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The Development of Social Mobility Among East African Slave Porters by Way of Missionary Caravans, 1877-1906

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The Development of Social Mobility Among East African Slave Porters by Way of Missionary Caravans, 1877-1906 Clemson University TigerPrints All Theses Theses May 2020 Routes to Deliverance: The Development of Social Mobility Among East African Slave Porters by Way of Missionary Caravans, 1877-1906. Katherine Jean Allen Clemson University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://tigerprints.clemson.edu/all_theses Recommended Citation Allen, Katherine Jean, "Routes to Deliverance: The Development of Social Mobility Among East African Slave Porters by Way of Missionary Caravans, 1877-1906." (2020). All Theses. 3296. https://tigerprints.clemson.edu/all_theses/3296 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses at TigerPrints. It has been accepted for inclusion in All Theses by an authorized administrator of TigerPrints. For more information, please contact [email protected]. ROUTES TO DELIVERANCE: THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL MOBILITY AMONG EAST AFRICAN SLAVE PORTERS BY WAY OF MISSIONARY CARAVANS, 1877–1906 A Thesis Presented to the Graduate School of Clemson University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts History by Katherine Allen May 2020 Accepted by: Dr. James Burns, Committee Chair Dr. Stephanie Hassell Dr. Stephanie Barczewski ABSTRACT This thesis examines British missionary caravans in nineteenth-century East Africa. Through the utilization of enslaved porters from the island of Zanzibar, enslaved people were able to garner autonomy. The primary focus of this thesis is to examine the ways British missionaries inadvertently provided routes to social mobility and manumission to enslaved peoples. Its aim is to place this ironic phenomenon in conversation with historiographical claims that porters were not slave labor as well as postulating that enslaved people were agents of their own social mobility and manumission. ii DEDICATION To my grandmother, who was my mentor, confidant, and greatest fan. You inspired my love of reading and thirst for knowledge and were always a guiding light in my life. My time at Clemson was filled with countless moments thinking of and missing you. “It is well with my soul.” Jeneal Harris Huddleston (1937 – 2016) iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank my advisors, Dr. James Burns and Dr. Stephanie Hassell, who guided me to this topic and through the process of research and writing. Their constant encouragement and thorough editing were invaluable. Thanks must also be given to Dr. Stephanie Barczewski who taught me as an undergraduate and graduate student. Dr. Barczewski’s classes gave me a foundational understanding of historiographical arguments across many disciplines as well as insight into the British Empire, which was of great importance to this topic. I appreciate her thoughtful comments and many reading suggestions. I would also like to thank Dr. Paul Anderson and Dr. Michael Meng. I am so thankful for their guidance and advice as graduate coordinators. Without them, graduate school at Clemson would not have been possible. In addition, credit is due to Lee Morrissey and the Humanities Hub, for providing the grant which gave me the financial means to travel to London to collect primary source materials. Lastly, I must thank my friends and family. I am especially grateful to Nathaniel Thomas and “Wigs” and Ellie Allen for their constant support and encouragement. I appreciate their patience and willingness to listen. I am forever indebted to my dear friend Kayla for always being eager to read and edit even the worst drafts of this project and endure my ramblings on East Africa. Of course, I must also thank Kaitlyn and Daniel, who always made sure I was fed and had a sofa to sleep on. Graduate school is tough, and I could not have made it without you all. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page TITLE PAGE ................................................................................................................ i ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................ ii DEDICATION ............................................................................................................ iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................................................... iv LIST OF MAPS AND FIGURES ............................................................................... viii CHAPTERS 1. INTRODUCTION AND CONTEXT .............................................................. 1 East Africa since the 17th Century .............................................................. 3 East Africa, Slaves, and Swahili ................................................................ 11 Outline of Project ...................................................................................... 19 2. HISTORIOGRAPHY, METHODOLOGY, AND PURPOSE ........................ 24 African Studies: 1780s to 1950s ................................................................ 25 African Studies: 1950s to Present .............................................................. 30 Defining Slavery in East Africa ................................................................. 37 Context of Colonial and Missionary Perspective ....................................... 44 Methods and Sources ................................................................................ 48 Conclusion ................................................................................................ 52 3. TRANSITIONS AND DISTINCTIONS OF SLAVERY ............................... 58 Shifting Conditions of Slavery .................................................................. 60 Caravan Porters: Slave or Free? ................................................................ 67 The Caravan and African Hierarchy in Art ................................................ 72 Conclusion ................................................................................................ 77 4. ROUTES TO MANUMISSION AND SOCIAL MOBILITY ........................ 79 Missionary Writing as a Genre .................................................................. 81 Losing Track of Time ............................................................................... 84 Moments of Violence and “Incidents” ....................................................... 86 v Table of Contents (Continued) Page Illness ....................................................................................................... 90 Language Barriers ..................................................................................... 92 Structure and Hierarchy of the Caravan ..................................................... 93 Hongo and Pay for Porters ...................................................................... 102 Problems en Route .................................................................................. 106 Conclusion .............................................................................................. 113 5. CONCLUSION ........................................................................................... 115 6. BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................... 120 vi LIST OF MAPS AND FIGURES Map Page 2.1 “A New Map of Africa from the Latest Authorities.” John Cary, 1805 map ...... 5 Figure Page 3.1 “The Last Mile” c. 1880… .............................................................................. 74 3.2 “Livingstone’s corpse being carried back to the coast by Africans” ................. 75 vii CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION AND CONTEXT In June of 1877, London Missionary Society member, Arthur W. Dodgshun, arrived on the shores of Saadani, Tanzania, accompanied by a small group of approximately 20 other missionaries and roughly 60 porters. The missionary caravan’s journey, which began on Zanzibar, would end on Lake Tanganyika, where several other missions’ camps had been and established. The group that would arrive at Lake Tanganyika in 1879 would not include Arthur W. Dodgshun or many of the other missionaries and porters who set out on the voyage. Disease and malnutrition that accompanied this sort of travel resulted in high mortality rates among British missionaries. The porters, too, often did not make the full voyage to Lake Tanganyika, though death was less of a factor regarding their failure to arrive. The stories published in the nineteenth century regarding the experiences of missionaries focused explicitly on the successes and the sacrifices of the missionary. What they disregard was the slave labor, under the guise of portership, that was utilized in these caravans. The reality of the caravan voyage was one encumbered with abandonments, diseases, and communication barriers. Yet amidst the struggles of the European missionaries, slaves were able to find paths to manumission.1 The pioneer missionaries in East Africa were from the Church Missionary Society who arrived in East Africa around 1844. Their goal was to establish missionary stations 1 A.W. Dodgshun, 1877, Box 1, CWM Central Africa Journals University of London School of Oriental and African Studies Archives and Special Collections, London, England. 1 and sites along the coast and into the interior. The Church Missionary Society, as well as the London Missionary Society, were evangelical Christian missions’ organizations. Evangelical Christian typically means Protestant, evangelistic and adhering to the fundamentals, which included the triune of God. The triune of God consisted in the belief in the deity of Jesus Christ, the inerrancy of the entire Bible, and that
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