility design work should continue on partially developed studies for each scheme and selection criteria for pri- or new schemes. oritizing individual schemes; · Database and information system establishment should · Institutional reform and capacity building (see Chap- commence as soon as practical. Rebuilding the water ter IV for more detail); and resources knowledge base will be a collaborative ef- · Policy and legislative reform for water policy and fort of all core ministries and agencies, coordinated rights, water charges, community-based watershed by the Afghan Information Management System management and irrigation system transfer to users, (AIMS). The introduction and use of modern infor- and groundwater and intercountry water transfers. mation technology, including remote sensing and GIS, has the potential of greatly increasing the capacity of the core water sector ministries to plan and manage Community Development the reconstruction program. A government task force Programs including AIMS will be required to develop standards and protocols to enable efficient sharing and use of a wide range of data for different purposes. Coordina- Current Status and Issues tion of this work by the Government is essential to ensure that all studies contribute the overall goal. In Afghanistan, the large number of individual com- Reestablishing the hydrologic and hydrogeologic net- munities (about 18,000) has traditionally had a keen inter- work (including stations to monitor snowpack) is a est in the use and protection of natural resources. Commu- high priority, though it should be undertaken within nal management, risk mitigation, and coping strategies the context of earlier network designs. The historical were a common feature of these traditional agricultural knowledge base of maps, reports, and studies is partly systems. Such community mechanisms have been weak- lost; every effort should be made to reassemble it. ened by years of conflict and a legacy of displaced people, Appropriate institutional arrangements for water widows and orphans, and disabled and uneducated groups. resource management are an essential prerequisite. These To reestablish social cohesion, village/district-level deci- options should be assessed in the context of the broader sion-making structures must be rebuilt with appropriate review of required sector agencies and their respective policies and sensitive programs and projects. roles. International experience has shown that the river Different communities have distinct social characteris- basin is not only the best unit for planning but also for tics and different levels of participation by their members, management of both water supply and demand and con- but it is a characteristic of Afghan communities that there

Needs Assessment: Subsector Programs 11 be broad consensus on matters that affect all members. to expanding alternative development-oriented groups. As The shura is primarily a means of achieving broad under- the shuras become a central feature of development pro- standing and agreement among the leading members of gramming, it will be important for the international com- society to avoid conflict. The shura is not necessarily fully munity to remember that (i) there is no stereotype shura, representative of the community, and democratic principles (ii) social differences exist between regions that must be of equality and majority rule are not the basis for deci- taken into account, and (iii) the status of women varies sions, which come about through extended discussion. across the country and is reflected in their role in the shura. Shuras are valuable resources for reducing conflict and The vast majority of communities lack basic services, encouraging cooperation and collaboration. Whether the especially communications, clean drinking water, and health views of minorities, women, or the poor become part of care facilities. While agriculture is the basis of the economy, the discussions depends very much on the local shura. advice on new technologies and varieties is available but lim- Those in the community with the fewest resources are the ited, and institutional credit facilities are absent. Community least likely to contribute to discussions or benefit from infrastructure related to agricultural production, such as irri- economic opportunities for the village. In some places, gation systems and water impoundments, bridges, and roads, powerful minorities control much of the land and the local are badly degraded. Community participation in economic political processes. development decision making has been relatively narrowly Community development approaches may conflict focused, but there are strong village consensus reckoning with these groups, sometimes to the exclusion of partici- devices in the shuras and reliable mechanisms to help vulner- patory approaches. NGOs have been active in Afghani- able groups. The community-based approach to development stan working with rural communities, and have developed will require (i) strong support programs to assist empowered a number of approaches to facilitate community partici- communities to develop the skills to participate fully in deci- pation and development. For example, the Aga Khan sion-making processes, and (ii) funding mechanisms, so the Development Network has a clear method for facilitating processes will have practical outcomes that improve livelihoods. growth of inclusive, participatory mechanisms beginning At present, the MRRD has few if any resources with which with close collaboration with the shura. In Badakshan, for to assist communities. As part of the AIA policy, it will need to example, increasing success and responsibility on the part redefine its role and functions, and restructure to effectively of shuras has given rise to expanded programs managed by assist communities. MRRD has little recent experience in committees and interest groups operating with approval designing, surveying, or implementing and managing com- of the shura. The “community forums” working with munity-based programs. Its traditional style of operation will United Nations Habitat in Bamian is another approach be inappropriate for approaches that require partnership with communities. Provincial offices At a market in Sar-e Pol, grain, oil and other goods are for sale. have been destroyed, and only a few are still functioning through bud- getary and program assistance from United Nations agencies and NGOs. Consequently, the database on the status of community infra- structure and community organiza- tions is highly fragmented. The role of these offices in the context of increased decentraliza- tion of decision making and enhanced community empower- ment has yet to be defined. The scale of infrastructure rehabilita- tion will be determined by identi- fied requirements of the revised roles, and the human resource development and capacity build- ing needs will be designed to sup- port the revised functions.

12 Rebuilding Afghanistan’s Agriculture Sector Table 3. Community Development Program Matrix

Needs Assessment Key Issue Strategic Objective Policy Agenda Indicators Short-Term Program Medium-Term Development Framework (2–5 Years)

Degraded community Self-reliant village and Initiate community Build a community Communities infrastructure and district community empowerment and development model that empowered to essential services community-based public empowers communities to undertake ownership works program. manage local investment and management and natural resource policy formulation management decisions.

Rehabilitation of All villages to have a Start a community-based Develop a formal small- Precise role of water delivery reliable source of water program, including criteria for scale irrigation program empowered com- infrastructure for identifying villages and managed by empowered munity representa- drinking and irrigation surveys of required works. communities, using a tives (shuras) in combination of village labor project design and and NGO expertise. implementation defined

Strengthening com- Communities capable of Start community training Develop internal MRRD In-service training munity skills in plan- full participation in local programs in project design, training programs to programs ning and implement- natural resource planning, and implementa- enhance community skills. ing projects management decissions tion.

Redefining line A clear statement of the Include MRRD in the Implement approved Public sector role in ministry (MRRD) roles role and functions of a broader institutional recommendations of the empowered com- reformed MRRD assessment of sector line institutional assessment. munity development ministries. programs

Damaged physical An appropriate working Repair MRRD physical Repair and reform national infrastructure of environment infrastructure in accordance and provincial offices. MRRD with reforms.

Weak institutional A strong MRRD capable Undertake initial training Formalize and internalize Human resources capacity of supporting and programs in needs assess- training programs for MRRD development policies monitoring community- ment, databases, project staff. based programs planning, and finance.

Redefining role of A clear understanding of Carry out short-term Develop a clear mandate MRRD provincial level reformed MRRD staff reorientation training. based on the detailed office role in participatory institutional assessment. planning

Inadequate village- Village-level databases Carry out sample village- Establish an annual village Sector information level data to apply level assessment, e.g., survey based on a fixed base; future of AIMS selection criteria build on WFP work. sample and including each district.

Notes: AIMS = Afghanistan Information Management System; MRRD = Ministry of Rehabilitation and Rural Development; NGO = nongovernment organization; WFP = World Food Programme.

Source: CNA Mission.

The issues outlined above provide the basis for for- Development Framework mulating strategic objectives, identifying short- and medium-term needs, and deriving policy requirements for Short-Term Interventions. One of the major a medium-term community development subsector frame- requirements to help implement the proposed community work, which is summarized in Table 3. programs is a more detailed village-level database. In the short term, the World Food Programme annual village sur- vey based on a sample of about 1,250 villages is the only significant database. This survey data requires more

Needs Assessment: Subsector Programs 13 NGOs. MRRD staff will need formal and informal train- ing in participatory approaches and in working with NGOs at the village/district level. All communities must be made aware of the changes taking place and of the opportunities that the changes offer them. Medium-Term Programs/Investments. The medium-term program will involve investments in com- munity empowerment and organization and village plan- ning and decision-making processes; and formalizing relationships with government agencies, NGOs, and com- munities that had started on a pilot basis to formulate com- munity development models. The models should be developed by implementing agreed-upon priorities within the context of the communities’ use of microwatershed natural resources. Activities could include rehabilitation of rural roads, water storage or small-scale irrigation infrastructure, reestablishing fodder and agroforestry plots, livestock and agricultural activities, creation of off-farm small enterprises, and related training courses. Agriculture

Fruits and vegetables abound at the Kandahar market. Current Status and Issues in-depth analysis than has been possible, and further re- The arable agricultural resource base is about 7.5 Mha finement of the questionnaire to enable additional data of cultivable land, which is divided into rainfed and irri- collection. In the medium term, the annual village survey gated land. The rainfed area, largely located in the north- should become an integral part of the sector’s information ern provinces and dominated by cereal production, is esti- base. mated at about 4 Mha, but the area actually cultivated in a AIA identifies community empowerment and the use given year varies considerably, depending upon the climatic of participatory planning mechanisms as a cornerstone of factors, such as precipitation, and the area left fallow. The its development framework. The concept of community recent succession of dry years has reduced the annually development, empowerment, or participation in Afghani- cultivated rainfed area to less than 0.5 Mha. stan requires elaboration, as it means communities become In recent years, partly as a result of the drought, rainfed involved with community needs assessment, program plan- cereal productivity levels have been low, averaging some ning, implementation, and management. The concept of 0.6 tonnes/ha. At present, rainfed cereal production has community development and the model may be country- fallen to about 10% of expected production in a normal specific or even region-specific and may evolve with expe- rainfall year. As a consequence, food security, especially in rience and experimentation. Assistance will be provided the northern areas, is the first priority. Recovery strategies to support community empowerment and the development for these areas must be predicated on the assumption of of effective development models. highly variable rainfall and risk mitigation. Farmers must NGOs have been implementing community devel- be able to respond to favorable weather conditions quickly opment projects for many years. The CNA mission iden- and, since yields will always be relatively low, in a cost- tified more than 120 ongoing development projects with a effective manner. community-based approach and a total annual budget of Farmers must have access to quality seed, fertilizer, more than $40 million. To utilize this experience and avoid and draft or mechanical power. In addition, they need tech- duplication, MRRD programs will need careful coordi- nical advice on recent developments in dryland farming nation. A major initial step will be to reorient MRRD systems, including water harvesting, and access to effec- staff to the changed relationship with communities and tive plant protection and disease control systems. To avail

14 Rebuilding Afghanistan’s Agriculture Sector themselves of quality inputs, farmers will need to have double cropping. Irrigation systems include traditional access to rural finance. In the last 10 years, NGOs, United systems using informal river diversion structures main- Nations agencies—in particular, FAO—and the external tained by the users, which account for about 55% of the funding community have been involved in agricultural total irrigated area; traditional systems based on natural rehabilitation, developing farmer-based seed multiplica- springs, kareze, or arhads, which account for about 30% of tion programs, promoting technology transfer, and sup- the irrigated area; and more modern formal river diversion porting agricultural service delivery systems. The lessons structures, which were built in the 1960s and 1970s, and learned need to be incorporated in planned strategies and which account for the remaining 15%. future programs. A key feature of these irrigation systems is the very Considerable potential for productivity improvements low efficiency rating of about 25%, which means consider- exists, even allowing for the low and variable rainfall able scope exists for reducing the waste of water and regime. The International Centre for Agricultural Re- increasing the irrigated area. Reliable data on the current search in Dry Areas has promoted drought-tolerant vari- extent and productivity of irrigated agriculture is frag- eties and cultural practices for cereals, legumes, and forage crops that would significantly increase returns and could double current yields. With extensive and well-designed micro-watershed management and the adoption of microwater-harvesting techniques, the potential for further yield increases is Photo to be chosen later available. This potential to improve rainfed cereal yields means that rainfed farm- ing could play an important role in ag- riculture sector recovery. In the longer term, the possibility of Afghanistan being able to produce around 1.5– 2.0 million tonnes of cereals annually from its rainfed farming areas would trans- form agricultural development. Food security concerns could be relegated A small irrigation project near Kabul; most irrigation works in Afghanistan are to very specific marginal areas, and informal river diversion measures maintained by users. high-value irrigation water could be used, for the most part, to grow high-value cash crops. A mented, mostly because of the combined impact of recent further advantage of such a strategy is that it is based on conflicts and the prolonged drought. Many systems have the careful management of microwatersheds, which means been damaged or have not been maintained. A number of that communities are drawn into an integrated approach the more modern systems and larger traditional systems to resource use combining water, forestry, rangeland, and also suffer from salinity and waterlogging problems. crops. This is the traditional Afghan approach, which has The productivity of all types of systems can be largely broken down in the course of the past 20 years. improved substantially. First, improved on-farm water man- The relatively low and variable rainfall regime places agement and appropriate inputs will substantially increase a premium on irrigated land. It is estimated that 85% of yields. The average national yield of irrigated wheat in all agricultural output is derived from the irrigated areas. recent years has been around 1.3 tonnes/ha. With improved The general management of water resources and the effi- water management and inputs, a long-term goal of a ciency of irrigation systems are therefore of critical national average yield for irrigated wheat of 3.0–3.5 tonnes/ importance to the whole food economy. While the poten- ha is feasible. For a comparison, the average yield of bread tial irrigable area has been estimated at 5 Mha, the total wheat lines by the International Maize and Wheat developed area at present is around 2.6 Mha. Under nor- Improvement Center in the period 1995–2000, under a mal conditions about 1.4 Mha have sufficient water for range of agroclimatic conditions, varied from 4.6 to 5.7

Needs Assessment: Subsector Programs 15 tonnes/ha. In addition to yield improvements, better wa- charge in a land tax, a concept with which Afghan farmers ter management will contribute to higher cropping inten- are familiar. Further, such as tax could also be made pro- sities, which are a function of water availability and length gressive, which would minimize social discord. Such a of growing season. Better water management should make policy would send price signals to farmers that would in- possible an increase in the proportion of the irrigated com- crease pressure to improve water use efficiency, extend mand area that can be double-cropped from 50% to at double cropping, and produce higher-value crops and crops least 65%—although the second crop enterprise may be with lower water requirements. restricted to forage. Inputs such as seed, fertilizer, and agrochemicals are The principal output of the irrigated systems is wheat, being provided by a number of external funding agencies, accounting for about 80% of production, and a range of including NGOs. In some instances, inputs are being pro- horticultural crops. It is expected that irrigated wheat area vided free of charge. Tight coordination of input provision will decline as rainfed wheat cultivation becomes more is needed to ensure that both quantity and quality issues productive and farmers’ contribution to the cost of water are adequately addressed. In particular, formation of a con- increases. The development and rehabilitation of irrigated sensus is needed on a strategy that moves the current situ- agriculture require significant investment, which has to ation toward the government vision of private sector-led be recovered, and a single crop of wheat, even at a yield of distribution networks for the main inputs. Such a strategy 3.0 tonnes/ha, is probably insufficient to enable this re- will need to address policy issues, which include the role of covery. A much higher proportion of the irrigated area the public sector in plant protection programs and the need could support high-value cash crops. Agroforestry and for regulation of quality control of seeds, fertilizers, and agro- horticulture are a small but previously highly productive chemicals provided by the private sector. subsector, at one time accounting for 40% of export earn- Afghanistan formerly produced a number of industrial ings. These crops, plus others that have not traditionally crops such as cotton and sugar beets, which were linked to been grown in Afghanistan, should be assessed and where substantial processing facilities. These facilities are largely feasible piloted. moribund. Feasibility studies will be needed to determine the The issues outlined above provide the basis for for- prospects for the industries and, based on the outcomes of mulating strategic objectives, identifying short- and these studies, investment requirements identified. Future in- medium-term needs, and deriving policy requirements for vestment will be based on private sector involvement. a medium-term agriculture subsector framework, which The recovery of commercial agriculture and much of the is summarized in Table 4. cereal subsector will require finance, which is not readily avail- able. At present, farmers in need of credit are dependent on Development Framework informal sources. It is vitally important to the success of the proposed community-based approach that alternative sources Short-Term Interventions. The conflict and drought of finance be made available. The reestablishment of agricul- of recent years have had a devastating impact on the horticul- tural credit facilities requires detailed assessment of the feasi- ture industry. Precise figures are not available, but observa- bility of introducing both community and asset-based lend- tion and small surveys suggest that approximately 50% of ing. Commercial funds are needed in agriculture, which means orchards have been destroyed. The feasibility of rehabilitat- asset-based lending using land titles as collateral and related ing the industry will be determined by the potential to com- bankruptcy procedures. The instruments for asset-based lend- pete in international markets. Other players have entered the ing are not well established; and since it is estimated that less markets vacated by Afghanistan, and regaining former mar- than 25% of landholders have clear legal title to their land, ket share will be difficult. A detailed survey of potential mar- collateral will be a constraint. A review of the rural financial kets and their requirements should be undertaken. sector is required to identify an appropriate institutional frame- The present status of irrigated agriculture raises a work; this will include an assessment of existing functioning number of policy issues related to maximizing the effi- and nonfunctioning bank and nonbank financial institutions. cient use of available water. System efficiency levels are The AIA-outlined strategy in the NDF that public reportedly as low as 25%, and the potential exists to institutions will be restructured to undertake core func- improve on-farm water management efficiencies. If the tions represents a significant departure from the tradi- system improvements are to be sustainable, farmers will tional role of MAAH. A sector institutional review and have to accept the concept of water charges. One option analysis is required. In a restructured institution, core may be to have this done obliquely, by including a water responsibilities are likely to encompass policy and plan-

16 Rebuilding Afghanistan’s Agriculture Sector Table 4. Agriculture Subsector Matrix

Needs Assessment Key Issues Strategic Objective Policy Agenda Indicators Short-Term Program Medium-Term Development (1–2 Years) Framework (2–5 Years)

Inadequate and Rainfed area output Transfer latest dryland farming Implement programs to Technology transfer outdated dryland maximized methods and mitigate risks of transfer dryland farming mechanisms farming technology low rainfall. methods.

Availability of drought- Uptake of approved Multiply distribution of seed Set up a private sector-led Seed certification resistant cereal, varieties via network of contracted seed production and and quality control legume, and fodder farmers. distribution network. varieties

Fertilizer distribution Adequate supplies Ensure adequate supplies Privatize the fertilizer factory Policies on private available at world without undermining private and support private sector sector services prices sector activities. distribution. delivery

Inadequate farm Appropriate technol- Promote farmer organizations Promote machinery hire and Rural coops and power ogy available as and undertake detailed needs machinery coops. enterprise start-up needed assessment in consultations incentives with farmers’ recommenda- tions.

Plant protection Minimal risk of crop Support MAAH efforts to Establish an efficient public Scope and funding of against selected losses from major control pests on an interim sector capacity to control public sector plant major pests pests basis. locusts, etc. protection service

Poor on-farm water On-farm water Rehabilitate small-scale Make irrigation system Water pricing, cost management management irrigation schemes that include investments that incorporate recovery, and efficiencies improved design measures to improve improved agreed on-farm technology and by 20% on-farm water management water management tech- irrigation manage- and technology transfer. niques. ment transfer policies

Badly damaged A rejuvenated, Reestablish nurseries to Establish private sector Rural finance and horticulture industry competitive industry provide rootstock on a nurseries with bank financing. private sector policies commercial basis. Promote pilot programs for Trade policies, start- Inadequate market Private sector trade Conduct marketing studies for innovative crops, especially in up incentives, and knowledge associations horticulture and other poppy-growing areas. poppy substitution potential high-value crops.

Moribund industrial Competitive private Evaluate and, if necessary, Finalize approved investment Investment policy in crops sector industries conduct feasibility studies. packages with significant agriculture and private sector partners. agroprocessing

Inappropriate A reformed MAAH Conduct institutional review of Implement approved Public sector/line institutions with large MAAH role and functions. recommendations of ministry roles numbers of staff institutional review.

Capacity building Well-trained MAAH Conduct short-term Establish training and study In-service training staff reorientation programs. programs. policies

Lack of agricultural Commercial and Review financial sector, Set up commercial bank and Landownership and credit nonbank financial develop framework for nonbank financial institutions bankruptcy legislation institutions community and asset-based lending to agriculture. lending.

Note: MAAH = Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry. Source: CNA Mission. ning, plant disease and pest control, certification sys- tural extension services will be assessed to determine tems for agricultural inputs and products, animal health, the most effective and efficient delivery system, be it and applied agricultural research. Delivery of agricul- private or public provision. This institutional reorga-

Needs Assessment: Subsector Programs 17 nization will result in a smaller organization. The their subsistence needs, are now without animals. Disease infrastructure support and staff retraining programs will problems are only being partially contained. Rangeland is be based on these new roles. overgrazed; nomadic and semisedentary sheepherders are Medium-Term Programs/Investments. The key experiencing high livestock mortality rates. Improvements medium-term programs of the agriculture subsector will in the small ruminant sector, even in nondrought times, include the following: are hampered by traditional user rights and grazing prac- · Private sector provision of agricultural inputs (fertil- tices and a preoccupation by raisers with livestock num- izer, chemicals); bers rather than productivity. · A private sector-led seed industry, building on exist- Over the last decade, in the absence of MAAH provi- ing private seed multiplication farms; sion of animal health and livestock services, a number of · Public sector provision of plant protection and dis- development partners (the United Nations Development ease control monitoring systems, seed certification, Programme [UNDP], FAO, bilateral funding agencies, and regulatory systems for fertilizer and agrochemi- and NGOs) have supported a number of project activities. cals; These include the establishment of an alternative system · A farmer-based comprehensive technology transfer of veterinary field units (VFUs), which have been estab- program for dryland and irrigated farming systems, lished in every province and in most districts. While the improving production and water use efficiency; objective of these units was to become financially self- · Community-based and large-scale rehabilitation pro- sufficient, in most locations the drought and conflict have grams; reduced both livestock requirements and farmer client · Private sector-led investments in horticulture produc- capacity to pay for the services. Other key externally funded tion, processing, and marketing systems, and in activities have involved vaccination programs and de- industrial crops; worming treatments. While these activities are beneficial, · Alternative and innovative crop pilot program the present coverage is inadequate. (undertaken as part of the Agriculture Research and In the commercial and semicommercial sector, most Technology Transfer System [ARTTS]). herds and flocks have been substantially reduced, and investments in assets such as feed mills and commercial poultry and milk processing facilities have been lost. To Livestock Programs reestablish these activities, investments in the semicommercial poultry and dairy sectors will be impor- Current Status and Issues tant if prospective producers are to access breeding stock, breeding material, commercial feedstuffs, and equipment. Considerable investment is also required for reestablish- Traditionally, livestock activities have been an integral ing feed mills and poultry and milk processing plants. Pri- part of most farming systems in Afghanistan; livestock and vate sector investment is needed for poultry, red meat, and their products contribute to farm draft power, family nutrition, dairy production. Investments are needed in production the raw materials for household goods (wool, hair, hides, dung), and processing facilities, which add value to livestock prod- and tradable products. Livestock activities often provided the ucts for domestic consumption or export. These include household with its only source of cash income. Previously the operations such as abattoirs, dairy processing plants, tan- livestock subsector accounted for 40% of total export earn- neries, wool processors, and fattening operations. The ings, but it is estimated that livestock numbers are now about reestablishment of these facilities would also create a mar- half the level of a decade ago. ket in that area for smallholder-produced livestock prod- At present, livestock raisers have serious problems: ucts, to which most smallholders now have no access. loss of livestock, decreased productivity due to declining Within MAAH, two subdirectorates are responsible feed and overgrazing, and the effects of animal diseases, for livestock. Currently, both are ineffective, lacking re- which are not being adequately treated. Much of the irri- sources to undertake existing functions. Most if not all of gated land that formerly supported livestock is now with- the staff would require retraining. Further, significant weak- out water. The small poultry flocks that were almost exclu- nesses in private and public sector skills in commercial sively owned and managed by women have for many house- and semicommercial poultry and dairy production also holds almost disappeared, while the smallest and poorest need to be addressed. The facilities that the Government farmers, who formerly kept at least one cow to provide for formerly maintained to support livestock production are

18 Rebuilding Afghanistan’s Agriculture Sector no longer operational and are mostly inappropriate for the A key initial activity will be a livestock inventory, which anticipated new core functions of government agencies. will provide data for planning activities. It will involve a The current absence of reliable information, particularly rapid rural appraisal of all provinces, focusing on live- with respect to livestock numbers and location and fodder stock numbers and distribution, feed resources, husbandry resources, limits the capacity for planning development and livestock offtake strategies, and livestock support ser- interventions in the sector. vices. A number of activities will be implemented to The issues outlined above provide the basis for formu- improve smallholder livestock productivity; these are lating strategic objectives, identifying short- and medium- likely to encompass fodder production, artificial insemi- term needs, and deriving policy requirements for a nation, vaccination and disease control, and animal health medium-term livestock subsector framework, which is and livestock support services. These activities are to be summarized in Table 5. supported within a component of a community-based de- velopment program. Ad- ditional support for the smallholder sector should target poultry producers, with expanded village poultry distribution and improved production ca- pability for semicommer- cial producers, including improved disease control, deworming, and supple- mentary feeding for female breeding stock. Further support to the dairy sector through an expanded program of ar- tificial insemination using deep-frozen semen, liquid nitrogen storage and dis- tribution, and improved fodder production in irri- Countryside scene: a farmer drives a herd of camels along the road near Kandahar. gated areas will be required. Development Framework Studies will be required to determine the most effective and efficient systems for livestock vaccine pro- duction and delivery, and for provision of animal health Short-Term Interventions. The development of a and livestock support services. A vaccine quality con- medium-term institutional framework to encourage small- trol laboratory is required, and it will be necessary to holder and commercial livestock development will be define sentinel service needs against transboundary dis- influenced by the outcome of the government review of eases and diagnostic laboratory functions and needs, public sector roles and the subsequent restructuring of and to identify the requirements for functioning animal MAAH. Once this role is clear, an appropriate structure health laboratories. and staffing schedule can be developed, and personnel can Training to support the new core role and functions of be trained to perform the tasks for which they remain government agencies in animal health services, in meat responsible. Appropriate regulations and legislation will inspection, and in public health is needed. This will also have to be developed to support the new structure. This involve infrastructure and equipment support. The input allocation of responsibilities is particularly important in should include postgraduate training for key government the livestock subsector, as important animal and public positions in epidemiology and technical laboratory posi- health issues need to be resolved. tions, and training for strengthened and properly supported

Needs Assessment: Subsector Programs 19 Table 5. Livestock Development Matrix

Needs Assessment Key Issue Strategic Objective Policy Agenda Indicator Short-Term Program Medium-Term Development (1–2 Years) Framework (2–5 Years)

Lack of reliable Up-to-date database on Rapidly appraise all Conduct regular surveys Policy on collection of subsector database, livestock numbers, provinces as to livestock to update livestock livestock statistics; hence no basis for distribution, systems, numbers, feed resources, databases. establishment of a planning livestock performance, and distribution, husbandry, off- central Department of programs resource use take strategies. Statistics

Investment in the Commercial dairy industry Conduct market surveys in Invest in processing and Agricultural finance and dairy industry supported by breed most urban areas; imple- marketing supported by private sector development, processing ment expanded private availability of formal investment facilities, and milk sector AI service delivery, credit. collection services supported by fodder demonstrations.

Livestock raisers with Reestablishment of Carry out assisted restocking Create credit facilities for Policy regarding lend- too few resources to individual livestock for poultry raisers, extend restocking new breeding ing to smallholders with restore animal and holdings animal health services, base; establish soundly little collateral; policy poultry numbers including supply of vaccines based animal health field regarding VFUs as without assistance and medications through service through VFU or suppliers of veterinary VFUs. similar. services

Unclear policy with Roles of public and Review government Conduct progressive Policy re private and respect to roles of private sectors clearly functions, rewrite and update review of regulations and public responsibilities private and public defined; private provision regulations, and ensure that policies to update in line promoting private sectors in delivery of of services regulations have backing of with evolving sector sector, passage of new services law. needs. regulations into law

Lack of government Clearly defined VFU role Survey VFUs to determine Government to subsidize Appropriate policy and field service; status as providers of user-pays viability and status; Govern- VFUs if necessary, other regulations re private and function of VFUs veterinary services; ment to determine “owner- services, to operate sector deliverers of unclear private sector ownership ship” of VFUs. without competition from veterinary services and delivery of services free service providers; promoted promote private sector.

Ineffective and inap- Both directorates soundly Determine restructuring Build longer-term capacity Institutional roles and propriate structure of restructured, resourced, needs, facilities, and training by providing equipment, functions of MAAH animal production and and administered with requirements. training to retained core veterinary directorates regard to new roles facilities and department supporting the sector staff.

Rangeland overgrazing Livestock numbers in Survey owners, livestock Involve key international Policy with repect to balance with seasonal numbers, and land area; organizations in rangeland rangeland use and feed availability on assess rangeland carrying management and transfer of communal rangeland, destocking capacity. planning; establish strong property to individual mechanisms introduced rangeland research users; regulations through development of structure. governing rangeland off-take strategies use regulatory units. Longer-term institutional strengthening as to facilitate development of export markets for sheep of government roles would include permanent and strate- and mutton. gically located quarantine points manned by well trained Development of rangeland management policy and a and supported staff, and a strengthened central epidemio- rangeland research structure and extension capability in logical capability, with field and quarantine activities linked nomadic sheepherder areas are required. These would per- to a central epidemiologist. Other objectives in animal mit investigation of offtake strategies and seasonal value- health include linkages between the veterinary department adding practices, such as fattening for rangeland produc- and the international reference laboratories of neighbor- ers, and in time should lead to a reduction in grazing pres- ing countries. These would lead to an ability to comply sure and improved nomadic flock productivity. with importing countries’ animal health requirements so

20 Rebuilding Afghanistan’s Agriculture Sector Table 5. Livestock Development Matrix (continued)

Needs Assessment Key Issue Strategic Objective Policy Agenda Indicator Short-Term Program Medium-Term Development (1–2 Years) Framework (2–5 Years)

Investment in Soundly based, self- Conduct study tours for key Make credit facilities Appropriate import and commercial poultry financing poultry industry technical/management staff; available for feed mills, export and quarantine production, inad- continue organization and processing plants, and regulations equate breeding stock support for poultry farmers’ large and smallholder associations through projects. poultry producers; create supportive regulatory environment.

Significant weakness in Useful cadre of trained Conduct study tours for key Create supportive Regulations supporting technical skills of private technical staff management/technical regulatory and animal quarantine, cross- private and public capable of usefully personnel to relevant health environment. border livestock sector staff regarding managing and advising in production facilities in region. movement poultry and dairy these industries production

Weak livestock disease Sound local disease Immediately implement Establish properly prevention capability in prevention and control sentinel services against functioning epidemiology- face of transboundary capability on part of rinderpest; identify require- driven diagnostic capability disease risks and high Government ments for long-term supported by working endemic disease institutional support for laboratories, livestock prevalence improved animal health movement controls, and capability; devise short-term quarantine services. project measures supporting diagnostic capability and sentinel functions.

Public health and Hygienic and environmen- Identify staff requirements for Invest in modern Policy re government/ environmental hazards tally sound processing and meat inspection and public processing facilities. private sector control associated with locally marketing facilities for health services; survey of slaughter and produced meat, milk, livestock products existing facilities to determine processing; regulations and poultry needs. governing meat and milk processing and marketing

Lack of properly Both directorates soundly Assist with inventory of staff Institute overseas and on- trained technical structured, trained, and resources and recommend the-job training where personnel in livestock resourced for new roles training needs; conduct necessary. subdirectorates recruitment program for key positions.

Notes: AI = artificial insemination; MAAH = Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry; VFU = veterinary field unit.

Source: CNA Mission.

Formal credit facilities will be required to support · Development of private sector-based livestock pro- private sector investment for processing facilities such as duction and animal health input supply and support abattoirs, feed mills, and semi/commercial poultry pro- services; duction. · Establishment of a regulatory environment for live- Medium-Term Programs/Investments. The key stock production, quality assurance systems, and ani- medium-term programs in the livestock subsector will mal disease control, and for animal public health; include the following: and · Sustainable smallholder livestock production systems, · Livestock quarantine services and control systems. as an integral component of community development programs; · Private sector commercial livestock enterprises, with access to rural credit;

Needs Assessment: Subsector Programs 21 enhanced contribution of research and technology trans- Agricultural Research and fer to agricultural development. Human capacity should be strengthened to contribute to institutional innovation Technology Transfer in agricultural research and technology transfer for devel- opment. This requires new management training method- Current Status and Issues ologies, technology transfer, and dissemination techniques. The issues outlined above provide the basis for for- In the past, prior to the conflict, the ARTTS system was mulating strategic objectives, identifying short- and substantial, though not always focused on the real needs of the medium-term needs, and deriving policy requirements for Afghan farmer. This system no longer functions due to wide- a medium-term agricultural research subsector framework, spread destruction of the infrastructure and loss of skilled hu- which is summarized in Table 6. man resources. When operational, the Department of Agri- cultural Research consisted of 11 subdepartments; it carried Development Framework out its functions through 24 research stations (7 main and 17 submain), covering the geographic and agroclimatic variability Short-Term Interventions. It is essential that a of the country. The total area of the stations was about 1,750 review, part of the larger MAAH institutional review, be ha. Before the degradation of the system, these research sta- undertaken to assess the needs, policy, functions, and insti- tions had 1,020 staff members, of whom 25% were technical tutional structure to establish and operate an efficient research staff (graduates). ARTTS that will respond to farmer-identified priorities In the future, the ARTTS network will focus on adap- and to future farming needs. The principles underlying tive research and technology transfer directly related to the future shape of ARTTS include the following: agricultural development and will not be involved in basic · Integrating on-farm participatory research and tech- research. Internationally, a wealth of new technologies nology transfer activities into practical development developed for dryland areas are available. ARTTS’ major programs; role will be to test, adapt, and disseminate technologies · Developing demand-driven, community-based suitable to local conditions. Demand-driven on-farm par- research and technology transfer programs that rec- ticipatory approaches to research and development will be ognize the special needs of the rural poor, especially employed, and will use the farming systems approach to rural women, children, and the disabled; agricultural research and development, and the integrated · Adopting innovative methodological approaches that watershed planning approach to natural resource manage- utilize the farming systems approach to research and ment. Institutional and policy innovations will support an development, integrated natural resource research sites, and integrated watershed man- In the Kandahar market, a pushcart is laden with cabbages and other greens. agement; and incorporate socioeco- nomic aspects with technical and bio- physical research programs; and · Determining the most effective in- stitutional framework for linking research with extension delivery agencies and organizations. Programs will be directed at important research and technology transfer areas that previously were ei- ther neglected by ARTTS or not given due attention. Such areas include natu- ral resource management (conserva- tion and use of soil, water, and vegeta- tion cover), biotechnology and infor- mation technology, socioeconomics, monitoring and evaluation, and adop- tion and impact research. The ARTTS

22 Rebuilding Afghanistan’s Agriculture Sector Table 6. Agricultural Research Matrix Needs Assessment Key Issue Strategic Objective Short-Term Program Medium-Term Deveolopment Policy Agenda Indicator (1–2 Years) Framework (2–5 Years)

The scope of the A relevant, fully sup- Undertake study of the Set an agreed scope of A policy document future agriculture portive ARTTS, using on- scope of research and public sector responsibility outlining the options for research and farm partici- extension. for agriculture research funding and managing the technology transfer patory research based on study recommen- ARTTS system (ARTTS) dations.

Damaged and looted Restored research Take interim measures to Restore facilities in line with As above facilities facilities in line with allow core work program to agreed reforms and scope reformed role continue. of work.

Potential loss of A gene bank in Kabul Implement recommenda- Conservation of genetic genetic base tions of research study. resources

Inappropriate Effective research and Conduct a study to deter- As above. The role of extension in extension service extension service delivery mine cost-effective and community-based systems meeting efficient delivery options. planning and program- community needs ming of investment

Source: CNA Mission. agenda will include gender mainstreaming and rural ness of this framework will be assessed and determined as women’s needs and their role in resource management. part of the institutional review of MAAH. Based on assessed priorities, a particular focus may be given Medium-Term Programs. In the medium term, to research for developing the vast rainfed areas in the ARTTS policy and the required institutional reforms will northern and northeastern provinces, where the potential be implemented. These institutional and policy issues are exists for great productivity improvement. Institutional covered in more detail in Chapters III and IV, respectively, and policy innovations will support timely and cost-effec- of this report. Implementation of these reforms will tive services to strengthen agricultural research and tech- require large investments in infrastructure, equipment, and nology transfer for the poor. human resource training to establish an effective and effi- ARTTS policies and institutional arrangements will cient ARTTS. ensure appropriate use of new technologies for increasing food security and reducing poverty. Managing modern tech- nologies, intellectual property, information systems, and Off-Farm Employment strategic planning through decision support methods should be considered. The aim will be to ensure that stake- Current Status and Issues holders are active participants in determining the research and extension agenda, and involved in monitoring and Off-farm income generation activities are an integral evaluating the effectiveness of the programs. This will need part of rural production systems. It is generally accepted partnerships and networks, negotiation and conflict reso- that families in most parts of Afghanistan that have less lution, effective governance bodies and management prac- than 0.5 ha of irrigated land have difficulty earning a living tices, and decentralized and well-coordinated research and solely from agricultural production. This means that about extension activities. Farmers and the emerging private sec- 65% of farming families rely on off-farm income-generat- tor, including NGOs, will be important partners in gen- ing activities to achieve a modest living. In addition, farm- erating new relevant knowledge responding to social needs. ing has always been marginal in some areas. Traditionally, As most research work will be applied research, with the main sources of off-farm income have been hired labor, ARTTS activities to be implemented in farmers’ fields, it small-scale enterprises, and use of forest products other will be important to determine the most effective institu- than timber. Principal small-scale enterprises include car- tional framework for linking research with extension pet weaving, beekeeping, cheese making, skin processing, delivery agencies, both public and private, and sector or- sericulture, other handicrafts, and rural repair shops. ganizations to develop these linkages. The appropriate- A key feature of many of these rural enterprises is that they operate in villages that are relatively inaccessible. This

Needs Assessment: Subsector Programs 23 impacts on both the cost of external inputs, market opportuni- This type of organization and its activities is well ties, and the price for products. In supporting programs to suited to promoting and being promoted by enterprises assist such enterprises, financial feasibility will be a key factor. undertaken by women. A range of activities could be supported by individual rural cooperatives run by Development Framework women for women, but the key to success is the organi- zation of the marketing function. The rural cooperative Short-Term Interventions. For small-scale rural becomes the vehicle for extending a range of benefits, enterprises to flourish will require a supporting package including training in particular crafts and skills, as well of services, which should include the provision of raw as a medium for microfinance facilities and the transfer materials, training, and market outlets. It is proposed that of information from educated women to those less well the most feasible solution to meeting these needs would be educated. a rural cooperative with a linked marketing arm in the The issues outlined above provide the basis for formu- main urban centers. In the short to medium term, such lating strategic objectives and lead to the identification of development could be supported by an NGO with experi- short- and medium-term needs and policy requirements ence in this area. This initiative would have a strong pov- for a medium-term community development framework, erty reduction impact. which is summarized in Table 7.

Table 7. Off-Farm Employment Matrix Needs Assessment Key Issue Strategic Objective Short-Term Program Medium-Term Deveolopment Policy Agenda Indicator (1–2 Years) Framework (2–5 Years)

Lack of support A community/NGO-led Form a consortium as an Integrate work programs with Existing facilities, e.g., services small enterprise independent organization, community development sericulture and apiculture, support service e.g., a cooperative plans, especially the role of privatized/transferred to women. consortium

Training programs Supplied by above Allow consortium to con- Set up rural women’s Rural cooperative solidate expertise and run cooperative movement. legislation training programs.

Supply of raw As above To be considered by As above As above materials consortium.

Marketing outlets An apex marketing Establish rural coopera- Link apex marketing Status of the apex organization tives. organization to a group of organization rural coops.

Start-up finance Rural bank Pilot microfinance Create fully functioning Rural finance/credit projects. village-based credit schemes. Source: CNA Mission.

24 Rebuilding Afghanistan’s Agriculture Sector CHAPTER III Needs Assessment: Institutional Reforms and Capacity Building

IA presented the draft NDF to the Implementation the national to the village level. The existing structure is a Group of external funding agencies in April 2002. legacy of several highly centralized administrations whose AThis framework sets out key principles, policies, and views were diametrically opposed to the decentralized strategies to guide the formulation and implementation of the approach of the present administration. In the short to me- Afghanistan Recovery and Reconstruction Program. This dium term, the line ministries will undergo a process of framework is especially relevant to the natural resources and change management to move away from their current all- agriculture sector. The institutions in these sectors are faced encompassing functions to one that reflects a set of core with developing a new vision of their future role, revising the functions for public sector agencies. policy and institutional framework for the sector, and carry- ing out the massive task of institutional restructuring and capacity building to enable the respective line ministries and Natural Resource and provincial and district offices to lead the recovery and recon- Agriculture Sector National struction program. The Government’s guiding principles in this regard are as follows: Institutional Structure · The line ministries and other state entities will be responsible for overall natural resource planning, poli- At present, three ministries are primarily involved in natu- cies, and related management parameters; and the for- ral resource and agriculture sector management. They are mulation of programs to deliver agreed public services MRRD, MAAH, and MIWR. In addition, the Ministry to the community level, including technology transfer, of Water and Power (MWP) has considerable influence the regulation of private sector activities, and the moni- over river regimes by virtue of its hydropower schemes, toring of performance of development programs. and the Ministry of Public Works (MPW) is involved in · Implementation, to the extent possible, will be construction and work schemes in rural areas. The roles entrusted to the private sector, including beneficiary and functions of these ministries do not form a coherent communities. In this regard, the Government will cre- structure capable of delivering the sustainable and effi- ate the enabling environment for the operation of na- cient use of natural resources, especially water. Functions tional and international firms (in particular for engi- overlap, particularly with regard to irrigation programs, neering and construction). and significant management gaps exist. It will be necessary · Local communities will be empowered to decide their to review the mandates of these ministries and to formulate development priorities, to contribute to implementa- a more holistic view of natural resource management that tion of their projects and activities where possible, will ensure efficient resource allocation to the various us- and to monitor the work of government agencies and ers of natural resources. the private sector. The Government’s strategy will The process of internalizing the new vision of the focus in the near term on creating employment and Afghanistan Government in reshaping the roles of public sec- supporting livelihoods at the community level. tor institutions at the central, provincial, and district levels will These principles indicate the need for a complete re- be gradual, but should begin immediately, because many as- view of the current institutional structure governing the pects of the short-term strategy depend directly on a measure natural resources and agriculture sector at all levels, from

Needs Assessment: Institutional Reforms 25 · Development priorities will be determined at the com- munity level, but the aggregation of community demands must be matched to natural resource availability. · The delivery of agricultural services will be led by the private sector. · The scope for technology transfer is substantial, but must be responsive to community priorities. In broad terms, a clear institutional distinction is required between agencies with allocative resource functions and those with user functions. In addition, the institutional arrangements should reflect the community-based approach. The water subsector provides a key example of the need for significant institutional reform. In Afghanistan, no custodian of water resources sets a limit on the various users. To the extent that available resources are assessed, this is done by MIWR, which is also the major user of water. In these circumstances, the demands of sustainable ecosystems cannot be determined objectively. The findings of the recent MIWR-UNICEF water conference workshop (Kabul, April 2002) did not indi- cate any commitment to significant institutional restructur- Near Qadam Joy, a little boy poses with his donkey beside a dried-up stream bed. ing, and showed only limited recognition of the current insti- tutional structures’ lack of objectivity in allocating water of reorganization and reorientation of the ministries and their resources. Without significant changes in the institutional struc- provincial offices. In effect, there are two parallel processes ture of natural resource management, especially that of water, required: one is to realize the vision of a reformed administra- in the next 2 years, only limited scope will remain for a sus- tive structure in accord with the NDF principles set out above tained recovery of the agriculture sector. The NDF promotes and the envisaged approach to natural resource management; the concept of river basin authorities that link together the the second is the more pragmatic process of beginning the microwatersheds managed by their respective communities. change process in the existing agencies and influencing the It is important that the concept of river basin management not attitudes of staff to the future shape of the Government. The be interpreted as a one-dimensional focus on water. Rather, latter process is the more sensitive, but requires clear direc- this concept should encompass the range of natural resources tion based on the first. utilized by the communities at the microwatershed level. In The current composition of sector agencies, their de- this way, the mandate of the river basin authority is consistent tailed functions, and staff complements will be the subject with the range of natural resources actually being used and of review. In the context of the current structure of sector needing supervision. agencies, such a review should take into account the fol- lowing observations and their implications: Individual Ministry · Agricultural activity is dependent on natural resource systems, which need to be sustained. Afghanistan has Structures and Organization no agency responsible for ensuring that levels of natu- ral resource use are sustainable. The current structure of ministries reflects past pref- · The protection of a sustainable level of natural erences for a highly centralized form of administration, resources must be a priority and cannot be entrusted which is the antithesis of current guidelines calling for to one of the major users. decentralized decision-making processes. The organiza- · In Afghanistan, 80% of agricultural output is depen- tional structures often incorporate separate subsidiary dent on some form of irrigation system. structures, such as input supply and construction compa- · A distinction should be drawn between the largely nies. Considerable scope exists for divesting ministries of environmental role of natural forests and the produc- such activities and privatizing the assets. tion role of commercial forestry and agroforestry.

26 Rebuilding Afghanistan’s Agriculture Sector The key first step in this restructuring and reform pro- · Provincial offices should also have a role in project cess will be the establishment of planning and implemen- finance, at least to the extent of putting together bud- tation groups2 in the headquarters of the line ministries gets for each of the districts, ensuring that investment and in provincial offices. These groups will be an integral is equitable, and monitoring the flow of funds and part of a ministry’s organizational structure and internal completion of projects. operations, working with and alongside the reorganized · Provincial offices will play a role in contracting engi- or new functional units. Their mission will be to translate neering services directly, assessing proposals from the policy and programs into projects, and to build new man- private sector and NGOs to undertake work, and agement capacity and the required skills in the ministry ensuring that only technically qualified firms and in- and provincial offices. Implementation of projects and related activities (e.g., preparation of technical designs, surveys) will be outsourced to the private sector, to the maximum extent possible. The groups will be staffed first through open recruitment from the staff of the respective ministry, based on technical competence, experience, merit, clear terms of reference, and job descriptions. In the short to medium term, one outcome of the in- stitutional review and reorganization will be a leaner organization structure, and it is anticipated that the num- bers of existing staff will be reduced. The infrastructure support and capacity building that will be required will be for the staff that will be implementing these new roles. The ministries will be staffed by highly qualified and ex- perienced individuals, clearly focused on their new role, who will be paid competitive salaries. Provincial Natural Resource Management Structure

Provincial offices will have different roles and responsi- bilities in a decentralized system. Planning and implementa- tion groups will be established in the provincial offices to undertake program and project management. The offices will This generous watering hole, the product of an irrigation project near Kabul, belies the country’s persistent drought. require infrastructure support and staff training to carry out their new functions, including the following key activities: dividuals obtain contracts. District-level consultative · The staff of provincial offices will be key partners in the groups consisting of representatives of all communi- participatory planning process based on microwatersheds. ties, or a provincial group consisting of district repre- Community representatives (shuras) will play a full part sentatives, should participate in project selection and in determining community needs. performance monitoring. · Provincial offices will help to rank the village/district- · Provincial offices should establish and maintain up- level proposals through consultations with shuras and to-date sector databases and management information their knowledge of the areas. They will coordinate systems. various types of assistance, and guide NGOs and gov- As with the national institutional framework, at the ernment agencies toward communities most in need provincial level there will need to be the same distinction of specific types of assistance. between the agencies responsible for allocative and user functions. 2 The terms of reference for these groups are being developed by he Afghanistan Assistance Coordination Authority.

Needs Assessment: Institutional Reforms 27 Table 8. Institutional Development Matrix

Needs Assessment Key Issue Strategic Objective Policy Agenda Indicator Short-Term Program Medium-Term Development (1–2 Years) Framework (2–5 Years)

Structure and allocation A coherent set of Undertake detailed Implement approved Number and of responsibilities agencies with clear institutional analysis and recommendations of mandates of public among natural resource mandates in line with provide options for institutional analysis. agencies sector agencies government principles reshaping existing agency for the public sector structure. and private sector delivery of noncore functions

Role, functions, and Government-approved Undertake detailed Approve new organizational Terms of employ- organization of mandates for all key institutional analysis and structures for all sector line ment and incentive individual agencies agencies initiate planning and agencies. schemes implementation groups in line ministries.

Large surplus staff Reduced staff numbers Implement human Fully implement reorgani- As above resources in existing appropriate for new resources plan based on zation with trained agencies roles new structure. professional staff.

Functions and structure A coordinated Initiate planning and Approve new organizational As above of provincial offices approach to natural implementation groups in structures for all provincial responsible for the resource management provincial cities. offices. natural resource sector

Functions and Clear decision-making Develop decision-making Fully integrate decision- Community empow- procedures of village/ processes at village/ processes around the making processes based erment policies district level shuras district and provincial concept of micro- on community-determined levels watershed plans. priorities.

Source: CNA Mission.

The above issues provide the basis for formulating stra- Village/District-Level tegic objectives, identifying short and medium-term needs, Structures and deriving policy requirements for a medium-term institutional development framework. The summary framework is outlined in Table 8. Initial collaboration between the Government, NGOs, and communities emphasizes the flow of mate- rial, cash, and technology from the outside agencies to the Capacity-Building Needs communities. It tends to begin by operating through well- understood local institutions such as the shuras, placing Both government institutions concerned with agricul- them increasingly in a new, developmental role. These com- tural development and rural and community organizations mittees are a prerequisite for broad acceptance and adop- have been weakened during the long period of conflict. tion of community-based programs, but over time they are Ministries have suffered damage to buildings, have lost likely to evolve increasingly toward more specialized skilled resources and equipment in Kabul and the prov- forms of representative and elected development bodies. inces, and generally lack the capacity to undertake their This process does not replace the traditional shuras, but is functions. A number of services are currently being under- a predictable move toward more specialized, focused, and taken by NGOs and community-based organizations. For skilled groups charged with economic advancement of an a long period, the institutions were not exposed to change area. One possible outcome of this process is that indi- or to international best practices in public sector manage- vidual community-based organizations will link together ment. The NDF emphasizes the AIA’s commitment to in multivillage committees; district-level bodies may even establishing an efficient institutional framework in the sec- form a kind of elected council.

28 Rebuilding Afghanistan’s Agriculture Sector Table 9. Capacity-Building Matrix

Needs Assessment Key Issue Strategic Objective Policy Agenda Indicator Short-Term Program Medium-Term Development (1–2 Years) Framework (2–5 Years)

Shortage of sector/ A highly qualified, Provide incentives Develop a stable, lean, and Civil service program managers for motivated public service package for returnees motivated civil service. employment terms the public services and those with good and conditions qualifications and/or experience.

Senior manager In-service training courses Set up interim joint Set up independent Postgraduate training program conducted by accredited venture between management training center, training and funding institutions international institutions possibly part of the and Kabul University. university.

Technical sector Well-founded vocational training training Community-based Community empower- Well-equuipped communi- Pilot programs in selected Initiate national program to development ment skills develop- ties capable of full areas, as part of upgrade community ment participation community development participation in the projects. development process. Women in Women in develop- Upgraded and enhanced Set up specific training Establish training programs development ment income-generating courses aimed at off-farm through a gender-specific policies capacity for women employment for women. organization.

Source: CNA Mission. tor, which will involve small, streamlined government University or training institute staff would benefit and train- institutions providing the appropriate policy and regula- ing capacity would be enhanced. Incentive structures could tory environment for community-driven development, based be provided to encourage participation by government and on private sector growth and delivery of services. To develop private sector staff. the capacity to achieve this objective will require extensive NGOs employ large numbers of technically qualified human resource development and skill retraining. people with relevant experience working in the rural sec- At present, only a relatively limited number of tor, so mechanisms need to be developed to utilize this highly skilled professionals are available in technical expertise and strengthen links with local line government and management areas to meet the rapidly increasing agencies. In this manner, NGO staff could provide on- demand, as the number and scale of the development the-job training, and at the same time facilitate closer work- programs and projects are expanded. These existing ing implementation groups in each ministry to create a resources will be fully utilized, and a strategy should greater awareness of the need for change. Once the Transi- be developed to address the anticipated shortfall. Key tional Government is established, a review of public sec- aspects include establishing capacity to provide train- tor administration is planned. The Civil Service Commis- ing, reestablishing training institutions, and encourag- sion is expected to recommend wide-ranging changes in ing the return of skilled Afghan professionals. The lat- both the overall composition of sector agencies and their ter have the potential to provide an excellent resource individual structures. This is an area of reform where the in modern management and economic and technical international community has high expectations following approaches. Planned technical assistance that requires the statements of the AIA and the contents of the NDF. It foreign inputs should focus on maximizing the employ- will have major implications at the sector level. ment of Afghan professionals to the extent possible. Nongovernment agencies are established as vital ele- In terms of reestablishing training facilities, one pos- ments in the delivery of a wide range of services to the sible strategy would be to upgrade these facilities and village and district levels. The established NGOs have pro- courses in Kabul University or related institutions, through fessional staff, mostly Afghan nationals, who have acquired a form of joint venture with an international university. skills working with village communities. The challenge is

Needs Assessment: Institutional Reforms 29 to ensure that these skills remain available while the role The need will be to create a framework within which of the NGOs is adjusted to the existence of functioning communities can play their envisaged role and interact with line ministries, which will have overall responsibility for district and provincial agencies using participatory meth- monitoring their activities. To date, line ministry person- ods. As this occurs, careful consideration will have to be nel at the provincial and district levels have not been pro- given to the adjustments needed to existing relationships vided with clear responsibilities consistent with the new between communities and NGOs that may have been work- vision of the public sector, and are also hindered by their ing together for several years, and to the relationship lack of facilities and budgets. However, it is important between empowered communities and line ministry staff. that the process of adjustment begin early in the recovery, At a very early stage there will be a need to formulate a to establish de facto roles and to ensure that line ministry “blueprint” that defines these evolving relationships, at least staff realize that their new role will include working with in broad terms, so that all concerned have a clear under- NGOs that have been delivering key services for many standing of their responsibilities and functions. years. In discussions with the mission, NGOs indicated The above issues provide the basis for formulating stra- they have already begun to adjust their programs to draw tegic objectives, identifying short and medium-term needs, ministry staff more closely into their activities. However, and deriving policy requirements for a medium-term clearer policies and operational guidelines, especially at capacity-building framework. The summary framework is the provincial and district levels, would be helpful. outlined in Table 9.

30 Rebuilding Afghanistan’s Agriculture Sector CHAPTER IV Needs Assessment: Policy Reforms

he development frameworks prepared for each coordinating recovery and rehabilitation activities sup- subsector indicate the need for a number of key ported by the development partners. Tpolicy reviews, and for preparatory work on a The draft framework is the outcome of a wide-ranging policy reform agenda during the coming 2 years. The leg- consultation with all key stakeholders and should be treated islative and regulatory aspects of the policy reform agenda as the start of a process. It has been revised following ini- will be undertaken in the medium term. A medium-term tial comments, and the intention is that it be further dis- time frame is required, since institutional and enforce- cussed with the new Transitional Government in late June ment capacity is minimal at present and will need to be 2002, and that the Government take the lead on reaching a established before an effective regulatory framework can consensus on the framework. The consensus will involve be developed. both internal and external aspects. The internal aspect is In order for an efficient sector framework to be de- critically important, because agreements and support are veloped that will enable improved livelihoods and sus- required from sector ministries on the priorities and frame- tainable resource management, the policy requirements work. The external aspect will involve the Government in the short to medium term will be significant. To ensure and AACA taking the lead and reaching consensus with the development of policies, legislation, and regulations the external funding community on the framework, so that that are harmonized across the subsectors, a dedicated sector interventions will be coordinated and support iden- natural resources policy unit to undertake this work is tified priorities. It is expected that the consensus on the required. programming aspects of the development framework will Specific subsectors where the policy framework needs be less problematic, as this report and the appendices cover to be reviewed are outlined in Table 10, with the identified the substantive issues in detail. policy issues and potential legislative and regulatory needs The past 20 years of activity in the sector have been detailed for each subsector. dominated by NGOs and a small number of United Na- tions agencies, especially FAO. Most of the work has been done by a cadre of Afghan nationals, many of them based in Implementation Pakistan, with relatively limited resources. With the enor- Strategies mous expansion in support, the resources available exceed absorptive capacity and may well exacerbate social ten- sions. In these circumstances, a new institutional order is Toward a Development Framework essential. A new equilibrium incorporating the private sec- Consensus tor, line ministries, rural communities, NGOs, and exter- nal funding agencies must be found. The medium-term development framework outlined A significant gap exists between the public sector role in this report is based on identified subsector priorities as articulated by the AIA in the NDF and the views of and short- and medium-term needs. It details key strate- many senior members of the line ministries. A short-term gies and interventions required to achieve agreed sector strategy to bridge this gap is critically needed, and the objectives, and provides a framework for prioritizing and Government has initiated the concept of planning and implementation groups in each ministry to create a greater

Needs Assessment: Policy Reforms 31 Table 10. Policy Agenda Subsector Policy Issue Comments

Natural resource Forestry laws and tenure New policy and law are needed. Policy and legislation should draw upon experience of management rights countries like Nepal, where joint management of forests by communities is working well.

Microwatershed A regulation/law is needed prescribing the concept of microwatershed planning and the planning functions of those involved, especially the communities.

Rural energy Social forestry provisions should be incorporated into microwatershed planning.

Environmental protection A law on natural resources protection, including protected areas, is needed.

Water resource Watershed (river basin) The concept should be legalized and institutionalized within the broader framework of management planning natural resource management.

Water law The 1981 law needs amendment; in addition, traditional water rights should be codified.

Groundwater depletion Groundwater extraction should be regulated and controlled by water basin authorities.

Irrigation management A law is needed to permit transfer of irrigation management and specify conditions. transfer

Community devel- Community empower- A law is needed prescribing the rights, roles, and functions of community organizations opment programs ment and organization within the context of the community-based approach.

Agriculture (crops) Agricultural trade Trading regulations covering all major commodities should be promulgated.

Rural cooperatives The current law should be reviewed and amended if necessary.

Plant protection Regulation is needed to cover public sector role, standards, funding, and operational procedures.

Seed certification Regulation is needed covering certification process and enforcement of quality standards.

Land tenure Regulation is needed on registration and codification of tenure rights.

Agricultural finance Comprehensive legislation is needed on prudential and operational guidelines for commercial banks and nonbank financial institutions. awareness of the need for change. Once the Transitional try personnel at the provincial and district levels have not Government is established, a review of public sector been provided with clear responsibilities consistent with administration is planned. The Civil Service Commission the new vision of the public sector, and are also hindered is expected to recommend wide-ranging changes in both by their lack of facilities and budgets. However, it is im- the overall composition of sector agencies and their indi- portant that the process of adjustment begin early in the vidual structures. This is an area of reform where the in- recovery, to establish de facto roles and ensure that line ternational community has high expectations following the ministry staff realize that their new role will include work- statements of the AIA and the contents of the NDF. It will ing with NGOs that have been delivering key services for have major implications at the sector level. many years. In discussions with the mission, NGOs indi- Nongovernment agencies are established as vital ele- cated they have already begun to adjust their programs to ments in the delivery of a wide range of services to the draw ministry staff more closely into their activities. How- village and district levels. The established NGOs have ever, clearer policies and operational guidelines, especially professional staff, mostly Afghan nationals, who have at the provincial and district levels, would be helpful. acquired skills working with village communities. The The need will be to create a framework within which challenge is to ensure that these skills remain available communities can play their envisaged role and interact with while the role of the NGOs is adjusted to the existence of district and provincial agencies using participatory meth- functioning line ministries, which will have overall respon- ods. As this occurs, careful consideration will have to be sibility for monitoring their activities. To date, line minis- given to the adjustments needed to existing relationships

32 Rebuilding Afghanistan’s Agriculture Sector Table 10. Policy Agenda (continued) Subsector Policy Issue Comments

Agriculture (crops) Technology transfer Regulation is needed covering procedures for the introduction of new technology by the (continued) private sector.

Fertilizer distribution Regulation is needed on enforcement of quality controls.

Production and import Regulation is needed on quality controls and licensing of imports. of vaccines and semen

Livestock Animal and public A law is needed prescribing the extent of public sector responsibility for the prevention, health monitoring, and eradication of transboundary livestock diseases, quarantine, and meat inspection.

Veterinary services Regulation of private veterinary services is needed.

Rangeland grazing Review of grazing rights and enforcement is needed.

Genetic resources Regulation on preservation and collection is needed.

ARTTS ARTTS network Policy on the scale of public commitment to ARTTS should be developed.

Off-farm Employ- Privatization of state- Develop policy amd mechanism for commercialization and privatization of state assets. ment owned assets

Microfinance Develop framework and regulations for viable systems.

Tax status of rural SMEs Enabling legislation should be reviewed.

Institutional Role of the public sector Develop mandates and charters of sector agencies to undertake core functions in line with development government policy.

Women in Gender policy A formal gender policy is needed. development

Note: ARTTS = Agricultural research and technology transfer system; SME = small and medium enterprises..

Source: CNA Mission. between communities and NGOs that may have been work- and management mechanisms be established. The CNA ing together for several years, and to the relationship mission noted that various coordination mechanisms are between empowered communities and line ministry staff. in place, but is concerned that, at least in the natural At a very early stage, a “blueprint” will be needed to define resources sector, the coordination to date is not being these evolving relationships, at least in broad terms, so that led by the Afghan authorities, especially the AACA. To all concerned have a clear understanding of their responsi- ensure that government ownership is asserted and that bilities and functions. activities support government priorities, and to mini- mize the risk of duplication within the major externally Asserting Government Ownership funded programs, it is essential to have a process estab- lished with regular aid provider meetings chaired by the Government and/or its representative body. It is Afghanistan is receiving unprecedented attention envisaged that such meetings should be held and deci- and offers of assistance from the international commu- sions taken within an agreed development framework, nity. To ensure that resources are used efficiently and such as the one proposed in this report. effectively, it is essential that efficient aid coordination

Needs Assessment: Policy Reforms 33