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Filed 30.11.65 (510,659) Publ The technology and economics of recycling scrap rubber. TONG, S. G. Available from the Sheffield Hallam University Research Archive (SHURA) at: http://shura.shu.ac.uk/20445/ A Sheffield Hallam University thesis This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. Please visit http://shura.shu.ac.uk/20445/ and http://shura.shu.ac.uk/information.html for further details about copyright and re-use permissions. Sheffield City Polytechnic Library REFERENCE ONLY ProQuest Number: 10701091 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10701091 Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 THE TECHNOLOGY A3SCO ECONOMICS OF RECYCLING SCRAP RUBBER by S G TONG This Thesis Has Been Submitted in Partial Ful-filment of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the Council for National Academic Awards SHEFFIELD CITY POLYTECHNIC, Sheffield, ENGLAND JULY 1983 PATSCENTRE INTERNATIONAL, Royston, ENGLAND >, I Mi ^ ** 7 9 4 5 0 7 8 0\ THE TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMICS OF RECYCLING SCRAP RUBBER by S G TONG ABSTRACT The purpose of this project is to make a detailed technological and economic analysis of the current UK situation regarding the use of scrap rubber in order to identify the most effective processes and products. The scope of the investigation is restricted to the re-use of scrap rubber as a primary raw material for rubber product manufacture. The thesis emphasises the following aspects : (i) the structure of the rubber processing industry and the role of the rubber recycling sectors; (ii) property relationships in rubber compounds incorporating scrap rubber crumb, with particular attention to material mechanics; (iii) the estimation of curing agent distribution in a crumb incorporated rubber vulcanizate; and Civ) the economics of the cryogenic grinding of scrap rubber tyres. The property relationships of vulcanizates incorporating recycled rubber have been studied using several mathematical models : Gent, simple law of mixtures, Mooney-Rivlin models, and a non-Gaussian model based on a simplified form of inversed Langevin function. It was found that; (i) for some compounds the elastic modulus and strength could be described well by the law of mixtures for composites, (ii) the reduction in strength caused by the incorporation of crumb decreased with decreasing particle size but there is little advantage to be gained by reducing the size below 20 ym, (iii) different modes of failure may be operative, i.e. adhesive and cohesive, according to the strength of the matrix rubber. The redistribution of curing agent in our whole tyre crumb-rubber vulcanizates has been studied using the SEM and EDAX techniques. Although qualitative and quantitative evidence for the migration of cure agent from matrix to crumb is given, no evidence was found for an interfacial layer between the two phases which is depleted of cure agent. Little detailed information on the economics of the majority of commercially operated processes is available. Data has been obtained for the cryogenic grinding of scrap rubber, a technology which seems to show potential for commercial exploitation, and a thorough economic analysis performed. The result showed that, under currently depressed crumb prices and low demand, the most feasible of the plants considered is just marginally economically viable. It was found that the most important cost input to the cryogrinding process is the cost of cryogenic material O-iquid nitrogen) and that the most important factor which governs the economic viability of the process is the price of the rubber crumb output. Socio-environmental and resource conservation factors indicate the desirability of Government support. THE TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMICS OF RECYCLING SCRAP RUBBER by S G TONG SUMMARY The purpose of this project is to make a detailed technological and economic analysis of the current situation regarding the use of scrap rubber in order to identify the most effective recycling processes and products. This work has taken a multi-disciplinary approach to the investigation of this highly relevant subject. Although particular emphasis has been given to the UK situation, a survey covering European and North American firms involved in this activity has been made. The scope of the investigation is restricted to the re-use of scrap rubber as a primary raw material for product manufacture. This eliminates a number of rubber recycling options such as incineration and pyrolysis, and all the scrap rubber disposal procedures of which landfilling, traffic barriers and fish reefs are some examples. The thesis emphasises the following aspects s (i) the structure of the rubber processing industry and the role of the rubber recycling sectors; (ii) property relationships in rubber compounds incorporating scrap rubber crumb, with particular attention to material mechanics; (iii) the estimation of cure agent distribution in a recycled rubber crumb incorporated rubber vulcanizate; and (iv) the economics of the cryogenic grinding of scrap rubber tyres. The property relationships of rubber vulcanizates incorporating recycled rubber have been studied using data generated by our own experimental work, and the limited published data. The mathematical models used for this study were: (i) Gent model for relationship between the tensile strength and the effective particle size of the recycled rubber crumb, the tear energies and the initial moduli; (ii) the simple law of mixtures models for the relationship between elastic and strength properties of the vulcanizates and that of the recycled rubber and the matrix rubber compound, and the volume fraction of the incorporated recycled rubber; and (iii) the Mooney-Rivlin model and -iii- a non-Gaussian model based on the Inverse Langevin Function for studying the stress-strain behaviours of these vulcanizates. Several important mechanisms governing the property relationships of these vulcanizates have been identified. The most important of which is the migration of curatives from the base rubber matrix into the vulcanized recycled rubber crumb particles. The redistribution of sulphur curing agent for our whole tyre crumb- rubber vulcanizates has been studied using the SEM and EDAX techniques. Qualitative and Quantitative evidence has been obtained for this behaviour. Factors affecting the migration of sulphur have been identified, however further in-depth investigation is highly desirable in quantifying the influence of these factors. Little detailed information on the economics of the majority of commercially operated processes is available. In this work data has been obtained for the cryogenic grinding of scrap rubber, a technology which seems to show potential for commercial exploitation, and a thorough economic analysis performed. The analysis consisted of conventional Discounted Cash Flow techniques of NFV and IRR, short and long terra break-even analysis, and an investment simulation for the project. The simulation model offers a better representation of the real situation through the use of probability distribution to describe the variables involved. The results of the analyses showed that, under currently depressed rubber crumb prices and low demand, the most feasible of the four plant combinations considered is just marginally economically viable. However, the socio—environmental and resource conservation factors point towards the desirability of Government intervention. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author wish to express his heartiest thanks to the Director of Studies, Dr N C Hilyard and Supervisors, Mr K Harrison and Mr R W Quincey, and Dr D S Painter of PATSCENTRE INTERNATIONAL, Royston for their advice and assistance. The multi-disciplinary nature of this study inevitably required the cooperation and assistance of several Departments in the Polytechnic, and a number of industrial concerns, to whom thanks must be recorded, especially Dr J Young, Dr B Lewis, Mrs G Sidda and R Goldthorpe for their help and advice on the SEM and SEM specimen preparation; R Hines, L Purdy, J Fletcher and all the staff of the Inter-Library-Loan section of Pond Street Library for their seemingly endless patient in obtaining the numerous papers and literature requested; staff of the Computer Services Department for their advice on building the investment simulation model; Mr S Clements of BOC Ltd., Mr M E Asim of Newell Dunford Engineering Ltd., KEK , Air Products Ltd., Swintex Ltd. and Monarch Remould for their kind assistance in compiling the cost data for the cryogenic grinding process and recycled rubber prices. Gratitude must be registered for Dr D A Davies and the staff of the Applied Physics Department especially Mr M Fumiss, K Jaffray, A Hughes and S Whittingham for their encouragement
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