,enator, and a character to Hugh Blair 1 more easily injured. The 1718-1800 I •• ..IJ•~.:',; -•f,j--r, so accomplished as to re· •.,• i p t ? I/" JI racy of composition, or I as may be expected in the ious in age, rank, taste, in- In an 1873 edition of lectures on Rhetoric and Be/le,1·let1res (excerpted here) prejudices, to which he that was published in the United States, the noted teacher Abraham Mills provides, mself. And if he derives for nearly every chapter, a summary and list of questions for students. These ques the richness, the variety, tions call attention lo every detail, every distinction, and every illustration in the 1cprinciples, motive.~. and text. There are, for example, I 11 questions appended lo Lecture 2, on taste ("How his subject furnishes him, does it appear that delivery and correctness mutually imply each other'! In what is inconveniences from this the power of delicacy chiefly seen; and of correctness'! Hating viewed taste in its nost the only engine by most improved state, what does our author next consider'! Why does this bring us to • ,.i~J'.,!-.JJ., ... ,, ,n the passions of his hear the most difficult part of our task?"). This scriptural reverence for Hugh Blair's . abstract qualities, virtues, ·.1 • •• ,,,.: . , ."i: ... ,,,: ;'...[ work is not at all out of the ordinary. Blair is, at least with respect to his influence, Ital chiefly employed by ibition of real persons, the the Quintilian of his time, combining in his rhetoric a theory that met with nearly s. Nor are the occasions of universal approval and a pedagogy that won nearly universal application. 1eople equally fitted with Born in Edinburgh, Blair entered the university in that city in 1730, earned an td of the pleader for excit M.A. in 1739, and entered the ministry in 1742. By 1758, he had won appointment d riveting their attention. to the prestigious pulpit of St. Giles. The following year, he began lecturing on , assigned him, the effect rhetoric and belles leures, and in I 762 he was appointed the first Regius Professor ( f, > have in view, is so great, of Rhetoric and Belles Leures at his old university. A popular preacher, he pub ,e, as seems to bid defiance lished four volumes of i.ermons. He also edited Shakespeare's works and supervised of oratorical genius. a forty-volume edition of the English poets. As a highly placed churchman, he was :>mmon than for people, I an important defender of David Hume (p. 828) and Lord Karnes- his colleagues in ting, to express their won the Scottish Select Society - against ihe charges of heresy leveled at them by conT tie eloquence amongst our servative elements in the Church of Scotland. Much influenced by Hume's philo- l..t,.'), little success attends their 1 ' _.,.._,.r~., • : sophy, Blair came to embody the ideal critic and collector of literary touchstones ' . last, their success, it is a f,. 1., tained with so much preci envisioned in Hume's essay on taste (p. 830). ' 'ondly to imagine. The evil The lectures 011 Rhetoric and Be/le,1· lettre .1·were published in 1783, the year lc...... y,"'--"""'~ the good promoted, ought Blair retired from teaching. They are directed to those who are "studying to culti +""'-B t.:~..:I , come into the reckoning . vate their taste, to form their style, or to prepare themselves for public speaking or )e, it is impossible in any composition. " In the first lecture, which is included here, Blair connects his rhetoric µ ....""""'-'D>'~ :es to determine. As to the to the leading ideas of the period: to reason, human nature, the need to cultivate I acknowledge that for my taste, and moral improvement. This scheme clearly links rhetoric and belles lettres. g how rare the talent is Rhetoric seeks to persuade through appeals to reason and the passions; criticism, in 1, considering all the disad tum, evaluates aesthetic objects on the ba.c,isof their appeals to ttie same faculties. bour under, not only those Good taste is thus at the root of both, and human nature is the foundation of taste. It others, arising from their Finally, the cultivation of taste leads one to the higher intellectual pleasures, includ ,articularly considering the ¼L; ..., .i t...u-_ :::ise,together with the other ing the pleasure of virtuous behavior. Thus Blair's rhetoric aims ultimately at a 6 to which the fixed pastors rather classical goal, to produce good men who will speak (and write) well in the ~~~.J !n for a long time more dis service of the community, whether for the pulpit, the bar, or the halls of legislature. -a,u...+ f.c. - ,L~ [ we hear so many instruc In pursuing this model, Blair is at pains to reject received notions of eloquence ~flu...... "'-'(..,. «J,S- 4- mt sermons, than that we and style and to build instead on modern psychology. In Lecture 34, for example, he I discusses self-improvement in eloquence. The first requirement of the excellent ~ .... A,l.l...SM.
HUGH BLAIR 947 ...~"'ti IS l\ speaker is good character; thus one should practice the virtues. Second, one must edge. He treated the sub t'U\.1,4.~tt,~i" have knowledge of the subject of the discour se and. as support for that knowledge, a vation and psychologic~ ;....:s.,_,__ l(l\AS(. ~ gencrnl familiarity with polite literature. Third comes industriousness; fourth, good between philosophy and models ; fifth, practice; and sixth, study of rhetorical theory. The study of "rhetorical gether with belles lettrei °""'-+~~~k. •f \J.;,_,,.. writers" is "not to be neglected," he says, " . .. yet I dare not say that much is to be sivc and useful way. As expected from them." Quintilian is the best rhetorician, but even he is too concerned that is original - but eve with systematic rhetoric - topics, arrangement, and figures. Blair repeatedly em phasizes that although it is "polite" to know the ancienls, one should not heed their Selected Bibliography advice. Their style docs not suit modern taste and their theory docs not conform lo Blair's lectures on Rheum modem science. arc available in the South1 In similar fashion, Blair addresses each of his subjects, finding psychological ),'1, I~ '1a.d,.~w~ umcs, edited by Harold F. foundations, acknowledging cultural relativism, seeking a rational basis for judg c....a.\-t.u....(...... , .. i...... ;._ •• Blair's sources. ments, providing illustrations from polite literature ancient and modem, and giving Blair received more sch '9a..r ,tit\ p~ f ~ judicious advice. The main subjects of the lectures arc as follows : tury, both in his own right a ~~'-- Taste, the sublime, beauty (four lectures) century education in the Ur The history and structure of language (seven lectures ) ics, however, other than Ro Figures of speech and kinds of style (six lectures) summarizes his major work Critical analysis of Addison (five lectures) Linda Ferreira-Buckley's The history of rhetoric (two lectures) Rhetorics and Rhetoricia,1. Types of speech (three lectures) W. S. Howell claims that 1 Organization (two lectures) epislemological ideas, in Ei Pronunciation (one lecture) Winifred Bryan Homer Belletristic genres: history, philosophy, poetry, drama (thirteen lectures) lish universities in the cigl Rlietoric: The Amcrica11 C This list clearly shows that Blair gives most attention to "polite" literature, and States, sec Nan Johnson, II modem scholars have charged that Blair shifted the attention of educators "away eludes infonnation on Blai, from deliberative, forensic, and epideictic discourse and toward poetic discourse," in other rheloric books in as historians of rhetoric Gregory Clark and S. Michael Halloran allege.' Not only S. Michael Hallor,m, "Tram docs such a shift of emphasis downgrade publicly useful forms of rhetoric, but it in Oratorical C11/t11rei11 N also may support excessively conservative aesthetic, moral, and political values, as Practice of Rlietoric, ed. Cl historian of rhetoric H. Lewis Ulman implies when he notes that Blair's approach Vincent Bevilacqua emp "tends to reify written and even spoken language as fixed systems that embody ical Assumptions Underlyir equally stable truths and virtues."~ This may explain why English departments em Speech 31 [summer I~ focus today on analyzing texts that arc deemed aesthetically superior, and why lhcy "Hugh Blair's Theory of T devalue more practical forms of language arts instruction. Nevertheless, historian of rpt. in Readiilgs in Rhetoric rhetoric Lois Agnew has argued that these effects of Blair's influence, although they of Bevilacqua and others i may indeed undermine rhetoric's civic usefulness, result from Blair's inability to Words a11dActions: The Pri foresee the extent to which the analysis and production of written texts would domi Theory (1994). Lois Agne\\ ?"'°• liuwW(.. -ho.cl-.~ nate English instruction in the nineteenth century. cal motives in "The Civic 1 5~1,.,...... ~\\~~ c.,.\.\At( In reality, Blair intended to cr.ift an approach lo rhetoric that would preserve Theory" (Rhetoric Society { classical goals amid changing social conditions and new developments in know!- M>ek,AO&\~~ r),A/ ~ lilx-l ti ~l}) . ' •Gregory Clark antl S. Michael Halloran, "Transfonnations of Public Discourse in Nineteenth Century America," in Omwrical C11/t11rci11 Ni11etec11th -Ceru11ry Amerim .· Trmrrfomullimu in tl,e 171eory ...... r.; ...... ~ l .. ~ .t" anti Pmcricc of Rhetoric·, etl Gregory Clark ,mtl S. Midmcl Hallornn (Carhontlalc . Smuhern Illinois Uni versity Press. 1993). p. 15. • o:i,,.i" l. • )j ;-,. 1 ,, iH. Lewis Ulman, 711i11gs,71101111/rt.r, IVord.ra11dActiom : Tire Pm/Jlemofum1111age in Ltite Eig/11cc111h• Cc11111ryIlriri.r/1 Rhetorirnl T/rcory(Carhontlalc ; Southern llhnois University Press, 1994). p. 145.
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HUGH BLAIR 949 When entering 1 From Lectures on Rhetoric lowed, on this 0 thoughts concemin and Belles Lettres tagcs of such studi; tilled to possess in under no lemptatic Lecture I But, among nations in a civilized state, no art tolling their impon has been cultivated with more care, than that of other department of INTRODUCTION language, style, and composition. The attention study of Rhetoric paid lo it may, indeed, be assumed a.,;one mark and requires a prop One of the most distinguished privileges which of the progress of society towards its most im of the liberal arts. 11 Providence has conferred upon mankind, is the proved period. For, according as society im circle, and rccomm power of communicating their thought<; to one proves and flourishes, men acquire more infJu gard. The first care another. Destitute of this power, reason would be cncc over one another by means of reasoning and write with rcputatio a solitary, and, in some measure, an unavailable discourse; and in proportion as that influence is to command attcnti principle. Speech is the great instrument by felt to enlarge; it must follow, as a natural conse knowledge; to lay ir which man becomes beneficial to man: and it is quence, that they will bestow more care upon the to those subjects ol to the intercourse and transmission of thought, by methods of expressing their conceptions with may call them 10 d means of speech, that we arc chiefly indebted for propriety and eloquence. Hence we find, that in among the ancients the improvement of thought itself. Small arc the all the polished nations of Europe, this study has ciplc, and frequent!• advances which a single unassisted individual been treated as highly important, and has pos disciplinis cl artib~ can make towards perfecting any of his powers. sessed a considerable place in every plan of lib tor"; that the orator C.4S't-la What we call human reason, is not the effort or eral education. scholar, and convcr~ ability of one, so much as it is the result of the Indeed, when the arts of speech and writing It is indeed imposs ~ reason of many, arising from light,; mutually arc mentioned, I am sensible that prejudices very pernicious it " ~.~- communicated, in consequence of discourse and against them arc apt to rise in the minds of many. which should give l~ s.....,__ writing. A sort of art is immediately thought of, that is os position rich or spic, (Qt'I IL is obvious, then, that writing and discourse tentatious and deceitful; the minute and trifJing or erroneous in tho, ~) arc objects entitled to the highest attention. study of words alone; the pomp of expression; attempts towards an Whether the influence of the speaker, or the en the studied fallacies of rhetoric; ornament substi so often disgraced o tertainment of the hearer, be consulted; whether tuted in the room of use. We need not wonder, its true standard. Thi utility or pleasure be the principal aim in view, that, under such imputations, all study of dis been employed to di we arc prompted, by the strongest motives, to course as an art, should have suffered in the opin of matter; and the tc study how we may communicate our thoughts to ion of men of understanding; and I am far from norant has been cour one another with most advantage . Accordingly denying, that rhetoric and criticism have some probation of the dis, we find, that in almost every nation, as soon as times been so managed as to tend to the corrup can never maintain language had extended itself beyond that scanty tion, rather than to the improvement, of good j and science must fu communication which was requisite for the sup taste and true eloquence. But sure it is equally the body and substar ply of men's necessities, the improvement of dis possible to apply the principles of reason and lion. Rhetoric serve · course began to attract regard. In the language good sense to this art, as to any other that is culti ' know that none but '1.·..-:r. '- even of rude uncultivated tribes, we can trace vated among men. If the following Lectures have Ipolished well. some attention to the grace and force of those ex any merit, it will consist in an endeavour to sub 1 pressions which they used, when they sought to stitute the application of these principles in the 'l 1ll1e author was the Ii persuade or to affect. They were early sensible of place of artificial and scholastic rhetoric; in an in the univcr..ity of Edint a beauty in discourse, and endeavoured to give it endeavour to explode false ornament. to direct at in a private character in ti certain decorations , which experience had taught tention more towards substance than show, to he was chosen rrufcssor town council of Edinbur1 them it was capable of receiving, long before the recommend good sense as the foundation of all pleased to erect and enc study of those decorations was formed into a reg~ good composition, and simplicity as essential to 1 Delle~Lettre~ in that univ, ular art . all true ornament. , the first Rcgius Professor.
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When entering on this subject, 1 may be al Of those who peruse the following Lectures, lowed, on this occasion, to suggest a few some by the profession to which they addict thoughts concerning the importance and advan themselves, or in consequence of their prevailing tages of such studies, and the rnnk they are en inclination, may have the view of being em titled to possess in academical education.' I am ployed in composition, or in public speaking. under no temptation , for this purpose, of ex Others, without any prospect of this kind, may vilized state, no art tolling their importance at the expense of any wish only to improve their taste with respect to ·e care, than that of other department of science. On the contrary, the writing and discourse, and to acquire principles ilion. The attention study of Rhetoric and Belles Leures supposes which will enable them to judge for themselves sumed as one mark and requires a proper acquaintance with the rest in that part of literature called the Belles Lettres. wards its most im of the liberal arts. ll embraces them all within its With respect to the fonner, such as may have ng as society im circle, and recommends them to the highest re occasion to communicate their sentiments to the acquire more influ· gard. The lirst care of all such as wish either lo public, it is abundantly clear that some prepam ins of reasoning and write with reputation, or to speak in public so as tion of study is requisite for the end which they as that influence is to command attention , must be, lo extend their have in view. To speak or to write perspicu , as a natural consc knowledge; to lay in a rich store of ideas relating ously and agreeably with purity, with grace and morc care upon the to those subjects of which the occasions of life strength, are attainments of the utmost conse r conceptions with may call them 10 discourse or to write. Hence, quence to all who purpose, either by speech or nee we find, that in among the ancients, it was a fundamental prin writing, to address the public . For without being 1rope, this study has ciple, and frequently inculcated, "Quod omnibus master of those attainments, no man can do jus ,rtant, and has pos disciplinis et artibus debet esse instructus ora tice to his own conceptions; but how rich soever n every plan of lib- tor"; that the orator ought to be an accomplished he may be in knowledge and in good sense, will scholar, and conversant in every part of teaming. be able to avail himself less of those treasures, speech and writing It is indeed impossible to contrive an art, and than such as possess not half his store, but who ble that prejudices very pernicious it were if it could be contrived, can display what they possess with more propri 1 the minds of many. which should give the stamp of merit to any com ety. Neither are these attainmenLo;of that kind for hought of, that is os- position rich or splendid in expression, but barren which we are indebted to nature merely. Nature minute and trilling or erroneous in thought. They are the wretched has, indeed, conferred upon some a very favour ,omp of expression; attempts towards an art of this kind, which have able distinction in this respect, beyond others. ric; ornament substi so often disgraced or.itory, and debased it below But in these, as in most other talents she bestows, ' e need not wonder, its true standard . The graces of composition have she has left much to be wrought out by every ,s, all study of dis been employed to disguise or to supply the want man's own industry . So conspicuous have been suffered in the opin of matter; and the tempomry applause of the ig· the effects of study and improvement in every ,. and I am for from norant has been courted, instead of the lasting ap part of eloquence; such remarkable examples '.;iticism have some probation of the discerning. But such imposture have appeared of persons sunnounting, by their J tend to the corrup can never maintain its ground long. Knowledge diligence, the disadvantages of the most unto provement, of good and science must furnish the materials that form ward nature; that among the learned it has long ut sure it is equally the body and substance of any valuable composi· been a contested, and remains still an undecided iples of reason and tion. Rhetoric serves to add the polish; and we point , whether nature or art confer most towards ny other that is culti know that none but firm and solid bodies can be excelling in writing and discourse. owing Lectures have polished well. With respect to the manner in which art can m endeavour to sub- most effectually furnish assistance for such a ese principles in the \ 11l1e author was lhc first who read lectures on this subj1.'Cl purpose, there may be diversity of opinions . I by .astic rhetoric; in an in the university of Edinhurgh. He began with reading them no means pretend to say that mere rhetorical mament, to direct at in a private character in the year 1759. In the following year rules, how just soever, are sufficient to form an he was chosen Professor of Rhetoric by the magistrntcs und orator. Supposing natural genius to be favour :ance than show, to town council of Edinburgh; and, in 1762, his Majesty was .he foundation of all pleascLIto ercct and endow a Profession of Rhetoric and able, more by a great deal will depend upon pri >licity as essential lo I Belles Lettrcs in that university,and the author was appointed vate application and study, than upon any system the first Regius Professor. !Au.I of instruction that is capable of being publicly I
\ OLAIR I LECTURES ON RHETORIC AND BELLES LETTRES 951 ' ' ' ' • ,, I "'"°"'4W\1\.\\~ , /1• • • ., i ·J. ·t''" ' •! v,1o4._.-,.l,- s~~ v,.,.,:s~ ~~, CAMt\..KI , .., ~. ~ ~--'~ ~ fl/'--.. ~~ '"-'d-k..(_ '1rh:_,.£ alw c~nJ-~ communicated. But at the same time, though gancc, and attention to inferior ornaments of motes a lively relish rules and instructions cannot do all that is requi composition, may at present have engrossed too preserves us from tha site, they may, however, do much that is of real great a degree of the public regard. It is indeed lion which would c< use. They cannot, it is true, inspire genius; but my opinion, that we lean to this extreme; oflcn '* faulls in our esteem. they can direct and assist it. They cannot remedy more careful of polished style, than of storing it admire and to blame barrenness; but they may correct redundancy. with thought. Yet hence arises a new reason for IIfollow lhe crowd blinc They point out proper models for imitation. They the study of just and proper composition. If it be In an age when wo bring into view the chief beauties that ought to be requisite not to be deficient in elegance or orna arc so frequently the 1 studied, and the principle faults that ought to be ment in times when they arc in such high estima every one erects hims avoided; and thereby tend to enlighten taste, and tion, it is still more requisite to attain the power we can hardly minglt to lead genius from unnatural deviations, into its of distinguishing false ornament from true, in bearing some share ir proper channel. What would not avail for the pro order to prevent our being carried away by that of this kind, it is not lo duction of great cxccllcncics, may at least serve to torrent of false and frivolous taste, which never derive part of their in prevent the commission of considerable errors. fails, when it is prevalent, to sweep along with it which they may be ap All that regards the study of eloquence and the raw and the ignorant. They who have never als for those fashionab composition merits the higher attention upon this studied eloquence in its principles, nor have been thereby enabling us tc account, that it is intimately connected with the trained to attend to the genuine and manly beau social life. improvement of our intellectual powers. For 1 ties of good writing, arc always ready to be But I should be son must be allowed to say, that when we arc em caught by the mere glare of language; and when merit of such studies 1 ployed, after a proper manner, in the study of they come to speak in public, or to compose, intrinsical use, indepc composition, we arc cultivating reason itself. have no other standard on which to form them show. The exercise of True rhetoric and sound logic arc very nearly al selves, except what chances to be fashionable cism, is in truth one ol lied. The study of arranging and expressing our and popular, how corruplcd soever, and erro ploymcnts of the und1 thoughts with propriety, teaches to think, as well neous, that may be. principles of good sens as to speak, accurately. By putting our sentiments But, as there are many who have no such ob ~ourse; to examine wh, into words, we always conceive them more dis jects as either composition or public speaking in is so; to employ oursclv tinctly. Every one who has the slightest acquain view, let us next consider what advanlages may rately between the spe tance with composition knows, that when he ex be dcri ved by them from such studies as form the tween affected and nat presses himself ill on any subject, when his subject of these Lectures. To them, rhetoric is nol tainly improve us not a arrangement is loose, and his sentences become so much a practical art as a speculative science; part of all philosophy, 1 feeble, the defects of his style can, almost on and the same instructions which assist ot~ers in nature. For such disqui s every occasion, be traced back to his indistinct composing, will assist them in discerning, and connected with the knov conception of the subject: so close is the connex relishing, the beautici; of composition. Whatever necessarily lead us to re ion between thoughts, and the words in which enable s geniu s to execute well, will enable taste the imagination, and the they arc clothed. to criticise justly . and increase our acquai The study of composition, important in itself When we name criticising, prejudices may ~ most relined feelings wh at all times, has acquired additional importance perhaps arise, of the same kind with those which ~ Logical and ethical from the taste and manners of the present age . It 1 mentioned before with rei;pect to rhetoric. As < higher sphere, and are C( is an age wherein improvements, in every part of rhetoric has been sometime s thought to signify 1· a more severe kind; the science, have been prosecuted with ardour. To all nothing more than the scholastic study of words, standing in its search al the liberal arts much attention has been paid; and and phrases, and tropes, so criticism has been direction of the will in thi to none more than to the beauty of language, and considered as merely the art of finding faults; as 1 They point out to man the grace and elegance of every kind of writing. the frigid application of certain technical terms, ] nature as an intelligent I The public car is become refined. It will not eas by means of which persons arc taught to cavil th~ _s~bject of moral obli! ily bear what is slovenly and incorrect. Every au and censure in a learned manner. But this is the cnt1c1sm chiefly consid< thor must aspire to some merit in expression, as criticism of pedants only. True criticism is a lib dowcd with those power well as in sentiment, if he would not incur the eral and humane art. It is the offspring of good tion, which were intende, danger of being neglected and despised. sense and refined taste. It aims at acquiring a just a~d to supply him with n I will not deny that the love of minute clc - discernment of the real merit of authors. It pro- tainmcnt. They open a Iii
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~b~~¼... ~ti'i~ Providence seems plainly lo have pointed out equal degree. More powerful correctives than quisitions conccminJ this useful purpose lo which the pleasures of taste taste can apply, arc necessary for rcfonning the writing. may be applied, by interposing them in a middle corrupt propensities which too frequently prevail There arc few s1 station between the pleasures of sense and those among mankind. Elegant speculations arc some more loosely and in, of pure intellect. We were not designed to grovel times found to Ooat on the surface of the mind, which it is more difi always among objects so low as the fonner; nor ··while bad passions possess the interior regions of sion; and none whicJ arc we capable of dwelling constantly in so high the heart. At the same time, this cannot but be ad will appear more dry a region as the latter. The pleasures of taste re mitted, that the exercise of taste is, in its native say on the subject i.h; fresh the mind after the toils of the intellect, and tendency, moral and purifying. From reading the J shall flrst explain th the labours of abstract study; and they gradually most admired productions of genius, whether in or faculty in the hun raise it above the attachments of sense, and pre poetry or prose, almost every one rises with some sider how far it is an pare it for the enjoymenL'i of virtue. good imprci.sions left on his mind: and though show the sources of So consonant is this to experience, that, in the these may not always be durable, they arc at least characters of taste in i education of youth, no object has in every age to be ranked among the means of disposing the then examine the vari , appeared more important to wise men, than to heart to virtue. One thing is certain, and 1 shall is liable, and inquire tincture them early with a relish for the entertain hereafter have occasion to illustrate it more fully, dard to which we can menL,;of taste. The transition is commonly made that, without possessing the virtuous affections in men, in order to disti with case from these to the discharge of the higher a strong degree, no man can attain eminence in the true . i:.. k ~· and more important duties of life. Good hopes the sublime parts of eloquence. He must feel Taste may be defin may be entertained of those whose minds have what a good man feels, if he expects greatly to ing pleasure from the this libcrnl and elegant turn. It is favoumblc to move or to interest mankind. They arc the ardent art." The first qucstior many virtues. Whereas, to be entirely devoid of sentiments of honour, virtue, magnanimity, and is, whether it is to be relish for eloquence, poetry, or any of the fine arL'i, public spirit, that only can kindle that fire of ge sense, or as an excrtic is justly construed to be an unpromising symptom nius, and call up into the mind those high ideas, very general term; but of youth; and raises suspicions of their being which attract the admiration of ages; and if this power iof the mind wh spirit be necessary to produce the most distin prone to low grntifications, or destined to drudge discovers truth, and in 1 in the more vulgar and illiberal pursuits of life. guished efforts of eloquence, it must be neces the litness of means tc There arc indeed few good dispositions of any sary also to our relishing them with proper taste question may be easil kind with which the improvement of taste is not and feeling. can be more clear, thai more or less connected. A cultivated taste in On these general topics I shall dwell no able into any such ope creases sensibility to all the tender and humane longer; but proceed directly to the consideration merely through a discm passions, by giving them frequent exercise; while of the subjects which arc to employ the following or_ a deduction of argl it tends to weaken the more violent and fierce Lectures. They divide themselves into five parts. ce1vcs pleasure from a emotions. First, some introductory dis sertations on the Na fine poem. Such objec ture of Taste, and upon the Sources or its Plea itively, and make a stro --Ingcnuas didicissc fidclitcr artcs, sures: secondly, the consideration of Language: Emollil mores, nee sinit cssc fcros.1 arc unable to assign ti thirdly, of Style: fourthly, of Eloquence properly pleased. They sometime The elevated sentiment<; and high examples so called, or Public Speaking in its different ncr the philosopher and which poetry, eloquence, and history, arc often kinds: lastly, a critical examination of the most the man. Hence the fac \.\f..Ch,~ bringing under our view, naturally tend to nour • distinguished Species of Composition, both in such beauties, seems mo ul..,l,--l-111,ish in our minds public spirit, the love of glory, prose and verse. !ng of sense, than to a pr oftu:,tuov contempt of external fortune, and the admirntion mg; and accordingly, fr ~ of what is truly illustrious and great. has borrowed its name; 11 Lecture II lut,(y: 1'\u. I will not go so far as to say that the improvc receive and distinguish tt ing, in several language s t,w(..~lq mcnt of taste and of virtue is the same; or that TASTE "taste" in the metaphoric L., . ._ . they may always be expected to co-exist in an ~I\., The nature of the present undertaking leads me to we now consider it. Ho\\ ' These poli\h'd art~ have hu1llllni1.'d mankind , begin with some inquiries concerning taste, as it which regard the opcratii Softcn' 954 ENLIGHTENMEN f RHETORIC 11 ~ (. '"'"'i>\?t.lt1~ l.OA< V\C>l;t," 11 11 f ....'S1tlol;., ~~SU\114 1 ~~ L~se.. correctives than quisitions concerning the merit of discourse and it must be inferred, from what I have said, that for reforming the writing. reason is entirely excluded from the exertions of ·requcntly prevail There arc few subjects on which men talk taste . TI10ugh taste, beyond doubt, be ultimatel y JI . lations arc some more loosely and indistinctly than on taste; few founded on a certain natural and instinctive sen - -ll-ls '.I face of the mind, which it is more difficult to explain with preci sibility to beauty, yet reason, as I shall show ~ ntcrior regions of sion; and none which in this course of Lectures hereafter, assists taste in many of its operations , l,.,rr- , cannot but be ad· will appear more dry or abstract. What I have to and serves to enlarge its powerJ 1 .,__ c is, in its native say on the subject shall be in the following order. Taste, in the sense in which I have explained From reading the I shall first explain the nature of taste as a power it, is a faculty common in some degree to all enius, whether in or faculty in the human mind. I shall next con men. Nothing that belongs to human nature is 1c rises with some sider how far it is an improveable faculty . I shall more gener.11 lhan the relish of beauty of one nind: anc.l though show the sources of its improvement , and the kind or other; of what is orderly, proportioned, e, they arc at least characters of taste in its most perfect state . I shall grand , harmonious, new, or sprightly. In chil . of disposing the then examine the various nuctuations to which it dren, the rudiments of taste discover themselves I • :rtain, and I shall is liable, and inquire whether there be any stan very early in a thousand instances; in lheir fond· mtc it more fully, dard to which we can bring the different tastes of ness for regular bodies, their admiration of pic- uous affections in men, in order to distinguish the corrupted from tures and statues, and imitations of all kinds; and ttain eminence in the true . 1.. lu"'-,:lof f'ASSI....;_pbWw? their strong attachment to whatever is new or ;e. He must feel Taste may be defined, "The power of receiv marvellous. The most ignorant peasants are de !Xpects greatly to ing pleasure from the beauties of nature and of lighted with ballads and tales, and are struck with hey arc the ardent art." The first question that occurs concerning it the beautiful appearance of nature in the earth nagnanimity, and is, whether it is to be considered as an internal and heavens. Even in the deserts of America, lie that lire of gc - sense, or as an exertion of reason? Reason is a where human nature shows itself in its most un thosc high ideas, very general term; but if we understand by it that cultivated state, the savages have their ornaments f ages; anc.l if this power :of the mind which in speculative matters of dress, their war and their death songs, their ha · the most distin discovers truth, and in practical matters judges of n.mgues and their orators. We must therefore con- it must be neccs• the fitness of means to an end, I apprehend the clude the principles of taste to be deeply founded with proper taste question may be easily answered. For nothing in the human mind . It is no less essential to man can be more clear, than that taste is not resolv lo have some discernment of beauty, than it is to I shall dwell no able into any such operation of reason. It is not possess the attributes of reason and of speech:' the consideration merely through a discovery of the understanding, But although none be wholly devoid of this ploy the following or a deduction of argument, that the mind re faculty, yet the degrees in which it is possessed ,es into five parts. ceives pleasure from a beautiful prospect or a are widely different. In some men only the feeble tations on the Na fine poem. Such objects often strike us intu glimmerings of taste appear ; the beauties which >urces of its Pica itively, and make a strong impression, when we they relish are of the coarsest kind; and of these lion of Language: are unable to assign the reasons of our being they have but a weak and confused impression: loquence properly pleased. They sometimes strike in the same man while, in others, taste rises to an acute discern g in its different ner the philosopher and the peasant; the boy and ment, and a lively enjoyment of the most refined ation of the most the man. Hence the faculty by which we relish beauties. In general, we may observe, that in the 1position, both in such beauties, seems more nearly allied to a feel powers and pleasures of taste, there is a more re- ing of sense, than to a process of the understand ing; and accordingly. from an external sense it 1Scc Dr. Gerrnrd's Essay on Tas1c.- D' Alcmbcn's Re· has borrowed its name; that sense by which we flections on lhc Use and Abuse of Philosophy in Mailers receive and distinguish the pleasures of food hav which relalc 10 T11s1c.- Rcncc1ionsCriliqucs sur lu Pocsic cl ing, in several languages, given rise to the word sur la Pcin1urc, lomc ii. ch. 22- 31.- Elcmcnts of Criticism. "taste" in the metaphorical meaning under which ch. :25.- Mr. Hume's Essay on the S1undurd ofTaste .- ln we now consider it. However, as, in all subjects truduc1ion lo the Essay un 1hcSublime and Beautiful. (Au.} taking leads me to ~on the subjccl of Taslc, considered as a power or faculty :eming taste, as it which regard the operations of the mind, the in of the mind, much less is 10 he found among lhc ,mcknt, than .1ppealed to in dis- accurate use of words is to be carefully avoided, among lhe modem rhetorical and crilical writers . . . . (Au. 1 IILAIR I LECTURES ON RHETORIC AND DELLES LETTRES 955 .. -~ " BIA\.:l) ~ f,. .. ~ I .,, -, ' . .' Ha~. b,.CA,,. ""'1 ~""' markable inequality among men, than is usually more exquisite in men whose employment re But although taste found in point of common sense, reason, and quires them to examine the polish of bodies, than sensibility, it must nc judgment. The constitution of our nature in this, it is in others. They who deal in microscopical ob tivc sensibility alone. as in all other respects, discovers admirable wis servations, or arc accustomed to engrave on pre I before hinted, have s dom. In the distribution of those talents which cious stones, acquire surprising accuracy of sight all the operations anc arc necessary for man's well-being, Nature hath in discerning the minutest objects ; and practice in thorough good taste n N • made less distinction among her children. But in attending to different navours and tastes of power compounded the distribution of those which belong only to the liquors, wonderfully improves the power of dis- beauty, and of improv ornamental part of life, she hath bestowed her ' tinguishing them, and of tracing their composi to be satisfied lo thh favours with more frugality. She hath both sown tion. Placing internal taste therefore on the foot greater part of the pre the seeds more sparingly, and rendered a higher ing of a simple sense, it cannot be doubted that other than imitations 0 culture requisite for bringing them to perfection. frequent exercise , and curious attention to its the characters, actions This inequality of taste among men is owing, proper objecls, must greatly heighten ito; power. pleasure we receive fr, h,~o~ without doubt, in part, to the different frame of Of this we have one clear proof in that part of ..., .. s.c,c( rescntations is foundt their natures; lo nicer organs, and finer internal lastc, which is called an car for music. Experi judge whether they t l\ttc.w powers, with which some arc endowed beyond ence every day shows that nothing is more im longs to the understan ,..8'~'.. ! others. But, if it be owing in part to nature, it is proveablc. Only the simplest and plainest compo copy with the original. owing to education and culture still more. The il sitions arc relii;hcd at first: use and practice In reading, for inst. lustration of this leads to my next remark on this extend our pleasure, teach us to relish finer IEneid, a great part ol subject, that taste is a most improveablc faculty, melody, and by degrees enable us to enter into the plan or story bcin• if there be any such in human nature; a remark the intricate and compounded pleasures of har the parts joined togeth~ which gives great encouragement to such a mony. So an eye for the beauties of painting is connexion ; from the ch course of study as we arc now proposing lo pur never all at once acquired. II is gradually fonned nature, the sentiments l sue. Of the truth of this assertion we may easily by being conversant among pictures, and sludy tcrs , and the style to thf be convinced, by only reflecting on that immense ing the works of the best masters . l·huvit.! w~ich arises from a pot superiority which education and improvement Precisely in the same manner, with respect to enJoyed by taste as an i give to civilized, above barbarous nations, in re the beauty of composition and discourse, atten covcry of this conduct finement of taste; and on the superiority which tion to the most approved models, sludy of the reason; and the more 1 they give in the same nation to those who have best authors , compari sons of lower and higher discover such proprie studied the liberal arts, above the rude and un degrees of the same beauties. operate towards the greater will be our pl taught vulgar. The difference is so great, that refinement of taste. When one is only beginning through our natural s, there is perhaps no one particular in which lhese his acquaintance with work-; of genius, the senti shows us why and up, two classes of men arc so far removed from each ment which attends them is obscure and con ( pleased. Wherever, in \\ other, as in respect of lhc powers and the plea• fused. He cannot point out the several excellen blance to nature is aim sures of taste; and assuredly for this difference no cies or blemishes of a pcrfonnancc which he any reference of parts le other general cause can be assigned, but culture peruses; he is at a loss on what to rest his judg an end, as there is indce and education. - I shall now proceed lo show ment; all that can be expected is, that he should and discourse; there the what the means arc, by which taste becomes so tell in general whether he be pleased or not. But ways have a great part te remarkably susceptible of cultivation and prog allow him more experience in works of this kind, Herc then is a wide fi ress. and his taste becomes by degrees more exact and its powers in relation to RcOect first upon that great Jaw of our nature, enlightened. He begins to perceive not only the ticularly with respect to that exercise is the chief source of improvement character of the whole, but the beauties and de of genius ; and hence ari in all our faculties . This holds both in our bodily feels of each part; and i~ able to describe the pe considerable source of tJ and in our mental powers. It holds even in our culiar qualities which he praises or blames. The from the application of r external senses; although these be less the subject mist is dissipalcd which seemed formerly to hang such productions of gc 1 of cultivation than any of our other faculties. We over the object ; and he can at length pronounce such as unnatural chara, sec how acute the senses become in persons firmly, and without hesitation, concerning it. aff cctcd style, may pica whose trade or business leads to nice exertion s of Thus, in taste, considered as mere sensibility, ex please only because the them. Touch, for instance, becom es infinitely ercise opens a great source of improvement. and to good sense has n ENLIGHTENMENT RHETORIC ~ Bl41;.Ll ~ "-H~"\"ui.::..~ ~~ ..-> HtAVV\t IS fV\Ot""«, l-4.c.~, btCAIA.~c.f,\140' h4S1 .~ SU\IW ~ ~o:~·s\~~:,~~ ~ \M.At"" 0~ i\4'\ Q.)/.(., .\, a-r-~.....J._ e employment re But ahhough taste be ultimately founded on tended to. Once, show how nature might have lish of bodies, than sensibility, it must not be considered as instinc been more justly imitated or represented ; how the 1microscopical ob tive sensibility alone. Reason and good sense, as writer might have managed his subject to greater Loengmve on pre I before hinted, have so extensive an influence on advantage; the illusion will presently be dissi g accurncy or sight all th!! operations and decisions of taste, that a pated, and these false beauties will please no :CL'i; and practice in thorough good taste may well be considered as a more. Jrs and tastes of power compounded or natuml sensibility to From these two sources then, lirst, the fre ; the power of dis beauty, and of improved understanding . In order quent exercise of taste, and next, the application ing their composi to be satisfied to this, let us observe, that the of good sense and reason to the objects of taste, :refore on the foot- greater part of thl! productions of genius are no taste, a.'i a power of the mind, receives its im 1ot be doubted that other than imitations of nature; representations of provement. In its perfect state it is undoubtedly us allention to its the characters, actions, or manners of men. The the result both of nature and of art. It supposes 1eighten its power. pleasure we receive from such imitations or rep· our natural sense of beauty to be refined by fre ·oof in that part of resenlations is founded on mere taste; but to quent attention to the mosl beautiful objects, and for music. Experi judge whether they be properly executed, be at the same time to be guided and improved by othing is more im longs to the understanding, which compares the the light of the understanding. md plainest compo- copy with the original. I must be allowed to add, that as a sound head, use and practice In reading, for instance, such a poem as Lhe so likewise a good heart, is a very material requi us to relish finer t£neid, a great part of our pleasure arises from site to just taste. The moral beauties are not only )le us to enter into the plan or story being well conducted, and all in themselves superior to all others, but they d pleasures or har the parts joined together with probability and due exert an inHuence, either more near or more re· .uties of painting is connexion; from the characters being taken from mote, on a great variety of other objects of taste . is grndually fonned nature, the sentiments being suited to the charac Wherever the affections, characters, or actions of :>ictures, and study ters, and the style to the sentiments. The pleasure men, are concerned, (and these certainly afford :ers. \-\14w.d which arises from a poem so conducted, is rel! or the noblest subjects to genius,) there can be nei ner, with respect to enjoyed by La!.ICas an internal sense : but the dis ther any just or affecting description of them, nor nd discourse, atten- covery of thi!>conduct in the poem is owing to any thorough feeling of the beauty of that de· 1odels, study of the reason; and the more thal reason enables us to scription, without our possessing the virtuous af• f lower and higher discover such propriety in the conduct, the fections. He whose heart is indelicate or hard, he operate towards the ( greater will be our pleasure. We arc pleased, who has no admiration of what is truly noble or 1e is only beginning through our natuml sense of beauty. Reason praiseworthy, nor the proper sympathetic sense of genius, the senti shows us why and upon what grounds we are of what is soft and tender, must have a very im· ; obscure and con pleased. Wherever, in works of taste, any resem portant relish of the highest beauties of elo he several excellen I blance to nature is aimed at; wherever there is quence and poetry. formance which he any reference of parts to a whole, or of means to The characters of taste, when brought to its hat to rest his judg an end, as there is indeed in almost every writing most improved state, are all reducible to two :d is, that he should and discourse; there the understanding must al delicacy and correctness. pleased or not. But ways have a great part to act. Delicacy of taste respects principally the per 1 works of this kind, Here then is a wide field for rea.,;on's exerting fection of that natural sensibility on which taste recs more exact and its powers in relation to the objects of taste, par~ is founded. It implies those finer organs or pow· !rceive not only the ticularly with respect to composition, and works ers which enable us to discover beauties that lie he beauties and de of genius; and hence arises a second and a very hid from a vulgar eye. One may have strong sen· ! to describe the pe considerable source of the improvement of taste, sibility, and yet be deficient in delicate taste. He .ises or blames. The from the application of reason and good sense to may be deeply impressed by such beauties as he 1ed formerly to hang such productions of genius. Spurious beauties, perceives: but he perceives only what is in some al length pronounce such as unnatural characters, forced sentiments, degree coarse, what is bold and palpable; while .ion, conceming it. affected style, may please for a little; but they chaster and simpler ornaments escape his notice . mere sensibility, ex· please only because their opposition to nature In this state taste generally exists among rude and r improvement. and to good sense has not been examined or at- unrefined nations. But a person of delicate taste IILAIR I LECTURES ON RHETORIC AND BELLES Ll!TTRES 957 both feels strongly and feels accurately. He secs to which it is liable, and lo inquire whether, in that whate ver please: distinctions and differences where others sec the midst of these, there be any means of distin it docs please'! This none; the most latent beauty does not escape him, guishing a true from a corrupted taste. This nice and subtle one and he is sensible of the smallest blemish . Deli brings us to the most diflicult part of our task. discuss. cacy of taste is judged of by the same marks that For it must be acknowledged, that no principle of \ I bcgi n by observ we use in judging of the delicacy of an external the human mind is, in its operations, more fluctu .!I thing as any standan sense. As the goodness of the palate is not tried ating and capricious than taste. Its variations must immediately I by strong flavours, but by a mixture of ingredi have been so great and frequent, as to create a equally good; a pos ents, where, notwithstanding the confusion, we suspicion with some, of its being merely arbi pass unnoticed in sl remain sensible of each; in like manner delicacy trary; grounded on no foundation, ascertainable speak of the lesser d of internal taste appears, by a quick and lively by no standard, but wholly dependent on chang of men, yet when w sensibility to its finest, most compounded, or ing fancy; the consequence of which would be, presently shows its . most latent objects. that all studies or regular inquiries concerning the one who will serious) Correctness of taste respects chiefly the im objects of taste were vain. In architecture, the Hottentot or a Laplan , provement which that faculty receives through its Grecian models were Jong esteemed the most rect as that of a Long connexion with the understanding. A man of cor perfect. In succeeding ages. the Gothic architec he can be charged · w rect taste is one who is never imposed on by ture alone prevailed, and afterwards the Grecian who thinks a commor counterfeit beauties; who carries always in his taste revived in all its vigour, and engrossed the historian as Tacitus? mind that standard of good sense which he em public admiration. In eloquence and poetry, the right extravagance to ploys in judging of every thing. He estimates Asiatics at no time relished any thing but what led unavoidably to th with propriety the compar.itive merit of the sev was full of ornament, and splendid in a degree some foundation for t eral beauties which he meets with in any work of that we should denominate gaudy : whilst the taste to that of anothe1 genius; refers them lo their proper classes ; as Greek's admired only chaste and simple beauties, a bad, a right and a signs the principles, as far as they can be traced, and despised the Asiatic ostentation. In our own things. whence their power of pleasing flows; and is country, how many writings that were greatly ex But, to prevent mi pleased himself precisely in that degree in which tolled two or three centuries ago, arc now fallen necessary to observe he ought, and no more. into entire disrepute and oblivion! Without going tastes which prevails ILis true that these two qualities of taste, deli back to remote instances, how very different is in every case infer co cacy and correctness, mutually imply each other. the taste of poetry which prevails in Great Britain us to seek for some : No taste can be exquisitely delicate without now, from what prevailed there no longer ago mine who arc in the ri being correct; nor can be thoroughly correct than the reign of King Charles ll, which the au differ very considcral without being delicate. But still a predominancy thors too of that time deemed an Augustan age; yet none of them be w of one or other quality in the mixture is often vis when nothing was in vogue but an affected bril ctry most; another tak ible. The power of delicacy is chiefly seen in dis liancy of wit; when the simple majesty of Milton history. One prefers , cerning the true merit of a work; the power of was overlooked, and Paradise Lost almost en One admires the simp correctness, in rejecting false pretensions to tirely unknown; when Cowley's laboured and style. The young ar, merit. Delicacy leans more lo feeling; correctness unnatural conceits were admired as the very sprightly compositions more to reason and judgment. The fonner is quintessence of genius; Waller's gay sprightli tertaincd with those o more the gift of nature; the latter, more the prod ness was mistaken for the tender spirit of love lions delight in bold uct of culture and art. Among the ancient critics, poetry; and such writers as Suckling and strong representations Longinus possessed most delicacy; Aristotle Etheridge were held in esteem for dramatic com to more correct and re most correctness. Among the modems, Mr. Ad position. scription and sentimcn 1 dison is a high example of delicate taste; Dean The question is, what conclusion we arc to pitch upon some one Swift, had he written on the subject of criticism, form from such instances as these? ls there any suits their tum of mind would perhaps have afforded the example of a thing that can be called a standard of taste, by ap a title to condemn the correct one. pealing to which we may distinguish between a taste, as in question of Having viewed taste in its most improved and good and a bad taste? Or, is there in lruth no such is but one conclusion ti perfect state, I come next to consider its devia distinction; and arc we to hold that, according to rest arc erroneous. Tru tions from that state; the fluctuations and changes the proverb, there is no disputing of tastes: but reason, is one; beauty I.. ' 1"' - 958 ENLIGHTENMENT RHETORIC u.,l---u~ nature affords a full and distinct criterion of what of the majority? Must we collect the voices of When we refer to is truly beautiful. Reason hath in such cases full others, before we fonn any judgment for our men as the ultimate 11 scope for exerting its authority, for approving or selves, of what deserves applause in eloquence or beautiful in the arts condemning , by comparing the copy with the poetry? By no means ; there arc principles of rea stood of men placd, original. But there arc innumerable cases in son and sound judgment which can be applied to favoumblc to the pro which this rule cannot be al all applied; and con matters of taste as well as to the subjects of sci one must perceive ti fonnity to nature is an expression frequently ence and philosophy . He who admires or cen lized nations, and duri used, without any distinct or determinate mean sures any work of genius, is always ready, if his darkness, any loose ing. We must therefore search for somewhat that taste be in any degree improved, to assign some concerning such subj can be rendered more clear and precise, to be the reasons for his decision . He appeals to principles, those stares of socict, standard of taste. and points out the grounds on which he proceeds. which to operate. ft is· Taste, as I before explained it, is ultimately Taste is a son of compound power, in which the appears in its lowest a, founded on an internal sense of beauty, which is light of the understanding always mingles more refer to the sentiments natural to men, and which, in its application to or less, with the feelings of sentiment. flourishing nations; w particular objects, is capable of being guided and But, though reason can carry us a certain ~anncrs refined; whe, enlightened by reason. Now, were there any one length in judging concerning works of taste , it is Jeered to free discussio person who possessed in full perfection all the not to be forgotten that the ultimate conclusions science and philosoph) powers of human nature, whose internal senses to which our reasonings lead, refer al last to Even among nation were in every instance exquisite and just, and sense and perception. We may speculate and ety, I admit, that accidc whose reason was unerring and sure, the dctcnni argue concerning propriety of conduct in a ~lly warp the proper , nation of such a person concerning beauty would, tragedy , or an epic poem. Just reasonings on the limes the state of rcligi beyond doubt, be a perfect standard for the taste subject will correct the capr ice of unenlightened ~ovcmmcnt, may for • of all others. Wherever their taste differed from taste, and establish principles for judging of what tious court may introd, his, it could be imputed only lo some imperfec deserves praise. But, at the same time, these rca· ments, and dissolute \\. tion in their natural powers . But as there is no sonings appeal always, in the lust resort, to feel• admired genius may pr such Jiving standard, no one person to whom all ing. The foundation upon which they rest, is what faults, and even render mankind will allow such submission to be due, has been found from experience to please t!mes envy may have p what is there of sufficient authority to be the mankind universally. Upon this ground we prefer little, productions of gi standard of the various and opposite tastes of a simple and natural, to an artificial and affected humou.r, or party spirit, men? Most certainly there is nothing but the style; a regular and well-connected story, to loose t? a htgh, though sho, taste, as far us it can be gathered, of human na and scattered narratives; a catastrophe which is httlc deserved it. But ture. That which men concur the most in admir tender and pathetic, to one which leaves us un ~umstances give the apr ing, must be held to be beautiful. His taste must moved. fl is from consulting our own imagina JudgmcnL'i of taste, that be esteemed just and true, which coincides with tion and heart, and from attending to the feelings reeled. In the course of 1 the general sentiments of men. In this standard of others , that any principle s arc formed which hu_man nature never fail~ we must rest. To the sense of mankind the ulti acquire authority in matters of taste.s gam the ascendant ovci mate appeal must ever lie, in all works of taste. If ruptcd modes of taste wl any one should maintain that sugar was bitter and 'The difference between the authon; who found the stan been introduced . These 1 tobacco was sweet, no reasonings could avail to dard of 1as1eupon the common feelings of human nature as whi_Je,and mislead supc prove it The taste of such a person would infalli certained by general approbation, and those who found ii subjected to examinatio, bly be held to be diseased, merely because it dif upon established principles which can be ascertained by rea away; while that alone re fered so widely from the taste of the species to son. is more an apparent than a real diff erenee. Like many other literary controversies , it 1ums chieRy on modes of ex on sound reason, and the which he belongs. In like manner, with regard to pression . For they who lay the grea1est stress on sentiment the objects of sentiment or internal taste, the and feeling, mnke no scruple of applying argument and rca• common feelings of men carry the same author son 10 molters of tas1e. They appeal , like other writers. lo cs· picion of being arbitrary, muin1 lablished principles, in judging of lhc excellencies of clo· ity, and have a title to regulate the taste of every th~ standard of reason, admit 11, individual. qucncc or poetry; nnd plainly show, that the general uncver.;alJy, must on that accoun approbation to which they ul1ima1cly recur. is an approbation But have we then, it will be said, no other cri and 1hu1no rules or cone[ usiom resulting from discussion as well as from sentiment. They, on can have uny ju~, authority, if th terion of what is beautiful , than the approbation tlK:other hand, who, in order 10 vindicate taste fmm any sus- general scntimenL~o f men. [Au.J ENLIGHTENMENT RHETORIC Jliecl the voices of When we refer to the concurring sentiments of I by no means pretend, that there is any stan judgment for our- men as the ultimate lest of what is to be accounted dard of taste, to which, in every particular in 1use in eloquence or beautiful in the arts, this is lo be always under stance, we can resort for clear and immediate de re principles of rea stood of men placed in such situations as are termination. Where, indeed, is such a standard to ;:h can be applied to favournble 10 the proper exertions of taste. Every be found for deciding any of those great contro the subjects of sci one must perceive that among rude and uncivi versies in reason and philosophy, which perpetu ho admires or cen lized nations, and during the ages of ignorance and ally divide mankind? In the present case, there always ready, if his darkness, any loose notions that are entertained was plainly no occasion for any such strict and ,ved, to assign some concerning such subjects carry no authority. In absolute provision to be made. In order to judge 1ppealsto principles, those states of society,. taste has no materials on of what is morally good or evil, of what man 1 which he proceeds. which to operate. It is either totally suppressed, or ought, or ought not in duty to do, it was fit that appears in its lowest and mosl imperfect form. We power, in which the the means of clear and precise determination <:• • ~f " !ways mingles more refer lo the sentiments of mankind in polished and should be afforded us. But to ascertain in every ~,.tl.::~~; entiment. nourishing nations; when arts are cultivated and case with the utmost exactness what is beautiful : ~n,v."'11'! carry us a certain manners relined; when works of genius are sub or elegant, was not at all necessary to the happi• : ~reiJ:,,! , works of taste, il is jected to free discussion, and taste is improved by ness of man. And therefore some diversity in ~llimate conclusions science and philosophy. feeling was here allowed to take place; and room !ad, refer at last to Even among nations, at such a period of soci was left for discussion and debate, concerning may speculate and ety, I admit, that accidental causes may occasion the degree of approbation to which any work of ... y of conduct in a ally warp the proper operations of taste: some· genius is entitled. times the state of religion, sometimes the form of 1st reasonings on the The conclusion, which it is sufficient for us lo ,. . , ~ ·ice of unenlightened government, may for a while pervert it; a licen rest upon, is, that taste is far from being an arbi• ., ,: • 1 s for judging of what tious court may introduce a taste for false orna trary principle, which is subject to the fancy of ~ame time, these rea- ments, and dissolute writings. The usage of one every individual, and which admits of no crite 1e last resort, to feel- admired genius may procure approbation for his rion for determining whether it be false or true. 1ich they rest, is what faults, and even render them fashionable. Some· Its foundation is the same in all human minds. It (periencc lo please times envy may have power to bear down, for a is built upon sentiments and perceptions which this ground we prefer little, productions of great merit; while popular belong to our nature; and which, in general, oper artificial and affected humour, or party spirit, may, at other times, exalt ate with the same unifonnity as our other intel mected story, to loose to a high, though short-lived, reputation, what lectual principles. When these sentiments are catastrophe which is little deserved it. But though such casual cir perverted by ignorance or prejudice, they are ca which leaves us un- cumstances give the appearance of caprice to the pable of being rectified by reason. Their sound ng our own imagina judgments of taste, that appearance is easily cor and natural state is ultimately determined, by ending to the feelings rected. In the course of time, the genuine taste of comparing them, with the general taste of les are fanned which human nature never fails to disclose itself, and to mankind. Let men declaim as much as they of taste.5 gain the ascendant over any fantastic and cor please concerning the caprice and the uncertainty rupted modes of taste which may chance to have of taste, it is found by experience, that there are been introduced. These may have currency for a uthors who found the stan· beauties, which, if they be displayed in a proper :clings of human nature as while, and mislead superficial judges; but being light, have power to command lasti~g and gen ,, and those who found it subjected to examination, by degrees they pass eral admiration. In every composition, what in , can be ascenaincd by rca· away; while that alone remains which is founded terests the imagination, and touches the heart, real difference. Like many on sound reason, and the native feelings of men. ns chiefly on modes of e)(· pleases all ages and all nations. There is a certain •realest stress on sentiment string to which, when properly struck, the human ~pplying argument and rea· heart is so made as to answer. :al, like other writers, to es• picion of being arbitrary, muintain that it is n.\cenainablc by Hence the universal testimony which the most of the e)(cellcncies of elo· the standard of reason, admit nevenhcless, that what pleases improved nations of the earth have conspired, , show, that the general universally, must nn !hut account be held to be truly beautiful; tcly recur, is an approbation and that no rules or conclusions cnnccming objects of taste, throughout a long tract of ages, to give to some as from sentiment. They, on can have any just authority, if they be found to contmdict the few works of genius; such as the Iliad of Homer, •indicate taste from any sus• general sentiments of men. [Au.) and the /Eneid of Virgil. Hence the authority BLAIRJ LECTURES ON RHETORICAND BELLES LETIRES which such works have acquired as standards, in When I say, for instance, "That a good man en classes and heads. T some degree, of poetical composition; since from joys comfort in the midst of adversity"; I just ex their name of figures. them we arc enabled lo collect what the sense of press my thought in the simplest manner pos one body distinguish, mankind is, concerning those beauties which sible. But when I say, "To the upright there fonns of speech have, give them the highest pleasure, and which there ariscth light in darkness"; the same sentiment is peculiar to itself, w, fore poetry ought to exhibit. Authority or preju expressed in a figurative style; a new circum from the rest, and di dice may, in one age or country, give a temporary stance is introduced; light is put in the place of expression. Simple e reputation to an indifferent poet, or a bad artist: comfort, and darkness is used to suggest lhc idea idea known to other. but when foreigners, or when posterity examine of adversity. In the same manner, to say, "It is over and above, besto his works, his faulls arc discerned, and the gen impossible, by any search we can make, to ex that idea; a dress whi uine taste of human nature appears. "Opinionum plore the divine nature fully," is to make a simple marked, and adorns i ,..,f-,~ commcnta dclct dies; natunc judicia conflrmat." proposition. But when we say, "Canst thou, by guagc became early a ~~ Time overthrows the illusions of opinion, but es searching, find out God? Canst thou find out the to those who studied ti .k~6' •r tablishes the decisions of nature.... Almighty to perfection? It is high as heaven, Figures, in general .u,.-.,s ? what canst thou do? deeper than hell, what canst that language, which lecture XIV thou know?" This introduces a figure into style; imagination, or by the the proposition being not only expressed, but ad this description will a ORIGINAND NATUREOF miration and astonishment being expressed to ticular account I am a :,an-.. FIGURATIVELANGUAGE gether with it. Rhetoricians common But, though figures imply a deviation from great classes; figures ;o~ Having now finished what related to the con what may be reckoned the most simple form or thought. The former, I ""•S,lv struction of sentences, I proceed to other rules speech, we arc not thence to conclude, that they monly called tropes, .....-h>1o1..-? concerning style. My general division of the imply any thing uncommon, or unnatural. This is being employed to sig qualities of style, was into perspicuity and orna so far from being the case, that on very many oc fcrent from its original ment. Perspicuity, both in single words and in casions they arc both the most natural, and the that if you alter the we sentences, I have considered. Ornament, as far as most common method of uttering our sentiments. Thus, in the instance I it arises from a graceful, strong, or melodius con It is impossible to compose any discourse with to the upright in darkn. struction of words, has also been treated of. An· out using them often; nay, there arc few sen "light and darkness," other, and a great branch of the ornament of tences of any length, in which some expression but substituted for con style, is, figurative language; which is now to be or other, that may be termed a figure, docs not count of some rcsem the subject of our consideration, and will require occur. From what causes this happens, shall be they arc supposed to b a full discussion. afterwards explained. The fact, in the mean time, life. The other clac;s, t Our first inquiry must be, What is meant by shows that they arc to be accounted part of that supposes the words to I figures of spccch?6 language which nature dictates to men. They arc literal meaning, and t~ In general, lhcy always imply some departure not the inventions of the schools, nor the mere tum of the thought; a: from simplicity of expression; the idea which we product or study: on the contrary, the most illiter lions, interrogations, ii intend to convey, not only enunciated to others, ate speak in figures, as often as the most learned. isons; where, though y1 but enunciated in a particular manner, and with Whenever the imaginations of the vulgar arc used, or translate therr some circumstance added, which is designed to much awakened, or their passions inflamed another, you may, ncvc render the impression more strong and vivid. against one another, they will pour forth a torrent same figure in the thou, of figurative language, as forcible as could be ever, is of no great use '•On the subjecl of figuresuf speech, all the writers who employed by the most artificial declaimer. upon it in practice; neitl treat of rhetoric or composition, haye insisted largely. To make rcfcrcnccs. therefore,on this suhjcct, were endless. On What then is it, which has drawn the attention It is of little importance the foundation of figurative language, in general, one of the of critics and rhetoricians so much to these forms particular mode of ex most sensible aml instructivewriters appears to me to be M. of speech? It is this: they remarked, that in them trope, or of a figure; pr< Marsais, in his Truitt!des Tmpc.rpour scn•ir J 'lmmJucticma consisLc;much of the beauty and the force of lan figurative language alw /11Rl11!torit111c, ct iJ /11logique. For observations on particular ing of the imagination, figures, the Elcmc111sof Cri1ici.r111may he consuleed, where guage; and found them always to bear some char the subject is fully handled,and illustr:itedby a great variety acters, of distinguishing marks, by the help of sion, expressed in ours · of examrlcs. [Au.) which they could reduce them under separate of imagination, and figu ENLIGHTENMENT RHETORIC al a good man cn classes and heads. To Lhis, perhaps, they owe more useful distribution of the subject. But, wilh lvcrsily"; I just cx their name of figures. As Lhe ligurc or shape of out insisting on any artificial divisions, it will be plcst manner pm; one body distinguishes it from another, so lhese more useful, that I inquire into the origin and the Lhc uprighl Lhcrc forms of speech have, each of them, a cast or turn nature of figures. Only, before I proceed lo this, same scnLimenl is peculiar lo itself, which both dislinguishes it there arc two general observalions which it may le; a new circum from the rcsl, and distinguishes it from simple be proper to premise. put in the place of expression. Simple expression jusl makes our The first is, concerning the use of rules with Losuggesl Lhe idea idea known to others; but figurative language, respect to figurative language. I admit, that per nner, to say, "It is over and above, beslows a particular dress upon sons may both speak and wrile with propriety ~ can make, lo ex that idea; a dress which both makes it lo be re who know not the names of any of the figures of is to make a simple marked, and adorns it. Hence, this sort of lan speech, nor ever studied any rules relating lo y, "Canst Lhou, by guage became early a capital object of attention them. Nature, as was before observed, dictates sl Lhou find out the to those who studied the powers of speech. the use of figures; and, like Mons. Jourdain, in s high as heaven, Figures, in general, may be described to be Moliere, who had spoken for forty years in prose, mn hell, whal cansl thal language, which is prompled either by lhe without ever knowing it; many a one uses a figure inlo style; imagination, or by lhe passions. The justness of metaphorical expressions lo good purpose, with 1 expressed, but ad lhis description will appear, from the more par out any idea of what a metaphor is. It will not, icing expressed lo- ticular accounl I am uflcrwards to give of Lhem. however, follow thence, that rules arc of no ser Rhetoricians commonly divide lhem into two vice. All science arises from observations on '/ a deviation from great classes; figures of words, and figures of practice. Practice has always gone before melhod mst simple form of thought. The former, figures of words, are com and rule; but method and rule have afterwards conclude, Lhut Lhey monly called tropes, and consist in a word's improved and perfected practice, in every art. We :>runnalural. This is being employed to signify something that is dif every day meet with persons who sing agreeably, al on very many oc ferent from ils original and primitive meaning; so without knowing one note of the gamut. Yet ii osl naLUral, and Lhc thal if you alter the word, you deslroy the figure. has been found of importance to reduce these .ring our senliments. Thus, in the instance I gave before; "Light ariselh notes to a scale, and to form an art of music; and any discourse with lo the upright in darknes<,." The trope consists in it would be ridiculous to prclcnd, thal the art is of there arc few sen "light and darkness ," being not meant literally, no advantage, because the practice is founded in ch some expression but subslituted for comfort and adversity . on ac nalure. Propriety and beauty of speech are cer d a figure, does not count of some resemblance or analogy which tainly us improvcable as the car or the voice; and is happens, shall be they arc supposed to bear lo these conditions of 10 know lhc principles of this beauty, or the rea ct, in the mean time, life. The other class, lermed figures of Lhought, sons which render one figure, or one manner of ·counted part of that supposes lhe words lo be used in their proper and speech, preferable to another, cannot fail lo assist les to men. They are literal meaning, and the figure lo consist in Lhe and direct a proper choice. hoots, nor Lhc mere Lum of the thought; as is the case in cxclama But I must observe, in the next place, that, al • rary, the most illiter lions, interrogations, apostrophes, and compar Lhough lhis part of style mcrils attention, and is a as the most learned. isons; where, though you vary lhe words that are very proper object of science and rule; although ; of the vulgar are used, or translate them from one language into much of the beauty of composition depends on passions innamed another, you may, nevertheless, still preserve the figurative language; yet we must beware of imag - II pour forth a torrent same figure in the thought. This distinclion, how ining that ii depends solely, or even chiefly, upon forcible as could be ever, is of no great use; as nothing can be built such language. It is not so. The great place which iul declaimer. upon it in practice; neither is it always very clear . the doctrine of lropes and figures has occupied in s drawn the attention It is of liulc importance whether we give to some systems of rhetoric; the over-anxious care which ~ much to these forms particular mode of expression Lhe name of a has been shown in giving names to a vast variety ~ marked, thal in them trope, or of a figure; provided we remember, that of them, and in ranging them under different ~~ and the force of lan figurative language always imports some colour classes, has oflen led persons lo imagine, that if il,,,.;, ys to bear some char ing of the imagination, or some emotion of pas their composilion was well bespangled with a ~~ urks, by the help of sion, expressed in our style: and, perhaps, figures number of these ornaments of speech, it wanted .1.1 ~ \ them under separate of imagination, and flgure.~ of passion, might be a no other beauly; whence has arisen much stiffness ,....,., • BLAIR I Lf CTl .,1RES ON RHIHOIUC AND BELLUS LETTRES Having premised these observations, I pro and affectation. For it is, in truth, the sentiment where their imaginatio or passion, which lies under the figured expres ceed to give an account of the origin and nature Thus we speak of a pi sion, that gives it any merit. The figure is only of figures; principally of such as have their de clear head; a soft or a } the dress: the sentiment is the body and the sub · pendence on language; including that numerous smooth behaviour. We stance. No figures will render a cold or an empty tribe, which the rhetoricians call tropes. warmed by love, .nvellet composition interesting; whereas, if a sentiment At the first rise of language, men would begin grief; and these arc aln be sublime or pathetic, it can support itself per with giving names to the different objects which words which we have fo1 fectly well, without any borrowed assistance. they discerned or thought of. This nomenclature But, although the ban Hence, several of the most affecting and admired would, at the beginning, be very narrow. Accord the want of words, be de passages of the best authors, are expressed in the ing as men's ideas multiplied, and their acquain invention of tropes; yet simplest language. The following sentiment from tance with objects increased, their stock of names perhaps, even the princi~ Virgil, for instance, makes its way al once to the and words would increase also. But to the infinite speech. Tropes have aris heart, without the help of any figure whatever . variety of objects and ideas no language is ade spread themselves wicJ. He is describing an Argive, who falls in battle, in quate. No language is so copious, as to have a which imagination posse separate word for every separate idea. Men natu Italy, at a great distance from his native country. train on which this has r rally sought to abridge this Jabour of multiplying Stcmitur infclix alicno vulncrc, crelumquc lions, I shall endeavour tc words in infinitum; and, in order to Jay less bur Every object which rr Adspicit, ct dukes moricns reminiscitur Argos. ? den on their memories, made one word, which JEncid x. 781. the human mind, is consl they had already appropriated to a certain idea or certain circumslanccs am A single stroke of this kind, drawn as by the very object, stand also for some other idea or object; at the same time. It ncv pencil of nature, is worth a thousand figures. In between which and the primary one, they found, view, isole, as the French the same manner, the simple style of Scripture: or fancied, some relation. Thus, the preposition, pendent of, and separa "He spoke, and it was done; he commanded, and in, was originally invented to express the circum thing; but always occurs it stood fast." - "God said, Let there be light, stance of place: "The man was killed in the other objects; going bef wood." In progress of time, words were wanted and there was light"; imparts a lofty conception them; their effect or lJ to much greater advantage, than if it had been to express men's being connected with certain them, or opposed lo ther conditions of fortune, or certain situations of decorated by the most pompous metaphors. The lain qualities, or surrounc fact is, that the strong pathetic, and the pure sub mind; and some resemblance, or analogy, being stances. By this means, c lime, not only have little dependence on figures fancied between these, and the place of bodies, rics in its train some oth of speech, but, generally, reject them. The proper the word, in, was employed to express men's considered as its accessc region of these ornaments is, where a moderate being so circumstanced; as, one's being in health often strike the imaginati, degree of elevation and passion is predominant; or in sickness, in prosperity or i11adversity, in joy pal idea itself. They are, J or ill grief, doubt, or danger, or in safety. and there they contribute to the embellishment of i11 in ideas; or they arc more discourse, only, when there is a basis of solid Herc we sec this preposition, i11, plainly assum tions; or they recall to ou1 thought and natural sentiment; when they arc in ing a tropical signification, or carried off from its cty of important circumsl serted in their proper place; and when they rise, original meaning, to signify something else, is more disposed to rest L of themselves, from the subject, without being which relates lo, or resembles it. therefore, instead of usini sought after. Tropes of this kind abound in all languages; principal idea which it rr and arc plainly owing to the want of proper ploys, in its place, the na words. The operations of the mind and affec correspondent idea; allhrn 7 "Antharcs had rrom Argos travell'd far. tions, in particular, are, in most languages, de proper and well -known m Ale ides' rriend. and brother of the war: scribed by words taken from sensible objects. Now falling, by another's wound, his eyes vast variety of tropical or • .I He casts to heaven, on Argos thinks. and dies.'" The reason is plain. The names of sensible ob currency in all languages, ,, "t In this translation, much of the beauty of the original is lost. jects were, in all languages, the words most early cessity; and men of lively "On Argos Lhinks, and dies," is by no means equal to "dulces introduced; and were, by degrees, extended to day adding to their numbc moriens reminiscitur Argos": "As he dies, he remembers his those mental objects, of which men had more ob beloved Argos," It is indeed observable, that in most of those Thus, when we design scure conceptions, and to which they found it at which a state enjoyed n . .. tender and pathetic passages. which do so much honour to more difficult to assign distinct names. They bor Virgil, that great poet expresses himself with the utmost sim it were easy to employ th plicity .... [Au.J rowed, therefore, the name of some sensible idea, pressing this; but as this i ENLIGHTENMENT RHETORIC Jbservations, I pro where their imagination found some affinity. our imagination, with the flourishing period of a he origin and nature Thus we speak of a piercing judgment, and a plant or a tree, we lay hold of this correspondent ;h as have their de- dear head; a soft or a hard heart; a rough or a idea, and say, "The Roman empire flourished 1ding that numerous smooth behaviour. We say, inflamed by anger, most under Augustus." The leader of a faction is :all tropes. warmed by love, .fwel/ed with pride, melted into plain language; but, because the head is the pri"9 ~e. men would begin grief; and these are almost the only significant cipal part of the human body, and is supposed to fcrent objects which words which we have for such ideas. direct all the animal operations, resting upon this ·. This nomenclature But, although the barrenness of language, and resemblance, we say, "Catiline was the head of ·ery narrow. Accord the want of words, be doubtless one cause of the the party." The word, l'Oice,was originally in :!, and their acquain invention of tropes; yet it is not the only, nor, vented to signify the articulate sound, formed by their stock of names perhaps, even the principal source of this fonn of the organs of the mouth; but, as by means of it m. But to the infinite speech. Tropes have arisen more frequently, and men signify their ideas and their intentions to no language is ade- spread themselves wider, from the inOuence each other, voice soon assumed a great many >pious, as to have a which imagination possesses over language. The other meanings, all derived from this primary ef irate idea. Men natu train on which this has proceeded among all na fect. "To give our voice" for any thing, signified, abour of multiplying tions, I shall endeavour to explain. to give our sentiment in favour of it. Not only so; irder to Jay Jess bur Every object which makes any impression on but voice was transferred to signify any intima de one word, which the human mind, is constantly accompanied with tion of will or judgment, &houghgiven without d to a certain idea or certain circumstances and relations, that strike us the least interposition of voice in its literal sense, other idea or object; at the same time. It never presents itself to our or any sound uttered at all. Thus we speak of lis mry one, they found, view, isole, as the French express it; that is, inde tening to the voice of conscience, the voice of naT bus, the preposition, pendent of, and separ.ited from, every other ture, the voice of God. This usage takes place, >express the circum - thing; but always occurs as somehow related to not so much from barrenness of language, or 1 was killed in the other objects; going before them, or following want of a proper word, as from an allusion which words were wanted them; their effect or their cause; resembling we choose to make to voice, in ils primary sense, nnected with certain them, or opposed to them; distinguished by cer in order to convey our idea, connected with a cir ;ertain situations of tain qualities , or surrounded with certain circum cumstance which appears to the fancy to give it :e, or analogy, being stances. By this means, every idea or object car more sprightliness and force. the place of bodies, ries in its train some other ideas, which may be The account which I have now given, and :d to express men's considered as its accessories. These accessories which seems to be a full and fair one, of the in one's being in health often strike the imagination more than the princi troduction of tropes into all languages, coincides or i11adversity, in joy pal idea itself. They are, perhaps, more agreeable with what Cicero briefly hinls in his third book, danger, or in safety. ideas; or they are more familiar to our concep De Oratore. "Modus transferendi verba late n, in, plainly assum tions; or they recall to our memory a greater vari patet; quern necessitas primum gcnuit, coacta in ir carried off from its ety of important circumstances. The imagination opia et angustiis; post autem delectatio jucundi ify something else, is more disposed to rest upon some of them; and tasque celebravil. Nam ut vestis, frigoris depel !Sit. therefore, instead of using the proper name of the lendi causa reperta primo, post adhiberi crepta est md in all languages; principal idea which it means to express, it em ad omatum etiam corporis ct dignilatem, sic the want of proper ploys, in its place, the name of the accessory or verbi tmnslatio instituta est inopi:.e causa, fre the mind and aff ec correspondent idea; although the principal have a quentata, delectationis." " most languages, de proper and well-known name of its own. Hence a From what has been said it clearly appears, om sensible objects. vast variety of tropical or figurative words obtain ames of sensible ob currency in all languages, through choice, not ne the words most early ""111eligur.ative usage of wonts is very eittensive; a U\llge cessity; and men of lively imaginations arc every to which necessity first gave rise, on accouni of the paucily of :legrees, extended to day adding to their number. words, and barrenness of language; but which the pleasure ch men had more ob Thus, when we design to intimate the period that was found in it uflcrwanls rendered frequent. For, u.~gar which they found it at which a slate enjoyed most reputation or glory, ments wen: lirMc ontrived to defi:mlour bodies from lhe cold, net names. They bor and afterwanls wen: employed for the purpose of l>mamcnt it were easy lo employ the proper words for ex and dignity. so figures of :o.pccch, introduced hy wunt, wen: >f some sensible idea, pressing this; but as this is readily connected, in cuhivatcd for lhc :\like of en1enainmcnt." IAu.J BLAIR I LECTURES ON RHETORIC AND BEl.l. ES LETrRES how that must come to pass, which I had occa which our language is full. In the use of such PalJida mar s a:quo sion to mention in a fonner lecture, that all lan phrases, correct writers will always preserve a re Regurnquc lurre guages arc most figurative in their early state. gard to the figure or allusion on which they arc Or. Both the causes lo which I ascribed the origin of founded, and will be careful not to apply them in figures, concur in producing this effect at the be any way that is inconsistent with it. One may be Ornncs eodcm cogi ginnings of society. Language is then most bar "sheltered under the patronage of a great man"; Vcrsatur uma seriu ren; the stock of proper names which have been but it were wrong to say, "sheltered under the Sors exitura. ct invented for things, is small; and, at the same mask of dissimulation"; as a mask conceals, but Ex:.ilium imt time, imagination exerts great influence over the docs not sheller. An object. in description, may conceptions of men, and their method of uttering be "clothed," if you will, "with epithets ''; but it is lo the third place them; so that, both from necessity and from not so proper to speak or its being "clothed with 0 ~ enjoying two objc choice, their speech will, at that period, abound in circumstances"; as the word "circumstances" al view, without con tropes. For the savage tribes of men arc always ludes to standing round, not to clothing. Such at ~hich is the subject much given to wonder and astonishment. Every tentions as these, to the propriety of language. arc its accessory, which new object surprises, terrifies, and makes a strong requisite in every composition. We sec one thing in i impression on their mind; they arc governed by Whal has been said on this subject, tends to it; which h, always imagination and passion more than by reason; throw light on the nature of language in general; t~erc is nothing with and, of course, their speech must be deeply tinc and will lead to the reasons. why tropes or figures hghted, than with co tured by their genius . In fact, we find, that this is contribute to the beauty and grace of style. of objects; and all tr the character of the American and Indian lan First, they enrich language, and render it more relation or analogy bi guages; bold, picturesque, and metaphorical; full copious. By their means, words and phrases arc When, for instance, i of strong allusions to sensible qualities, and to multiplied for expressing all sorl-; of ideas; for "morning of life"· tht such objects as struck them most in their wild and describing even the minutest differences; the tained with all ' the solitary life. An Indian chief makes a harangue to nicest shades and colours of thought; which no which presently occu his tribe, in a style full of stronger metaphors than language could possibly do by proper words At one moment, l ha· an European would use in an epic poem. alone, without assistance from tropes. of human life, and a c As language makes gradual progress towards Secondly, they bestow dignity upon style. The lated Lo each other, ti refinement, almost every object comes to have a familiarity of common words . to which our cars t':""c~nthem with pie proper name given to it, and perspicuity and pre arc much accustomed, tends to degrade style. s1m1Jar objects, in OJ cision arc more studied . But, still, for the reasons When we want to adapt our language lo the tone mentor confusion. N, before given, borrowed words, or, as rhetoricians of an elevated subject, we should be greatly at a . In the fourth plac call them, tropes, must continue to occupy a con loss, if we could not borrow assistance from fig this further advantag siderable place. In every language, too, there arc ures ; which, properly employed, have a similar much clearer and m<. a multitude of words, which, though they were effect on language , with what is produced by the cipal object, than w, figurative in their first application to certain ob rich and splendid dress of a person of rank; to pressed in simple le jects, yet, by long use, lose that figurative power create respect, and to give an air of magnificence ccssory idea. This wholly, and come to be considered as simple and to him who wears it. Assistance of this kind is advantage, in virtue ( literal expressions. In this case arc the terms often needed in prose compositions; but poetry erly said to illustrate which I remarked before, as transferred from sen could not subsist without it. Hence figures fonn upon it. For they c, sible qualities to the operations or qualities of the the constant language of poetry. To say, that "the they arc employed, mind, a piercing judgment, a clear head, a hard sun rises," is trite and common; but it becomes a heart, and the like. There arc other words which magnificent image when expressed. as Mr. "With equal pace. imp, remain in a sort of middle stale; which have nei Thomson has done: Knocksat the palncc. , ther lost wholly their figurative application, nor Or Bui yonder comes !he powerful king of day yet retain so much of it, as to imprint any remark We all must tread the r Rejoicing in the cast.-- able character of figured language on our style; And ever shakes the Whose lot embarks us, such as these phrases, "apprehend one's mean To say, that "all men arc subject alike to death," On Charnn·s boat; a~ ing"; "enter on a subject "; "follow out an argu presents only a vulgar idea; but it rises and fills ment"; "stir up strife"; and a great many more, of the imagination. when painted thus hy Hor.ice. " Blair's punctuation. t ENLIGHTENMENT RHETORIC In the use of such Pallida mors a:quo puls11lpede p11upcrum111bcrn11s, can render an abstract conception, in some de 1lways preserve a reT Rcgumque turrcs. gree, an object of sense; they surround it with n on which they arc Or, such circumstances, as enable the mind to lay not lo apply them in hold of it steadily, and to contemplate it fully. with it. One may be Omncs codcm cogimur. omnium "Those persons," says one, "who gain the hearts 1ge or a great man"; Vcrsatur urna scrius ocius of most people, who are chosen as the compan . Sors cxiturn, ct nos in clcrnum ''sheltered under the ions of their softer hours, and their reliefs from Exsilium impositum cymbic. 1 mask conceals, bul anxiety and care, arc seldom persons of shining Bk. II, Ode 3" in description, may qualities, or strong virtues: it is rather the soft ith epithets"; but il is In the third place, figures give us the pleasure green of the soul, on which we rest our eyes, that , being "clothed with of enjoying two objects presented together to our are fatigued with beholding more glaring ob l "circumstances" al view, without confusion; the principal idea, jects." Here, by a happy allusion to a colour, the to clothing. Such at - which is the subject of the discourse, along with whole conception is conveyed clear and strong to ricty of language, arc it'i accessory, which gives il the figurative dress. the mind in one word. By a well chosen figure, )0. We see one thing in another, as Aristotle expresses even conviction is assisted, and the impression of this subject, tends to it; which is always agreeable to the mind. For a truth upon the mind, made more lively and language in general; there is nothing with which the fancy is more de forcible than it would otherwise be. As in the fol why tropes or figures lighted, than with comparisons, and resemblances lowing illustration of Dr. Young's: "When we grace of style. of objects; and all tropes arc founded upon some dip too deep in plea~ure, we always stir a sedi :e, and render it more relation or analogy between one thing and another. ment that renders it impure and noxious": or in ·ords and phrases are When, for instance, in place of "youth," I say, the this, "A heart boiling with violent passions, will II sorts of ideas; for "morning of life"; the fancy is immediately enter always send up infatuating fumes to the head." test differences; the tained with all the resembling circumstances An image that presents so much congruity be 1f thought; which no which presently occur belwecn these two objects. tween a moral and a sensible idea, serves, like an lo by proper words At one moment, I have in my eye a certain period argument from analogy, to enforce what the au 1m tropes. of human life, and a certain lime of the day, so re thor asserts, and to induce belief. gnily upon style. The lated to each other, that the imagination plays be Besides, whether we arc endeavouring lo raise ds, lo which our ears tween them with pleasure, and contemplates two sentiments of pleasure or aversion, we can a]. ds to degrade style. similar objects, in one view, without embarmss T ways heighten the emotion by the figures which · language to the tone mentor confusion. Not only so, but,"' we introduce; leading the imagination to a train, ,hould be greatly at a In the fourth place, figures are attended with either of agreeable or disagreeable, of exalting or v assistance from fig this further advantage, of giving us frequently a debasing ideas, correspondent to the impression loyed, have a similar much clearer and more striking view of the prin which we seek to make. When we want to render mt is produced by the cipal object, than we could have if it were ex an object beautiful or magnificent, we borrow a person of rank; to pressed in simple terms, and divested of its ac images from all the most beautiful or splendid m air of magnificence cessory idea. This is, indeed, their principal scenes of nature; we thereby naturally throw a stance of this kind is advantage, in virtue of which, they arc very prop lustre over our object; we enliven the reader's 1posilions; but poetry erly said to illustrate a subject, or to throw a light mind, and dispose him to go along with us, in the l. Hence figures form upon it. For they exhibit the object, on which gay and pleasing impressions which we give him etry. To say, that "the they are employed, in a picturesque form; they of the subject. This effect of figures is happily non; but it becomes a touched in the following lines of Dr. Akenside, expressed, as Mr. ·•Wi1h c11ual pace, impanial folc Knocks .it the palace , a~ the cnuagc gate. and illustrated by a very sublime figure. Or -- Then the inexpressive slrain !rful king of day We all musttread 1hc pulh~ of fa1c; Diffuses its enchantment. Fancy dreams And ever shakes the mun11l um: Of sacred fountains and Elysian groves, Whose lot embarks u:., soon or late, And vales of bliss. The intellectual power ubject alike to death," On Charon's boat; ah! never to return. Bends from his awful throne a wond'ring car, t; but it rises and fills - Fl!ANcts, IAu.( And smiles.-- led thus by Hor.ice. "'Blair 's punctuuuon . used throughoul thb selcction. lEd.} P/ea.mre.1·of /111agina1io11.i. I :?.4. BLAm I LECT URES ON RHElORIC AND DELLES LEl "rRES What I have now explained, concerning the hero of a romance, who secs beautiful castles, Blossoms and frui use and effects of figures, naturally leads us to re woods and meadows; and at the same time, hears And the whole ye. flect on the wonderful power of language; and, the warbling of birds, and the purling of streams; where the "whole y indeed, we cannot reflect on it without the high but, upon the finishing of some secret spell, the nify the effects or I est admiration. What a fine vehicle is it now be fantastic scene breaks up, and the disconsolate of the year. At othc, come for all the conceptions of the human mind; knight finds himself on a harrcn heath, or in a for the cause; as, ", even for the most subtilc and delicate workings solitary dcscn. It is not improbable, that some age, which causes of the imagination! What a pliant and nexible in thing like this may he the state of the soul after trees that produce strument in the hand of one who can employ it its first separation, in respect of the images it will tween the containe skilfully; prepared to take every fonn which he receive from matter." [No. 413, Spectator] also so intimate anc chooses to give it! Not content with a simple Having thus explained, at sufficient length, rise to tropes: communication of ideas and thought, it paints the origin, the nature, and the effects of tropes, I those ideas to the eye; it gives colouring and re should proceed next to the several kinds and divi -- Ille impigc lievo, even to the most abstract conceptions. In sions of them. But, in treating of these, were I lo Spumantcm p:11cr-.1 the figures which it uses, it sets mirrors before us, follow the common track of the scholastic writers where we may behold objects, a second time, in on rhetoric, I should soon become tedious, and, I Where every one sc their likeness. It entenains us, as with a succes apprehend, useless, al the same time. Their great arc put for the liqu sion of the most splendid pictures; disposes, in business has been, with a most patient and frivo golden cup. In the s: the most anificial manner, of the light and shade, lous industry, to branch them out, under a vast country is often use, for viewing every thing to the best advantage; in number of divisions, according to all the several that country; and h fine, from being a rude and imperfect interpreter modes in which a word may be carried from its ployed to signify G of men's wanL,;and necessities, it has now passed literal meaning, into one that is figurative, with as dwelling in hcav< into an instrument of the most delicate and re out doing any more; as if the mere knowledge of of heaven is the sam fined luxury. the names and classes of all the tropes that can be of God. The rclati To make these effects of figurative language formed, could be of any advantage towards the sign, and the thing si sensible, there arc few authors in the English lan proper or graceful use of language. All that I pur tropes. Hence, guage, whom I can refer to with more advantage pose is, to give, in u few words , before finishing than Mr. Addison, whose imagination is, at once, this lecture , a generul view of the several sources Ccdanlannatog:c: remarkably rich, and remarkably correct and whence the tropical meaning of words is derived; The "toga," being ti chaste. When he is treating, for instance, of the after which I shall, in subsequent lectures, de sions, and the "laur, effect which light and colours have to entcnain scend to a more panicular consideration of some badge of each is put f the fancy, considered in Mr. Locke's view of of the most considerable figures of speech, and actcrs themselves. "' them as secondary qualities, which have no real such as arc in most frequent use; by treating of common phrase for c existence in matter, but arc only ideas in the which, I shall give all the instruction I can con tropes, founded on th mind, with what beautiful painting has he cerning the proper employment of figurative lan and effect, container adorned this philosophic speculation! "Things," guage, and point out the errors and abuses which signified, is given the says he, "would make but a poor appearance to arc apt to be committed in this part of style. When the trope ii, the eye, if we saw them only in their proper fig All tropes, as I before observed, arc founded tween an antecedent ures and motions. Now, we arc every where en on the relation which one object bears to another: goes before, and im1 tertained with pleasing shows and apparitions; in vinuc of which, the name of the one can be called a mctalepsis; we discover imaginary glories in the heavens, substituted instead of the name of the other; and "fuit," or "vixit," to and in the earth, and sec some of this visionary by such a substitution, the vivacity of the idea is "Fuit Ilium ct ingcns beauty poured out upon the whole creation. But commonly meant lo be increused. These rela fies, that the glory of what a rough unsightly sketch of nature should tions, some more, some less intimate, may all When the whole i we be cntenained with, did all her colouring dis give rise to tropes. One of the first and most obvi appear, and the several distinctions of light and ous relations is, that between a cause and its ef fect. Hence, in figurative language, the cause is, "" He ilruincd the fo:1 shade vanish? In short, our souls arc, at present, golil."J&I J sometimes, put for the effect. Thus, Mr. Addison, 11 delightfully lost, and bewildered in a pleasing "Lct anns yield 10 ti delusion; and we walk about, like the enchanted writing of Italy: guagc.~(&I.J ENLIGHTENMENT RHETORIC •.,..,,., • J' ' ( s beautiful castles. B10~1.omsamt fruits. :ind !lower~. 1ogc1her rise. the whole; a genus for a species, or a species for ,e same time, hears And the whole year in gay confusion lies: a genus; the singular for the plum!, or the pluml purling of streams; where the "whole year" is plainly intended to sig· for the singular number; in general, when any ne secret spell, the nify the effects or productions of ull the sea.sons thing less, or any thing more, is put for the pre 1d the disconsolate of lhe year. At other times, again, the effect is put cise object meant; the figure is then called a rren heath, or in u for the cause ; as, "grey hairs" frequently for old synecdoche. It is very common, for instance, to ·obable, that some - age, which cauo;es grey hairs ; and "shade" for describe a whole object by some remarkable part 1te of 1he soul after trees that produce the shade . The relation be of it; as when we say, "A fleet of so many sail," Jf the images it will tween the container and the thing contained, is in the place of "ships"; when we use the "head" 3, Spectator! for the "person," the "pole" for the "earth," the also so intimate and obvious, as naturally to give J.~&a.').. f,IJ .l suflicient length, "waves" for the "sea." In like manner, an at- rise to tropes: ~~ ···';; ~·J · effects of tropes, I tribute may be put for a subject; as "youth and , j,J .u:t- -- llh: impigcr hausil ieral kinds und divi beauty," for the "young and beautiful"; and ~ ..... ,:i.• Spumantcm palcrJm, ct plcno sc proluil auro . ~ of these, were I to sometimes a subject for its allributc. But it is ::...,.-,.. ! 1e scholastic writers A:neid i. 738." needless to insist longer on this enumeration, ,~t ...J:•. ;ome tedious, and, I Where every one secs, that the cup and the gold which serves little purpose. I have said enough to ..,,; ~ r ,} ne time. Their great arc put for the liquor that was contained in the give an opening into that great variety of rela- st patient and frivo golden cup. In the same manner, the name of any tions between objects, by means of which, the n out, under a vast country is often used 10 denote the inhabitants or mind is assisted to pass easily from one to an- ng to all the several lhat country; and heaven, very commonly cm- · other; and by the name of the one, understands be carried from its ployed to signify God, because he is conceived the other to be meant. It is always some acccs- I is figurative, with · as dwelling in heaven. To implore the assistance ; sory idea, which recalls the principal to the imag mere knowledge or or heaven is the same as to implore the assistance ination; and commonly recalls it with more force, he tropes that can he of God. The relation betwixt any established than if the principal idea had been expressed. {antage towards the sign, and the thing signified, is a further source of The relation which is far the most fruitful of iuagc. All that I pur tropes. Hence, tropes, I have not yet mentioned; that is, the rela rds, before finishing tion of similitude and resemblance. On this is f the several sources Ccdant arma tog,c: conccdat laurca lingure. ' a founded, what is called the metaphor: when, in of words is derived ; The "toga," being the badge or the civil profes place of using the proper name of any object , we equenl lectures, dc sions, and the "laurel," of military honours, the employ, in its place, the name of some other msideration of some badge of each is put for the civil and military char• which is like it, which is a sort of picture of it, ures of speech, und acters themselves. "To assume the sceptre," is a and which thereby awakens the conception of it t use; by treating of common phmse for entering on royal authority. To with more force or grace. This figure is more fre- ~....._ 1struction I can con tropes, founded on these several relations, of cause quent than all the rest put together; and the lan- ::nt of figumtive Ian and effect, container and contained, sign and thing guage, of both prose and verse, owes to it much rs and abuses which signified, is given the name of metonymy. of its elegance and grace .... is part of style. When the trope is founded on the relation be •served, are founded tween an antecedent and a consequent, or what eel bears to another; goes before. and immediately follows, it is then Lecture XXV c of the one can be called a mctalepsis; as in the Roman phmse of ELOQUENCE, OR PUBLIC SPEAKING me of the other; and "fuit," or "vixit," to express that one was dead. HISTORY OF ELOQUENCE ivucity of the idea is "Fuit Ilium ct ingens gloria Dardanidum," signi GRECIAN ELOQUENCE :reused. These rcla fies, that the glory or Troy is now no more. DEMOSTHENES ;s intimate, may all When the whole is put for a part, or a part for ! first and most obvi Having finished that part of the course which re~ n a cause and its cf. " "He drained the foaming cup and drowned himself in !ates to language and style, we arc now to ascend 1guage, the cause is, l!Uld," [Ed.J a step higher, and to examine the subjects upon . Thus, Mr. Addison, 1>"Lct arm~ yield lo the toga; Jct the laurel yield to Ian• which style is employed. I begin with what is llUJSC,~ (Ed I properly called eloquence, or public speaking. In DLAIR I LECTURES ON RHETOIUC AND IIELLES LEITR l!S ~ (.l.\.~-\, ~ -\.~ J. tl' l!6t1"\.tx loch.,_ L\t>u. C).t." " ""' t( \\1-L1,1o,¼-$"t"'- Q(Aa--,\ ~~~ treating of this, I am to consider the different when it is employed to influence conduct , and solid argument , and kinds and subjects of public speaking; the man persuade to action. As it is principally with refer ating and intercstir ner suited to each; the proper distribution and ence to this end, that it become s the object of art, and pronunciation , management of all the parts of a discourse; and eloquence may, under this view of it, be defined, quencc . the proper pronunciation or delivery of il. But be the Art of Persuasion. An objection rna fore I enter on any of thei.e heads, it may be This being once established , certain conse against eloquence; ; proper to take a view of the nature of eloquence quences immediately follow, which point out the ployed for persuad h in general, and of the state in which it has sub · fundamental maxims of the art. It follow s clearly, There is no doubt ti sisted in different ages and countries. This will that, in order to persuade, the rno:-.tessential req may also be, and toe lead into some detail; but I hope a useful one ; as uisites arc, solid argument, clear method , a char IIL.C.W..C. ing men into error. B '."1'4'-.f"-C-in every art it is of great consequence to have a acter of probity appearing in the speaker, joined ing an argument fro, 1,,i~ just idea of the perfection of that art, of the end at with such graces of style and ullerance, as shall of our reasoning po" ~.., which it aims, and of the progress which it has draw our allcntion to what he says. Good sense is every art which eve ...~:.. made among mankind. the foundation of all. No man can be 1ruly elo mankind, may be abt :4-t", Of eloquence, in particular, it is the more nec quent without it; for fools can persuade none but ous in the hands of b, essary to ascertain the proper notion, because fools. In order to per suade a man of sense, you "--"li..'cS,. childish lo contend , 1 there is not any thing concerning which false no must first convince him; which is only to be ought lo be abolishe, tions have been more prevalent Hence, it has done, by satisfying his understanding of the rea same anns which yo been so often, and is still at this day in disrepute sonableness of what you propose to him. and the former arc lik with many. When you speak to a plain man of This leads me to observe , that convincing and no invention of the sc eloquence , or in praise of it, he is apt to hear you persuading, though they arc sometimes con man to be eloquent, \ with very little attention. He conceives eloquence founded, import, notwith standing, different Place him in some cri to signify a certain trick of speech; the art of var things, which it is nece ssary for us, al present, to some great interest at nishing weak arguments plausibly; or of speak ~ distinguish from each other . Conviction affects lay hold of the most ing so as to please and tickle the car. "Give me the under standing only; per suasion, the will and sion. The art of oratl good sense," says he, "and keep your eloquence the practice . It is the businci.s of the philo sopher than to follow out th for boys." He is in the right, if eloquence were to convince me of truth; it is the busines s of the first pointed out. And what he conceives it to be. ll would be then a orator to persuade me to act agreeably to it, by ! track is pursued, the m very contemptible art indeed, below the study of engaging my affections on its side. Conviction crfy studied. the me any wise or good man. But nothing can be more and persuasion do not always go together. They againM the abuse whic remote from truth. To be truly eloquent, is to ought, indeed, to go together ; and 111011/ddo so, if em1blecJ the better to speak to the purpose . For the best definition our inclination regularly followed the dictates of } eloquence ancf the trick which, 1 think, can be given of eloquence, is the our understanding. But as our nature is consti We may distinguish art of speaking in such a manner as to attain the tuted, I may be convinced that virtue, justice , or eloquence. The lirst, , end for which we :.peak. Whenever a man speaks public spirit, arc laudable , while, at the same aims ~nly at pleasing or writes, he is supposed, as a rational being, to time, I am not persuaded to act according to ally, 1s the eloquence have some end in view; either to inform, or to them. The inclination may revolt, though the un orations, addresses to amuse , or to persuade , or, in some way or other , derstanding be satisfied; the passions may prevail rangues of this sort. Thi to act upon his fellow-creatures. He who speaks, against the judgment. Conviction is, however, al position is not altogcth or writes, in such a manner a.'i to adapt all his ways one avenue to the inclination, or heart; and innocently amuse and t words most effectually to that end, is the most it is that which an orator must first bend his may be mixed, at the sa eloquent man. Whatever then the subject be, strength to gain: for no persuasion is likely to be sentiments. But it must there is room for eloquence; in history, or even in stable, which is not founded on conviction. But, the speaker has no fur philosophy, as well as in orations. The definition in order 10 persuade, the orator must go farther shine and 10 please , the which I have given of eloquence, comprehends than merely producing conviction; he must con being strained into ostcn all the different kinds of it; whether calculated to sider man as a creature moved by many different sition becoming tiresom , instruct, to persuade, or to please. But, as the springs, and must act upon them all. He must ad A second and a highc most important subject of discourse is action, or dress himself to the passions ; he must paint lo the when the speaker aims 1 conduct, the power of eloquence chiefly appears fancy, and touch the heart ; and hence, besides also to inform, to instruc 970 ENLIGIHENMENT llHETOlllC nee conduct, and solid argument, and clear method, all the concili art is exerted in removing prejudices against him :ipally with refer ating and inh:re!>1ingarts, both of composition self and his cause, in choosing the most proper ' the object of art, and pronunciation, enter into the idea of elo arguments, stating them with the greatest force, • of it, be defined, quence . arranging them in the best order, expressing and An objection may, perhaps, hence be formed delivering them with propriety and beauty; and d, certain conse against eloquence; as an art which may be em thereby disposing us to pass that judgment, or hich point out the ployed for persuading lo ill, as well us to good. embrace that side of the cause, lo which he seeks It follows clearly, There is no doubt that it may; and so reasoning to bring us. Within this compass, chiefly, is em nost essential req· may also be, and too often is employed, for lead· ployed the eloquence of the bur. 1r method, a char · ing men into error. But who would think of form But there is a third, and still higher degree of 1e speaker, joined 'ing an argument from this against the cultivation eloquence, wherein a greater power is exerted utterance, as shall of our reasoning powers'! Reason, eloquence, and over the human mind; by which we arc not only 1ys. Good sense is every art which ever had been studied among convinced, but arc interested, agitated, and car can be truly clo · mankind, may be abused, and may prove danger · ried along with the speaker; our passions arc persuade none but ous in the hands of b;uJ men; but it were perfectly made to rise together with his; we enter into all nan of sense, you childish to contend, that, upon this account, they his emotions; we love, we dctesl, we resent, ac ch is only lo be ought to be abolished. Give truth and virtue the cording as he inspires us; and arc prompted to re anding or the rea• same arms which you give vice and falsehood, solve, or to act, with vigour and wannth. Debate c;eto him. and the former arc likely to prevail. Eloquence is in popular assemblies opens the most illustrious 1at convincing and no invention of the schools. Nature teaches every field to this species of eloquence; and the pulpit, sometimes con man to be eloquent, when he is much in earnest. also, admits it. .mding, different Place him in !>omecritical situation; let him have I am here to observe, and the observation is of ,r U!>,al present, to some grcut interest al stake, and you will sec him consequence, that the high eloquence which I :onviction affects lay hold of the moM effectual mcan'i of persua have last mentioned, is always the offspring of 1sion, the will and sion. The art of oratory proposes nothing more passion. By passion, I mean that state of the mind or the philosopher than to follow out that track which nature has in which it is agitated, and fired, by some object he business of the first pointed out. And the more exactly that this it has in view. A man may convince, and even 1greeably to il, by track is pursued, the more that eloquence i!>prop persuade others to act, by mere reason and argu s side. Conviction erly studied, the more shull we be guarded ment. But that degree of eloquence which gains go together. They against the abuse which bad men make of il, and the admiration of mankind, and properly denomi md would do so, if enabled the belier 10 distinguish between true nate!> one an orator, is never found without .ved the dictates or eloquence and the tricks or sophistry. warmth or passion. Passion, when in such a de· r nature is consti · l We may distinguish three kinds, or degrees, of gree as to rouse and kindle the mind, without t virtue, justice, or eloquence. The first, and lowest, is that which throwing it out of the possession of itself, is uni~ ,hile, at the same aims only al pleasing the hearers. Such, gcner versally found to exalt all the human powers. It , act according to ully, is the eloquence of panegyrics, inaugural renders the mind infinitely more enlightened, ·oil, though the un - orations, addresses to great men, and other ha· more penetrating, more vigorous and masterly, 1ssions may prevail rangucs or this sort. This ornamental sort of com than it is in its calm moments. A man, actuated ion is, however, al position is not altogether to be rejected. It may by a strong passion, becomes much greater than ation, or heart; and innocently amuse and entertain the mind; and it he is at other times. He i!>conscious of more mst first bend his may be mixed, at the same time, with very useful strength and force; he uucrs greater sentiments, 1sion is likely to be sentiments. But it must be confessed, that where conceives higher designs, and executes them :>nconviction. But, the !>peaker has no further aim than merely to with a boldness and a felicity of which, on other .or must go farther shine and to please, there is great danger or art occasions, he could not think himself capable . :tion; he must con · being strained into ostentation, and of the compo But chic:fly, with respect to persuasion, is the l by many different sition becoming tiresome and languid. power or passion fell. Almost every man, in pas, !m all. He must ad A second and a higher degree of eloquence is sion, is eloquent. Then, he is al no loss for words he must paint lo the when the speaker aims not merely to please, but and arguments. He transmits lo others, by a sort and hence, besides also to inform, to instruct, lo convince: when his of contagious sympathy, the wurm sentiments IILAIR 1LECJ'URES ON RHETORIC AND UELLES LETrRES 971 ·"·:·Lu\ v~. ~ which he feels; his looks and gestures arc all per pronunciation and delivery.- Let us next pro transaclcd, and persu suasive; and nature here shows herself infinitely ceed to consider in what state eloquence has sub riously sludied. Whc more powerful than art. This is the foundation of sisted in different ages and nations. power over man by that just and noted rule: "Si vis me Here, dolen lt is an observation made by several writers, course, which certail dum est primum ipse tibi."' ' that eloquence is to be looked for only in free government, there w This principle being once admitted, that all stales. Longinus, in particular, at the end of his true eloquence will t high eloquence flows from passion, several con treatise on the sublime, when assigning lhc rea ried to the greatest he sequences follow, which deserve to be attended son why so little sublimity of genius appeared in Hence, in tracing to; and the mention of which will serve to con the age wherein he lived. illustralcs this observa not attempt to go far firm the principle itself. For hence the universally tion with a great deal of beauty. Liberty, he re the world, or search f acknowledged effect of enthusiasm, or warmth of marks. is the nurse of true genius; it animates the of eastern or Egyptfa any kind, in public speakers, for affecting their spirit, and invigorates the hopes of men; excite~ there was, indeed, an audience. Hence all laboured declamation, and honourable emulation. and a desire of excelling but it approached ne. affected ornaments of style, which show the in every art. All other qualifications, he says, you we properly call orat mind to be cool and unmoved, arc so inconsistent may find among those who arc deprived of lib lieve, as I formerly sl with persuasive eloquence. Hence all studied erty; but never did a slave become an orator; he the first ages was pa prettinesses, in gesture or pronunciation, detract can only be a pompous flatterer. Now, though owing partly to the so greatly from the weight of a speaker. Hence a this reasoning be, in the main, true; it must, how which speech then c, discourse that is read, moves us less than one that ever, be understood with some limitations. For, tincture which langua is spoken, as having less the appearance of com under arbitrary governments, if they be of the savage and uncultivat, ing warm from the heart. Hence, to call a man civilized kind, and give encouragement to the unrestrained passion: cold, is the same thing as to say that he is not elo arts. ornamented eloquence may flourish remark which to them arc str quent. Hence a sceptical man, who is always in ably. Witness France at this day, where ever state, rapture and entl suspense, and feels nothing strongly; or a cun since the reign of Louis XIV, more of what may ctry, had an ample 1 ning mercenary man, who is suspected rather to justly be called eloquence, within a certain course of men was m assume the appearance of passion than to feel it; sphere, is to be found, than perhaps, in any other and strength were thf have so little power over men in public speaking. nation in Europe; though freedom be enjoyed by deciding controversic Hence, in fine, the necessity of being, and being some nations in a much grealer degree. The persuasion, of reasoni believed to be, disinterested, and in earnest, in French sermons, and orations pronounced on little known. The first order to persuade. public occasions, arc not only polite and elegant syrian and Egyptian, These arc some of the capital ideas which have harangues, but several of them are uncommonly The whole power wm occurred to me, concerning eloquence in general; spirited, are animated with bold figures, and rise most of a few. The mu and with which I have thought proper to begin, as to a degree of the sublime. Their eloquence, how a blind reverence; the the foundation of much of what I am afterwards ever, in general, must be confessed lo be of the and none of those rcfi to suggest. From what l have already said, it is ev flowery, rather than the vigorous kind; calculated make public speaking ident that eloquence is a high talent, and of great more to plcao;eand sooth, than to convince and were as yet introduced importance in society; and that it requires both persuade. High, manly, and forcible eloquence, lt is not till the ris, naturnl genius, and much improvement from art. is, indeed, to be looked for only, or chiefly, in the lhat we find any rcma Viewed as the art of persuasion, it requires, in ilo; regions of freedom. Under arbitrary govern quence as the art of pc lowest state, soundness of understanding, and ments, besides the general tum of softness and such a field as it neve considerable acquaintance with human nature; effeminacy which such governments may be has never hud again s, and, in its higher degree, it requires, moreover, justly supposed to give to the spirit of a nation, fore, as the Grecian cl strong sensibility of mind, a wann and lively the art of speaking cannot be such an instrument object of admiration t imagination,joined with correctness of judgment. of ambition, business, and power, as it is in de the powers of speech, and an extensive command of the power of lan mocratical states. lt is confined within a narrower our attention, for a littl guage; to which must also be added, the graces of range; it can be employed only in the pulpit, or at Greece was di videc the bar; but is excluded from those great scenes slates. These were gc ''"If you w.in1me to weep, ii h;i~ lo be sorrowful for you of public business, where the spirits of men have who were called tyra first:· [Ed.I the freest exertion; where important affairs are from all these states, 972 ENLIGHTENMENT RHETORIC "te - Let us next pro transacted, and persuasion, of course, is more se number of dcmocratical governments, founded :e eloquence has sub- riously studied. Wherever man can acquire most nearly on the same plan, animated by the same 1ations. power over man by means of reason and dis high spirit of freedom, mutually jealous, and ri e by several writers, course, which certainly is under a free state of vals of one another. We may compute the nour ked for only in free government, there we may naturally expect that ishing period of those Grecian states to have tar, at the end of his true eloquence will be best understood, and car lasted from the battle of Marnthon, till the time of !n assigning the rea- ried to the greatest height. Alexander the Great, who subdued the liberties 1f genius appeared in Hence, in tracing the rise of oratory, we need of Greece; a period which comprehends about ustrates this observa not attempt lo go far back into the early ages of 150 years, and within which arc to be found most :auty. Liberty, he re the world, or search for it among the monuments of their celebrated poets and philosophers, but enius; it animates the of eastern or Egyptian antiquity. In those ages, chielly their orators; for though poetry and phi opes of men; excites there was, indeed, an eloquence of a certain kind; losophy were not extinct among them after that a desire of excelling but it approached nearer lo poetry, than to what period, yet eloquence hardly made any figure. ications, he says, you we properly call oratory. There is reason to be Of these Grecian republics, the most noted by , are deprived of lib lieve, as I formerly showed, that the language of far, for eloquence, and, indeed, for arts of every become an orator; he the first ages was passionate and metaphorical; kind, was that of Athens. The Athenians were an :1.tterer. Now, though owing partly to the scanty stock of words, of ingenious, quick, sprightly people; practised in in, true; it must, how which speech then consisted; and partly to the business, and sharpened by frequent and sudden ome limitations. For, tincture which language naturally takes from the revolutions, which happened in their government . ts, if they be of the savage and uncultivated slate of men, agitated by The genius of their government was altogether ncouragement to the unrestrained passions, and struck by events, democratical; their legislature consisted of the may nourish remark which to them arc strange and surprising. In this whole body of the people. They had, indeed, a sen· his day, where ever state, rapture and enthusiasm, the parents of po ate of five hundred; but in the general convention V, more of what may etry, had an ample field. But while the inter of the citizens was placed the last resort; and af. :e, within a certain course or men was as yet unfrequent, and force fairs were conducted there, entirely, by reasoning, perhaps, in any other and strength were the chief means employed in speaking, and a skilful application to the passions eedom be enjoyed by deciding controversies, the arts of oratory and and interests of a popular assembly. There laws greater degree. The persuasion, of reasoning and debate, could he but were made, peace and war decreed, and thence the .ions pronounced on little known. The first empires that arose, the As magistrates were chosen. For the highest honours 1\y polite and elegant syrian and Egyptian, were of the despotic kind. of the state were alike open to all; nor was the 1em are uncommonly The whole power was in the hands of one, or at meanest tradesman excluded from a scat in their bold figures, and rise most of a few. The multitude were accustomed to supreme courts. In such a state, eloquence, it is ob • ~.tl ,,k•.:, fheir eloquence, how a blind reverence; they were led, not persuaded; vious, would be much studied, as the surest means .,; ·-f>·,I\\;} .. onfessed to be of the and none of those refinements of society, which or rising to influence and power; and what sort of '"':,.} Jrous kind; calculated make public speaking an object of importance, eloquence? Not that which was brilliant merely, .. . than to convince and were as yet introduced. and showy, but that which was found, upon trial, to d forcible eloquence, It is not till the rise of the Grecian republics, be most effectual for convincing, interesting, and only, or chiefly, in the that we find any remarkable appearances of elo persuading the hearers. For there, public speaking er arbitrary govern- quence as the art of persuasion; and these gave it was not a mere competition for empty applause, tum of softness and such a field as it never had before, and perhaps, but a serious contention for that public leading, :ovemments may be has never had again since that time. And, there which was the great object both of the men of am the spirit of a nation, fore, as the Grecian eloquence has ever been the bition, and the men of virtue. ,e such an instrument object of admiration to those who have studied In so enlightened and acute a nation, where power, as it is in de the powers of speech, it is necessary that we fix the highest attention was paid to every thing ele ned within a narrower our attention, for a little, on this period. gant in the arts, we may naturally expect to find ,nly in the pulpit, or at Greece was divided into a multitude of petty the public taste refined and judicious. Accord 1m those great scenes stales. These were governed at first by kings, ingly, it was improved to such a degree, that the 1e spirit<; of men have who were called tyrants; on whose expulsion Attic taste and Attic manner have passed into a important affairs are from all these states, there sprung up a great proverb. It is true, that ambitious demagogues, "t ,, "nc.,~~':S ON RHETORICAND BELLES LETIRES LJ:t. v. ,- 973 and corrupt orators, did sometimes dazzle and whatever place, or on whatever subject one stances of time and pl mislead the people, by a showy but false elo speaks, this, beyond doubt, is of the greatest con of the same kinds. Fo quence; for the Athenians, with all their acute sequence. For the great end for which men speak of public speaking. l ness, were factious and giddy, and great admirers on any serious occasion, is to convince their arum," and "loci reru1 of every novelty. But when some important inter· hearers of something being either true, or right, lions, for instance, th1 est drew their attention, when any great danger or good: and, by means of this conviction, to in cou Id be decried or pr roused them, and put their judgment lo a serious fluence their practice. Reason and argument his education, his ki trial, they commonly distinguished, very justly, make the foundation, as I have often inculcated, body, the qualities of between genuine and spurious eloquence: and of all manly and persuasive eloquence. joyed, the station s he hence Demosthenes triumphed over all his oppo Now, with respect lo arguments, three things erative orations, the t, nents; because he spoke always to the purpose, arc requisite. First, the invention of them; sec recommending any p affected no insignificant parade of words, used ondly, the proper disposition and arrangement of ing from it; such as weighty arguments, and showed them clearly them; and thirdly, the expressing of them in such profit, pleasure, glo~ where their interest lay. In critical conjunctures a style and manner, as to give them their full mortillcation to enemi of the state, when the public was alarmed with force. LL,Lc,I. d....;-~V'-t.<.- • The Grecian sophi some pressing danger, when the people were as The first of these, invention, is, without doubt, of this artificial sysl sembled, and proclamation was made by the the most material, and the groundwork of the shewed a prodigious crier, for any one to rise and deliver his opinion rest. But, with respect to this, I am afraid it is be contrivance of these upon the present situation of affairs, empty decla , yond the power of art to give any real assistance. cians, da;,;zled by the I mation and sophistical reasoning would not only Art cannot go so far, as to supply a speaker with so regular a system, have been hissed, but resented and punished by arguments on every cause, and every subject : meant to teach how a an assembly so intelligent and accustomed to though it may be of considerable use in assisting become an oralor, will business. Their greatest orators trembled on such him to arrange and express those, which his give him receipts for occasions, when they rose to address the people, knowledge of the subject has discovered. For it is manner of subjects. A as they knew they were lo be held answerable for one thing to discover the reasons that arc most dent, that though this the issue of the counsel which they gave. The proper to convince men, and another, to manage might produce very sl· most liberal endowments of the greatest princes these reasons with the most advantage. The laller lions, it could never pr never could found such a school for true oratory, is all that rhetoric can pretend lo. real business. The loc as was formed by the nature of the Athenian re The ancient rhetoricians did indeed attempt to exuberant fecundity 0 1 ~,~ public. Eloquence there sprung, native and vigor go much farther than this. They attempted to other aim but to talk c form rhetoric into a more complete system; and consulting them on c ~~~ ous, from amidst the contentions of faction and professed not only to as:;ist public speakers in hold of all that they s ~h.'.; freedom, of public business and of active life; and not from that retirement and speculation, setting off their arguments to most advantage; without end; and that I< ~ but to supply the defect of their invention, and to the most superficial k .f-1-ck,~ which we arc apt sometimes to fancy more favourable to eloquence than they arc found to teach them where lo find arguments on every But such discourse cou be . ... subject and cause. Hence their doctrine of topics, What is truly solid or "loci communes," and ··scdes argumcnlorum," drawn "ex visceribus which makes so great a figure in the writings of knowledge of the subj, Lecture XXXII Aristotle, Cicero, and Quintilian. These topics, or tion on it. They who w< loci, were no other than general ideas applicable tory lo any other sourc CONDUCT OF A DISCOURSE to a great many different subjects, which the ora delude them; and by all THE ARGUMENTATIVE PART tor was directed to consult, in order to lind out loo perf eel an art, the) THE PATHETIC PART- materials for his speech. They had their intrinsic fling and childish study THE PERORATION and extrinsic loci; some loci that were common On this doctrine, tt In treating of the constituent parts of a regular to all the different kinds of public speaking, and loci, or topics, I think discourse or oration, I have already considered some that were peculiar to each. The common or any think that the knm the introduction, the division, and the narration general loci, were such as genus and species, tribute to improve the or explication. I proceed next to treat of the argu cause and effect, antecedents and consequents, their views, they may c, mentative or reasoning part of a discourse. In likeness and contrariety, definition, circum- tilian, or what Cicero h 974 ENLI GHT ENMENT RHETORI C hatever subject one stances of time and place ; and a great many more his Treatise De lnventione, his Topic:a, and sec• s of the greatest con - of the same kinds . For each of the different kinds ond book De Oratore. But when they are to pre for which men speak of public speaking, they had their "loci person pare a discourse, by which they propose to con is to convince their arum," and "loci rerum ": as in demonstrative ora vince a judge, or to produce any considerable either true, or right, tions, for instance, the heads from which any one effect upon an assembly, I would advise them, to his conviction, to in could be decried or praised; his birth, his country, lay aside their common places, and to think ason and argument his education, his kindred, the qualities of his closely of their subject. Demosthenes, I dare say, ave often inculcated, body, the qualities of his mind, the fortune he en consulted none of the loci, when he was inciting o.,·,lt7u\:O. eloquence. joyed, the stations he had filled, &c. and in delib q) the Athenians to take arms against Philip; and t; n,bti\\w ~uments, three things ~ erative orations, the topics that might be used in where Cicero has had recourse to them, his om- ~ """""~ ention of them; sec - '* recommending any public measure, or dissuad lions are so much the worse on that account. t l 1 and armngement of ~ ing from it; such as, honesty, justice, facility, I proceed to what is of more real use, to point ~ ~ . ssing of them in such .: profit, pleasure , glory, assistance from friends, out the assistance that can be given, not with re- cl,"~ give them their full .., mortification to enemies , and the like. spect to the invention, but with respect to the dis- • •P . , The Grecian sophi st:. were the first inventors position and conduct of arguments. . . . ·~f=...,..,· on, is, without doubt, of this artificial system or oratory; and they groundwork of the shewed a prodigious subtilty and fcrtilily in the Arter due attention given to the proper ~~ ,, I am afraid it is be contrivance of these loci. Succeeding rhetori arrangement of arguments, what is next requisite e any real assistance. cians, da;,,zlcd by the plan, wroughl them up into for their success is to express them in such a upply a speaker with so regular a system, that one would think they style, and to deliver them in such a manner, as , and every subject; meant to teach how a person might mechanically shall give them full force. On these heads I must ruble use in assisting become an orator, without any genius al all. They refer the reader to the directions I have given in ss those, which his give him receipts for making speeches, on all treating of style, in former lectures; and to the di- s discovered. For it is manner of subjects. At the same time, it is evi rections I am afterward~ to give concerning pro- easons that are most dent, that though this study of common places nunciation and delivery. d another, to manage might produce very showy academical declama 1 proceed, therefore, next, to another essential advantage. The latter tions, it could never produce useful discourses on part of discourse which I mentioned as the fifth in 1dto. real business. The loci indeed supplied a most order, that is, the Pathetic; in which, if any did indeed attempt to exuberant fecundity of matter. One who had no where, eloquence reigns, and exerts its power. I . They attempted to other aim but to talk copiously and plausibly, by shall not, in beginning this head, take up time in ·omplete system; and consulting them on every subject, and laying combating the scruples of those who have moved ;t public speakers in hold of all that they suggested, might discourse a question, whether it be consistent with fairness to most advantage; without end; and that too, though he had none but and candour in a public speaker, to address the heir invention, and to the most superficial knowledge of his subject. passions of his audience? This is a question about arguments on every But such discourse could be no other than trivial. words alone, and which common sense easily de eir doctrine of topics, What is truly solid and persuasive, must be termines. In inquiries after mere truth, in matters ~des argumentorum," drawn "ex visceribus causic," from a thorough of simple information and instruction, there is no ire in the writings of knowledge or the subject, and profound medita question that the passions have no concern, and ilian. These topics, or tion on it. They who would direct students of ora that all attempts to move them arc absurd. Wher• 1eral ideas applicable tory to any other sources of argumentation, only ever conviction is the object, it is the understand . ,jecls, which the ora- delude them; and by attempting to render rhetoric ing alone that is to be applied to. IL is by argu in order to find out too perfect an art, they render it, in truth, a tri ment and reasoning, that one man attempts to ey had their intrinsic fling and childish study. satisfy another of what is true, or right, or just; ;i that were common On this doctrine, the ref ore, of the rhetorical but if persuasion be the object, the case is public speaking, and loci, or topics, I think it supernuous to insist. If changed. In all that relales to practice, there is no :ach. The common or any think that the knowledge of them may con man who seriously means to persuade another, genus and species, tribute to improve their invention, and extend buL addresses himself to his passions more or 1ts and consequents, their views, they may consult Aristotle and Quin less; for this plain reason, that passions arc the definition, circum- tilian, or what Cicero has written on this head, in great springs of human action. The most virtuous BLAIR I LECTURES ON RHETORIC AND DELLES 1.-E'l"l'RES 975 man in treating of the most virtuous subject, judgment. The hearers must be convinced that moved in a certain w; seeks to touch the heart of him to whom he there arc good and sufficient grounds for their pose or prepare me speaks; and makes no scruple to raise his indig entering with warmth into the cause. They must emotion; but they d1 nation at injustice, or his pity to the distressed, be able to justify to themselve s the passion which every emotion or pa: though pity and indignation be passions. they feel; and remain satisfied that they arc not set of corresponding In treating of this part of eloquence, the an carried away by mere delusion. Unless their these before the min cients made the same sort of attempt as they em minds be brought into this state, although they any orator lo raise L ployed with respect to the argumentative part, in may have been heated by the orator's discourse, with gratitude, I am order to bring rhetoric into a more perfect sys yet as soon as he ceases to speak, they will re not when a speaker st tem. They inquired metaphysically into the na sume their ordinary lone of thought, and the dispo sitions, and that ture of every passion; they gave a definition and emotion which he has raised will die entirely of when he exclaims ,,..' description of it; they treated of its causes, its ef away. Hence most writers assign the pathetic to encc and coldness. A fects, and its concomitants; and thence deduced the peroration or conclusion, as its natural place; only to my reason o rules for working upon it. Aristotle in particular and, no doubt, all other things heing equal, this is scribe the kindness ai has, in his Treatise upon Rhetoric, discussed the the impression that one would choose to make he must set before me nature of the passions with much profoundness last, leaving the minds of the hearers warmed person for whom he \: and subtilty; and what he has written on that head with the subject, after argument and reasoning not till then, my hear may be read with no small profit, as a valuable had produced their full effect: but wherever it is gratitude or my com~ piece of moral philosophy; but whether it will introduced, I must advise, foundation, therefore, have any effect in rendering an orator more pa In the second place, never to set apart a head in the way of pathetic thetic, is to me doubtful. It is not, I am afraid, any of a discourse, in form, for raising any passion; jcct of that passion wl philosophical knowledge of the passions, that can never give warning that you arc about to be pa most natural and stril confer this talent. We must be indebted for it lo thetic; and call upon your hearers, as is some with such circum stani nature, to a certain strong and happy sensibility times done to follow you in the attempt. This al it in the minds of oth of mind; and one may be a most thorough adept most never fails to prove a refrigerant to passion. strongly excited by ~ in all the speculative knowledge that can be ac It puts the hearers immediately on their guard, feeling of an injury, quired concerning the passions, and remain at the and disposes them for criticising, much more jurer. Next to the inf same time a cold and dry speaker. The use of than for being moved. The indirect method of memory; and next lo 1 rules and instructions on this or any other part of making an impression is likely to be more suc the imagination. Of th oratory, is not to supply the want of genius, but cessful; when you seize the critical moment that ator must avail himscl to direct it, where it is found, into its proper is favourable to emotion , in whatever part of the nation of the hearers v channel; to assist it in exerting itself with most discourse it occurs, and then, after due prepara lustre and steadiness, 1 advantage, and to prevent the errors and cxtrava tion, throw in such circumstances, and present and remembrance. In < gancies into which it is sometimes apt lo run. On such glowing images, as may kindle their pas In the fourth place, the head of the pathetic, the following directions sions before they arc aware. This can often be is, to be moved yourst appear to me to be useful. done more happily in a few sentences inspired by interesting circumstan The first is, lo consider carefully, whether the natural warmth, than in a long and studied ad sion, which no art can subject admit the pathetic, and render it proper; dress. can supply. There i and if it docs, what part of the discourse is the In the third place, il is necessary to observe among the passions. that there is a great difference between showing most proper for attempting it. To determine these Ut ridcntibus,arridc m the hearers that they ought to be moved, and ac points belongs to good sense; for it is evident that Humani vultus.' "' there are many subjects which admit not the pa tually moving them. This distinction is not suffi thetic at all, and that even in those that are sus ciently attended to, especially by preachers, who, The internal emotion o ceptible of it, an attempt to excite the passions in if they have a head in their sermon to show how lo his words, his toe the wrong place, may expose an orator to much we arc bound to be grateful to God, or to whole manner, which 1 ridicule. All that can be said in general is, that if be compassionate to the distressed, arc apt to sistiblc over those wl we expect any emotion which we raise to have a imagine this to be a pathetic part. Now, all the ar· lasting effect, we must be careful to bring over to gumcnts you produce to show me, why it is my 1•"L:m&h with 1hnsc wh1 our side, in the first place, the understanding and duty, why it is reasonable and lit that I should be weep." flil.l ENLIGHTENMENT RHETORIC w.osl- ~n&h,,...c,h.;~ ,~ rlM.4....-.C: ,s. '-'•~,h...c,, b'\ A.f\'L~ C-bV\CA""'-\~ ~~ P4"1N-(.V o.'ICN' 1,1.5 4.S" spu.~ Ch",l 11.s\u.,,.1-u·~ ,l be convinced that moved in a certain way, go no farther than to dis point, though the most material of all, I shall not nt grounds for their pose or prepare me for entering into such an now insist, as I have often had occasion before to he cause. They must emotion; but they do not actually excite ii. To show, that all attempts towards becoming pa ·es the passion which every emotion or passion, Nature has adapted a thetic, when we are not moved ourselves, expose ied that they are not set of corresponding objects; and without setting us to certain ridicule. lusion. Unless their these before the mind, it is not in the power of Quintilian, who discourses upon this subject state, although they any orator to raise that emotion. I am warmed with much good sense, takes pains to inform us 1corator's discourse, with gratitude, I am touched with compassion, of the method which he used, when he was a speak, they will re not when a speaker shows me that these are noble public speaker, for entering into those passions of thought, and the dispositions, and that it is my duty to feel them; which he wanted to excite in others; setting be+ .ed will die entirely of when he exclaims against me for my indiffer fore his own imagination what he calls "phan ~sign the pathetic to ence and coldness. All this time, he is speaking tasire," or "visiones," strong pictures of the dis , as its natural place; only to my reason or conscience. He must de tress or indignities which they had suffered, ~s being equal, this is scribe the kindness and tenderness of my friend; whose cause he was to plead, and for whom he ,uld choose lo make he must set before me the distress suffered by the was to interest his hearers; dwelling upon these, the hearers warmed person for whom he would interest me; then, and and putting himself in their situation, till he was 1ment and reasoning not till then, my heart begins to be touched, my affected by a passion, similar to that which the ;:t: but wherever it is gratitude or my compassion begins to flow. The persons themselves had felt. To this method he foundation, therefore, of all successful execution attributes all the success he had ever had in pub :r to set apart a head in the way of pathetic oratory is, to paint the ob lic speaking; and there can be no doubt, that raising any passion; ject of that passion which we wish to r.i.ise, in the whatever tends to increase an orator's sensibility, ,. J are about to be pa most natural and striking manner; to describe it will add greatly to his pathetic powers. hearers, a_<; is some with such circumstances as arc likely to awaken In the fifth place, it is necessary to attend to the attempt. This al it in the minds of others. Every passion is most the proper language of the passions. We should . efrigerant lo passion. strongly excited by sensation; as anger by the observe in what manner any one expresses him 1tely on their guard, feeling of an injury, or the presence of the in self who is under the power of a real and a strong ticising, much more jurer. Next to the influence of sense, is that of passion; and we shall always find his language ! indirect method of memory; and next to memory, is the influence of unaffected and simple. It may be animated, in BLAIR I LECTURES ON RHETORIC AND BELLES LETTRES 977 leisure; the other must always be rapid and ar him, and be brought to account for having put a Nothing can be ft• dent. In the fonner, art and labour may be suf Roman citizen in chains. The chief magistrate of this passage. The cii fered to appear; in the latter, no effect can follow, Messina, a creature of Vcrres's, instantly appre for exciting both th, unless it seem to be the work of nature only. hends him, and gives infonnation of his thrcalcn for Gavius, and thei In the sixth place, avoid interweaving any ings. The behaviour of Verres, on this occasion, The style is simple; thing of a foreign nature with the pathetic part of is described in the most picturesque manner, and lion, the address to a discourse. Beware of all digressions, which with all the colours which were proper, in order timed, and in the pro may interrupt or tum aside the natural course of to excite against him the public indignation. He tor goes on to exaggc the passion, when once it begins to rise and thanks the magistrate of Messina for his dili· ther, by another ver swell. Sacrifice all beauties, however bright and gence. Filled with rage, he comes into the forum; ordered a gibbet to be showy, which would divert the mind from the orders Gavius to be brought forth, lhe execution common place of ex principal object, and which would amuse the ers to attend, and against the laws, and contrary shore, over against ti imagination, rather than touch the heart. Hence to the well-known privileges of a Roman citizen, said he, "who boas , comparisons arc always dangerous, and generally commands him to be stripped naked, bound, and Roman citizen, take i quite improper, in the midst of passion. Beware scourged publicly in a cruel manner. Cicero then own country. - This even of reasoning unseasonably; or, at least, of proceeds thus; "C:cdebatur virgis, in medio foro is the least part of t carrying on a long and subtile train of reasoning, Messana:, civis Romanus, Judices!" every word alone that Verrcs me, on occasions when the principal aim is to excite rises above another in describing this flagrant 0 Romans! it was c• warm emotions. enormity; and "Judices," is brought out at the end me; in the person of In the lac;t place, never attempt prolonging the with the greatest propriety; "C.cdcbatur virgis, in rights and showed in pathetic too much. Warm emotions arc too vio mcdio foro Messan.c, civis Romanus, Judices! Roman name, and Ro lent to be lasting. Study the proper time of mak· cum inlerea, nullus gcmitus, nullu vox aliu istius Hitherto all is be ing a retreat; of making a transition from the pas miseri, inter dolorem crepilumque plagarum au sionate to the calm tone; in such a manner, diebatur, nisi It.cc, civis Romanus sum. Hae sc however, as to descend without fulling, by keep commcmoratione civitatis, omnia verbera depul narnc uf liberty! 0 boasted ing up the same strain of sentiment that was cur surum a corpore arbitrabatur. Eo non modo hoc citizen' 0 ye Pon:ian and~ ried on before, though now expressing it with non perfccit, ut virgarum vim deprecarctur, sed ye all come, that a cilize more moderation. Above all things, beware of cum imploraret s:cpius usurparetque nomen Romnn empire, within 1111 straining passion too far; of attempting to misc it civis, crux, crux, inquam, infclici isto ct l.l!rum· marketplace, be loaded wi1 to unnatural heighLo;.Preserve always a due re• noso, qui nunquam istam potestatem viderat, the command of one who. I pie alone, derived all his m gard to what the hearers will bear; and remem comparabatur. 0 nomen dulce libertatis! 0 jus c. 62- 3. !Au.) ber, that he who stops not at the proper point; eximium nostra: civitatis! 0 lex Porcia, legesque who attempts to carry them farther, in passion, Semproni:c!-Huccine omnia tandem recider than they will follow him, destroys his whole de unt, ut civis Romanus, in provincia populi Ro sign. By endeavouring to wann them too much, mani, in oppido fa:derntorum, ab co, qui bcncfi he takes the most effectual method of freezing cio populi Romani fasces ct secures haberet, them completely. deligatus, in foro, virgis ca:deretur!'"" Having given these rules concerning the pa thetic, I shall give one example from Cicero, '''"In the midst of the marketplace of Messina. a Roman which will serve to illustrate several of them, citizen, 0 judges! was cruelly scourged with rods; when in particularly the last. It shall be taken from his last the meantime, amidst the noise of the blows which he suf oration against Verres, wherein he describes the f ercd, nu voice, no complaint uf this unhappy man was heartl. except this exclamation. Remember that I am a Roman citi cruelty exercised by Verres, when governor of zen! Dy pleading this privilege of his birthright, he hoped Ill Sicily, against one Gavius, a Roman citizen. This have stopped the strokes of the executioner. Dul his hopes Gavius had made his escape from prison, into were vain; for, so far was he fmm being able to obtain which he had been thrown by the governor; and thereby any mitigation of his torture. that when he continuctl to repeal this exclamation, and lo plead the rights of a citizen, when just embarked at Messina, thinking himself a cross, a cross, I say. wns preparing to he set up for the exe now safe, had uttered some threats, that when he cution of this unfortunate pcr.;on, who never before hail he· had once arrived at Rome, Verres should hear of held that instrument of cruel death . 0 sacred and honoured ENLIGHTENMENT RHETORIC .- ~- ml for having pul a Nothing can be finer, nor better conducted than and the model would have been perfect, if Cicero chief magislrale of this passage. The circumstances arc well chosen had stopped at this point. Bul his redundant and .;'s, instantly appre for exciting both the compassion of his hearers florid genius carried him farther. He must needs tion of his threaten for Gavius, and their indignation against Vcrres. interest not his hearers only, but the beasts, the s, on this occasion, The style is simple; and the passionale exclama mountains, and the stones, against Verres; "Si resque manner, and lion, the address to liberty and the laws, is well h.cc non ad cives Romanos, non ad amicos nos ere proper, in order Limed,and in Lheproper sly le of passion. The ora Inc civitatis, non ad cos qui populi Romani llic indignalion. He tor goes on to exaggerate Verres's cruelly still far nomcn audissent; denique si non ad homines, essina for his dili ther, by another very striking circumstance. He verum ad bestias, aut etiam, ut longius progre mes into the forum; ordered a gibbet to be erected for Gavius, not in a diar, si in aliqua desertissima solitudine, ad saxa ·orth, Lhe execution- common place of execution, but just by Lhc sea el ad scopulos, h.cc conqueri el deplorare vellem, laws, and contrary shore, over against the coast of Italy. "Let him," tamcn omnia muta atque inanima, tanta et tam in of a Roman citizen, said he, "who boasls so much of his being a digna rerum atrocitate commoverentur." 11 This, I naked, bound, and Roman citizen, take a view from his gibbet of his with all the deference due lo so eloquent an ora- nanner. Cicero then own country. - This base insult over a dying man tor, we must pronounce lo be declamatory, not irgis, in medio foro is the least part of his guilt. It was not Gavius pathetic. This is straining the language of passion 1dices!" every word alone that Verrcs meant to insult; but it was you, too far. Every hearer secs this immediately to be .ribing this llagrant 0 Romans! it was every citizen who now hears a studied figure of rhetoric; it may amuse him, ·ought out at the end me; in the person of Gavinus, he scoffed at your but instead of inflaming him more, it, in truth, : :.cdebatur virgis, in rights and showed in what conlcmpt he held the cools his passion. So dangerous it is to give Romanus, Judices 1 Roman name, and Roman liberties." scope to a flowery imagination, when one intends nulla vox alia istius Hitherto all is beautiful, animated, pathetic; to make a strong and passionate impression. mque plagarum au nanus sum. Hae se •7"Werc I employed in lamenling those instances of nn mnia verbera depul atmcious oppression and cruelty, not among an assembly of name of liberty! 0 boasted and revered privilegc ur a Ruman Roman citizens, nut among the allies of our suue, nor among . Eo non modo hoc citizen! 0 ye Porciu11and Sempronian laws! to this issue have thosc who had ever heard the name of the Roman people, not m deprecaretur, scd ye all come, 111.11.i citizen of Rome, in a pmvince of the cvcn among human creatures, but in the midst of the brute ~urparetque nomen Roman empire, within an allicd city, should publicly, in a creation; and to go farther, were I pouring forth my lamenta• 1felici islo et a:rum markctph1ce, he loaded with chains, und beaten with rods, al tiuns to the stones, and lo the rocks, in some remote and the command of one who, from the favour of the Roman peo· desert wilderness, even those mute and inanimate beings, ) potestalem videral, plc alone, derived all his authorily and ensigns of power!" would, at lhe recital of such shucking indignities, be thrown lee libertatis! 0 jus c. 6i - 3. !Au.] into cnmmotinn." - c. 67. [Au.] lex Porcia, legesque 1ia tandem recider rovincia populi Ro \:.~ l::. ri, ab eo, qui benefi ~ t'c:..,.:1. et secures habcrel, :retur!" 16 ~-1\....f"'\, tc-,. w~~ ice of Messina, a Ru1rnm 1rged with rods; when in the blows which he suf unhappy man was heard, · that I um a Roman citi - 1is birthright, he hoped lo .ecutioner . But his hupt..'S >m being able to obtain :, that when he continued cad the rights of a citizen , g to be set up for the exe vho never before had be . 0 sacred and honoured BLAIR I LECTURES ON RHETORIC AND BELLES LETTRES 979