Celebrating the Journey Home: the Reintroduction of BlackFooted Ferrets in Canada

Conservation of Rare Reptiles and Amphibians: Should We Conserve Isolated Populations?

Pamela Rutherford Department of Biology, Brandon University

Abstract – Many species at risk occur in small, disjunct populations and this is certainly true for prairie reptiles and amphibians. From a conservation perspective, geographically peripheral populations may not be of concern if they are only listed because they occur in separate jurisdictions but the species’ range is widespread. In contrast, if they are genetically or morphologically unique populations, they may have considerable conservation value. I discuss the conservation of rare amphibians and reptiles in this context, and consider the strengths and weaknesses of focusing conservation efforts on isolated populations.

Celebrating the Journey Home: The Reintroduction of Blackfooted Ferrets in Canada

Bill Bristol Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Joanne Tuckwell Parks Canada

Abstract – After 5 years of planning, the Black-footed Ferret has returned home to Grasslands National Park in southwest Saskatchewan. The last confirmed sighting of a ferret in Canada was in the early 1900s, and ferrets were thought to be extinct until a small population was discovered in Wyoming. That discovery prompted the start of a captive breeding program that has produced over 6000 kits and contributes to the reintroduction program in the U.S., Mexico and now Canada. Seven zoos across the U.S. and Canada breed ferrets that are all sent to a pre-conditioning facility in Colorado before being reintroduced. This pre-conditioning facility is run by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and is a part of the Species Survival Program. The maintenance of whatever genetic diversity is left in this population is a high priority for the program in order to minimize inbreeding depression and maximize the success at each reintroduction site. The successes or failures of each reintroduction site are shared across North America through the Black-footed Ferret Reintroduction Implementation Team. The Canadian reintroduction and the yearly monitoring that is planned for this population will provide valuable information for the species at the northern extent of its range where the environmental conditions and the prey populations differ from the reintroduction sites at the central and southern parts of its range. Through research partnerships we hope to maximize our learning, regardless of the final outcome.

Is it Time for a Paradigm Shift in Prairie Rare Plant Conservation?

Nancy P. Sather Minnesota Department of Natural Resources

Abstract – Protection priorities and management and recovery practices in conservation biology change not only because of advances in scientific knowledge, but in response to public perception, politics and prevailing paradigms. Because public, government and donor acceptance of emerging practices is so hard won, once they have gained acceptance, prevailing paradigms tend to overshadow potentially useful approaches that do not fit the mold. The paradigm I question is our increasing reliance on standardized databases and statutory protection for rare plants, coupled with the shift of emphasis in protection and management to multi-partner, large landscape projects intended to address the needs of multiple species. I suggest a renewed emphasis on species-specific recovery for rare plants based on species autecology, habitat needs, and population genetics. To best accomplish the protection of the rarest of the rare, we may need to reconsider reliance on statutory regulation and in situ protection. All opinions expressed in this paper are my own and do not reflect the position or policies of the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources or the Prairie Bush Clover and Western Prairie Fringed Orchid Recovery Teams.

We wouldn’t be here today if we didn't ascribe to Aldo Inconsistent criteria across jurisdictions result in dis- Leopold’s simple mandate: “To keep every cog and crepancies in legal protection, often leaving the ‘mother wheel is the first precaution of intelligent tinkering.” lode’ of a species unprotected. Because documented But how? And where? Since the emergence of the con- occurrences outweigh threat in some listing jurisdic- servation ethic, we have come a long way. Conservation tions, this apparent security could be compromised by of rare species is an integral part of a much wider simple changes in land use. An example is Cooper’s range of efforts than it was when I first entered the Milkvetch (Astragalus neglectus), a widespread but practice in 1979. Nonetheless, some of our greatest suc- usually rare legume whose range extends from Virginia cesses may today be a double-edged sword. to Saskatchewan. Globally-ranked G4, the species is Our present state and provincial data centers are an listed as apparently secure in Minnesota, but at some outgrowth of The Nature Conservancy’s Natural Heri- level of risk in all other jurisdictions where it occurs tage methodology, which at birth had the mission of (NatureServe 2010). Although the species is apparently saving “the last of the least and the best of the rest.” responsive to disturbance or lack of competition, its Increasingly, as on-the-ground protection has moved tolerance of herbicides is unknown. A simple change in toward large landscapes (the best of the rest), we have right-of-way management in Minnesota from mowing to relied on listing and statutory protection to conserve herbicide application could jeopardize the species the last of the least. In the world of rare plant pro- (Schultz 2003). tection, I believe this reliance is counter-productive in The patchwork of listing criteria, statutes and permits some cases. resulting from the trends listed above hampers range- Many jurisdictions use and rely on the standardized pro- wide research and recovery efforts. This situation is cedures of BIOTICS, the NatureServe occurrence and life exacerbated when a species’ North American range strad- history database used by most Natural Heritage prog- dles international boundaries. Attempts to conduct range- rams, state surveys and Conservation Data Centers. Data wide research or integrate recovery planning are gener- entered into individual program databases is often sub- ally modest efforts with few players. Here, plant con- ject to range-wide standardized procedures. servationists could take a lesson from bird and mammal biologists, who have developed transnational working Listing generally takes into account only those occur- groups large and strong enough to more successfully rences within a given jurisdiction. With the exception overcome hobbling bureaucracies. of Canada’s Species at Risk Act (SARA) and the United States’ Endangered Species Act (ESA), most listing Listed plant species are generally subject to statutory occurs at the state and provincial level based on locally- protection. In some jurisdictions, significant staff and determined criteria. Often the number of documented monetary resources are spent in environmental review occurrences outweighs life history traits or present and and permitting for populations whose long-term via- potential threats. bility may be in question.

100

Over the past decade and a half, protection efforts have for some species. The Western Prairie Fringed-orchid shifted from small isolated habitats for selected rare (Platanthera praeclara) may be an example of such a species to multi-partner, large-landscape projects and species. Listed as endangered in Canada and threatened corridors intended to protect multiple habitats and in the United States, this tall grass prairie orchid is enig- species. Although these areas provide greater opportunity matically declining from south to north. Apparently de- to restore pre-settlement ecological functions, increas- pendent on wet prairie or subsurface groundwater (Hof ing reliance on large landscape portfolios could place et al. 2002, USFWS 2009) and specialized Sphingid poll- narrowly endemic plants and habitat specialists at risk. inators (USFWS 2009), the species’ genetics are known Examples are plants of cliffs, rock outcrops, talus slopes, from only a handful of populations (Sharma 2002), not alvar, and calcareous seepage fens. These species are including the population in southern Manitoba (the larg- among the rarest of the rare (Rabinowitz 1981). est and apparently most viable in the range). Analyses based on observations at Pipestone National Monument We need to augment the increasing interest in molecular in southwestern Minnesota suggest that flowering is high- genetics with a renewed emphasis on species autecology. ly dependent on the timing of precipitation in the species’ Only by coupling an understanding of intra- and inter- phenological cycle (Willson et al. 2006). The species is population genetic variability with an understanding of declining in the southern end of its range but holding its the nuances of species’ life history and phenological trig- own in Canada (USFWS 2009). Despite strong commun- gers will we be positioned to access which species are ication between researchers and conservation programs in likely to be most resilient and which are at greatest risk. the two countries, formal recovery of the species follows The relationship between life history traits and genetics is the guidelines of two independent recovery plans (Davis not always as dichotomous as the literature suggests 1995, Environment Canada 2006, USFWS 1996), with (Hamrick et al. 1979, Cole 2003). For example, Prairie no formal transnational group to coordinate addressing Bush Clover (Lespedeza leptostachya) is a midwestern the increasing risk to the species from climate change. prairie legume that may once have been widespread in mesic prairies. It is a perennial, primarily-selfed species Whereas Natural Heritage Programs and Conservation with high fecundity (Sather 1986, 1988a) but low genetic Data Centres tend to apply the precautionary principle diversity (Cole 1989). Observers throughout the range suggested by a recent analysis of the success of rare have anecdotally reported strong recruitment in response plant reintroductions (Godefroid et al. 2011), botanical to decreased competition and successful responses to in- gardens have long been more comfortable with mani- tentional and accidental introductions. This appears to be pulating species and are leading the way toward a new a species that, if released from the prohibitory restric- paradigm. Unlike near-provenance moves associated tions of statutory protection, might best be recovered with mitigation for site-specific efforts, assisted migra- by incorporation into traditional prairie restoration seed tion addresses global patterns of change. Assisted mixes, thus moving it incrementally into areas beyond its migration is characterized as “the purposeful move- present range. ment of species to facilitate or mimic natural range expansion as a direct management response to climate Reintroduction of birds and mammals has long been an change” (Vitt et al. 2010). At the present time, assisted accepted form of species conservation, but conservation migration of plants is a new concept engendering strong programs within state and provincial governments have disagreement within the conservation community (Hoegh- emphasized in situ conservation of rare plant species by Guldberg et al. 2008, McLachlan 2007, Schwartz et al. protecting their habitats. Reliance on in situ protection, 2009). The purposive nature of such moves is based on coupled with limited resources for regular monitoring and a stepwise decision-making process for determining life history studies, is exacerbated by the standardized eligibility for restorations and assisted migration (Vitt et data management criteria that are slow to respond to the al. 2009). Application of species distribution modelling extirpation of populations whose habitat persists. For such as MaxEnt to present distributions enables model- both animals and plants, the paradigm of the late 20th lers to determine which populations are outside the future century has been to reintroduce (if at all) only into areas climate envelope. Together with unprotected popula- believed to be part of the species’ range prior to Euro- tions and those at the edge of the range, these populations pean settlement (IUCN 1987, 1995). The rate of climate become sources for potential assisted migration. GIS- change challenges the paradigm. based habitat matching protocols can then be used to As it becomes increasingly apparent that some species inform migration strategy (Vitt et al. 2009, 2010). A will not be able to migrate rapidly enough to meet the pilot application of this process for P. praeclara (Vitt et combined forces of climate change, habitat loss and al. 2009) suggests shifts in the species’ climate envelope competition with exotic species, our hard-won con- that will move it onto the unsuitable substrate of the servation practices may not be enough to prevent loss Canadian Shield. This appears to be a species that, with-

101 out accelerated understanding of range-wide genetics and studies are popular, field-based autecology is not. The proactive planning across international boundaries, may long-at-odds in situ and ex situ plant conservation com- be at risk of losing a considerable component of its munities need to join forces with academic researchers genetic variability at range edges. and citizen scientists to collect and use the genetic, aut- ecological and phenological data required for the tinker- Every model is only as good as the information that ing we will need to do to keep all of our cogs and wheels. goes into it. The MaxEnt model for P. praeclara is a case To do so, we will need greater cross-jurisdictional colla- in point, as it does not incorporate the species’ substrate boration than is possible with our present infrastructure preferences, ranges of pollinators, or phenological trig- for listing and recovery. gers. For many species, this information is not even available. At the present time, although molecular genetic

Literature Cited Cole, C. 1989. Isozyme and mitochondrial DNA variation in NatureServe. 2010. NatureServe Explorer: An online ency- Lespedeza capitata and L. leptostachya (Fabaceae). Ph.D. clopedia of life (web application). Version 7.1. Nature- dissertation, University of Minnesota. Minneapolis, MN. Serve, Arlington, VA. http://www.natureserve.org/explorer. Cole, C.T. 2003. Genetic variation in rare and common plants. Accessed February 22, 2010. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 34: Rabinowitz, D. 1981. Seven forms of rarity. Pages 205-217 213–237. in H. Synge (ed.), The Biological Aspects of Rarity. Davis, S.K. 1995. National recovery plan for the western John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY. prairie fringed-orchid, Platanthera praeclara. Endan- Sather, N.P. 1986. Studies of Lespedeza leptostachya at Red gered Plants and Invertebrates in Canada Program, Rock Prairie, Minnesota. A report on research conducted Canadian Nature Federation, Ottawa, ON. under the Small Grants Program of the Minnesota Chapter Environment Canada. 2006. Recovery strategy for the of The Nature Conservancy, Minneapolis, MN. western prairie fringed-orchid (Platanthera praeclara) in Sather, N.P. 1988a. Studies of Lespedeza leptostachya at Red Canada. Species at Risk Act Recovery Strategy Series. Rock Prairie, Minnesota. A report on research conducted Environment Canada, Ottawa, ON. under the Small Grants Program of the Minnesota Chapter Godefroid, S., C. Piazza, G. Rossi, S. Buord, A.-D. Stevens, R. of The Nature Conservancy, Minneapolis, MN. Aguraiuja, C. Cowell, C.W. Weekley, G. Vogg, J.M. Iriondo, Schultz, J. 2003. Conservation Assessment for Cooper's I. Johnson, B. Dixon, D. Gordon, S. Magnanon, B. Milkvetch (Astragalus neglectus) (T&G) E. Sheld. US Valentin, K. Bjureke, R. Koopman, M. Vicens, M. Virevaire Forest Service Eastern Region, Milwaukee, WI. and T. Vanderborght. 2011. How successful are plant species http://www.fs.fed.us/r9/wildlife/tes/ca- reintroductions? Biological Conservation 144: 672-682. overview/docs/plant_Astragalus_neglectus- Hamrick, J.L., Y.B. Linhart and J.B. Mitton. 1979. Rela- Coopers_Milkvetch.pdf tionship between life history parameters and allozyme Schwartz, M.W., J.J. Hellman and J.S. McLachlan. 2009. The variation in plants. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, precautionary principle in managed relocation is misguided and Systematics 10: 173-200. advice. Trends in Ecology and the Evolution 24: 474-475. Hof, J., C.H. Sieg, and M. Bevers. 2002. Topography-based Sharma, J. 2002. Mycobionts, germination, and conservation dispersal: habitat location for the western prairie fringed genetics of federally threatened Platanthera praeclara orchid. Pages 125-141 in J. Hof and M. Bevers (eds.), (Orchidaceae). Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Missouri, Spatial Optimization in Ecological Applications. Colum- Columbia, MO. bia University Press, New York, NY. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 1996. Platanthera Hoegh-Guldberg, O., L. Hughes, S. McIntyre, D.B. praeclara (Western Prairie Fringed Orchid) recovery Lindenmayer, C. Parmesan, H.P. Possingham and C.D. plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fort Snelling, CO. Thomas. 2008. Assisted colonization and rapid climate U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 2009. Western change. Science 321: 345-346. Prairie Fringed Orchid Five year review: Summary and McLachlan, J.S., J.J. Hellman and M.W. Schwartz. 2007. A Evaluation. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Twin Cities framework for debate of assisted migration in an era of Field Office, Bloomington, MN. climate change. Conservation Biology 21: 297-302. Vitt, P., K Havens and O. Hoegh-Guldberg. 2009. Assisted IUCN. 1987. International Union for the Conservation of migration: part of an integrated conservation strategy. Nature Position Statement on Translocation of Living Trends in Ecology and Evolution 24: 473-474. Organisms. Species Survival Commission, Commission Vitt, P., K. Havens, A.T. Kramer, D. Solleberger and E. Yates. on Ecology and Commission on Environmental Policy, 2010. Assisted migration of plants: Changes in latitudes, Law and Administration, Gland, Switzerland. changes in attitudes. Biological Conservation 143: 18-27. IUCN. 1995. Guidelines for re-introduction. Species Survival Willson, G.D., M.J. Page and F.A. Akyuz. 2006. Precipita- Commission, International Union for the Conservation tion and fire effects on flowering of a rare prairie orchid. of Nature, Gland, Switzerland. Great Plains Research 16: 37-43.

102 WORKSHOP 6 – CHANGING RELATIONSHIPS

Moderators: Julie Sveinson Pelc, Nature Conservancy of Canada – Manitoba Region Mike Quigley, City of Winnipeg

Workshop Summary Relationships between society and the natural environ- understand the rationale behind the research or may not ment are always changing, with Canada’s prairie popula- trust the motives of the researchers. To help alleviate this tion increasingly living in urban centres. Although past problem, he suggested that scientists need to do a better and current generations may have had genuine exper- job at involving the community in their projects. iences with the natural environment, future generations In their presentation, Marilyn Latta and Gene Fortney will likely experience a greater degree of removal from (page 105) gave examples of how the Manitoba Tall direct association with the land. Despite some of these Grass Prairie Preserve benefited from partnerships and trends, much is being done to conserve prairie habitat community support. In particular, they highlighted the through increased public engagement, awareness and importance of community involvement in, and awareness appreciation of native prairie ecosystems. of, the Preserve in helping to engender greater political In this workshop, the speakers presented their views on support. They also outlined the power of partnerships in social trends in prairie conservation. A major theme was protecting and acquiring habitat, as well as enabling on- evident: the assertion that the social realm is as impor- going research on the preserve. tant as the biological. Stéphane McLachlan (page 104) Focussing on the younger generation, Natalie Swayze, argued that approaches to wilderness often view human Deanna Kazina and Rob Apatagon (page 109) discussed exclusion from protected areas as a preferred manage- their approach to providing environmental learning to ment approach. Rather, he suggested that conservation urban youth in a natural setting. The Bridging the Gap strategies must include human use and input from com- program incorporates indigenous cultural ideas and the munities and neighbourhoods into the management of concept of respect – for the earth, animals and humans. protected areas and the environment. Students learn about the natural world by visiting two Expanding on this perspective, Ryan Brook (page 114) high quality natural areas located within the City of argued that the scientific community often fails to eff- Winnipeg. In addition to its focus on habitats and eco- ectively communicate its results to the general public. system interactions, the program teaches that humans are This communication gap can raise barriers to research, as part of the natural world, not separate from it. members of the public and local community may not

103

People, Place, and Posterity: From a Dichotomous Past to a Collaborative Future

Stéphane McLachlan Clayton H. Riddell Faculty of Environment, Earth, and Resources, University of Manitoba

Abstract – Tall grass prairie is at the brink of extirpation in Manitoba. Family farms and rural communities are in extreme crisis. Diverse green spaces and neighbourhoods are being displaced by parking lots, high-rises and McMansions. In response, wilderness-defined approaches to conservation continue to view human presence as inherently negative and instead affirm the importance of limiting, if not excluding, human use in protected areas and other high-value natural habitat. While the potential co-existence of conservation and development is still actively debated in the Global South, what about the compatibility between conservation and sustainable livelihoods in a northern prairie context? And what is the role of research, and more generally universities, in responding to these challenges? Con- ventional biological research does little to address these questions and, as I argue, actually accelerates the environmental race to the bottom. Protected areas that exclude the livelihoods of resource- generating families and communities, whether related to farming, hunting, fishing or logging, are a signpost to the past, a past that has failed the environment and one that ensures that this decline will continue. In contrast, those of us working in the Environmental Conservation Lab at the University of Manitoba affirm the mutual dependence of environment and humanity, and thus the importance of directly involving those very same communities and neighbourhoods in the priority setting and management of protected areas and environment. This is especially important for marginalized segments of society, whether they be the Indigenous, the rural, or the urban poor. Yet the input of these lived experts is still denied by most governments and scientists in Canada. I present a number of case studies that highlight alternative and trans-disciplinary approaches to conservation-related research that begin by bridging the social and biological and by linking scientific and lived expertise. The first case study, based on work with Paul Mutch and Jacqui Kotyk, shows the biological and socio-political outcomes of long-term urban tall grass prairie restoration in Winnipeg. The second case study, based on work with Melisa Yestrau, shows the crucial role that holistic management plays in growing both cattle and tall grass prairie in rural landscapes. The third case study, based on work with Brad Kennedy and Dave Vasey, shows how farmer knowledge can be used to assess the implications of, and to manage, invasive species. I conclude that it is only by rejecting human-natural dichotomies and by affirming the mutual dependence of nature and sustainable livelihoods that we will be able to address the environmental crises that already threaten the futures of our great-grandchildren.

104

Manitoba Tall Grass Prairie Preserve: The Evolution of a Partnership

Marilyn Latta Nature Manitoba Gene Fortney Nature Conservancy of Canada – Manitoba Region

Abstract – Partnerships are essential both for attracting funding for new projects and for advancing them through the various growth stages. The Manitoba Tall Grass Prairie Preserve is an example of how partnerships can be used to initiate, grow and maintain a project. The search for tall grass prairie, initiated in 1987 by the Manitoba Naturalists Society (now Nature Manitoba), culminated in a proposal to establish a 1000 hectare tall grass prairie preserve in the Rural Municipality of Stuartburn in southeastern Manitoba. Establishment of the Preserve became one of the goals of the newly established Critical Wildlife Habitat Program in 1989 and, twenty years after the first piece of land was purchased for the Preserve, it has grown to over 5000 hectares. The Nature Conservancy owns most of the properties while others are owned by Nature Manitoba, Manitoba Habitat Heritage Corporation or are provincial Wildlife Management Areas. Stewardship of these lands today is maintained by a Man- agement Committee, working under a Memorandum of Understanding. A variety of government and non-government partners, as well as the general public and the local community, have played roles at various times in establishing, growing and managing the Preserve. This presentation explores how some of these relationships evolved, the changing needs of the project, and the difficulties and successes that have been a part of the process.

A map of North America shows tall grass prairie on project recommended that a 1000 ha tall grass prairie the east side of the central plains stretching from north- preserve be established in the peripheral area in the ern Texas to Southern Manitoba. It is characterized by Rural Municipality (RM) of Stuartburn. relatively high rainfall and is found on rich, dark soils. In 1989 the Critical Wildlife Habitat Program (CWHP), The dominant grass species are Big Bluestem (Andro- a new five-year cooperative initiative with a focus on pogon gerardi), Indian Grass (Sorghastrum nutans), wildlife habitat in agro-Manitoba, was established. Initial Switch Grass (Panicum virgatum) and Porcupine Grass program partners were Manitoba Conservation, Manitoba (Stipa spartea), and there are a high diversity of forbs. Habitat Heritage Corporation (MHHC), Nature Manitoba, In 1987 and 1988, the Manitoba Naturalists Society (now WWF and WHC, with the Nature Conservancy of Nature Manitoba) carried out a systematic inventory of Canada (NCC) and the Canadian Wildlife Service (CWS) tall grass prairie in Manitoba. Program funding was joining the program in 1993 and 1994, respectively. provided by World Wildlife Fund (WWF), Wildlife CWHP assumed administration of the Tall Grass Prairie Habitat Canada (WHC) and job training grants, with Conservation Project and adopted the goal of establish- logistical support from Manitoba Natural Resources ing the Preserve. (now Manitoba Conservation). A brochure and film were To help raise additional funds for acquisition, Nature developed to increase awareness about this endangered Manitoba embarked on a new fund-raising initiative ecosystem. called the Prairie Patrons Program. Participants donated Nearly 3400 potential sites were visited and of those, $50 to “buy” one acre of tall grass prairie, and Nature only 88 sites totalling 2008 ha were considered to Manitoba committed to finding matching funding. It contain good-quality tall grass prairie. In the primary was an outstanding success. Individuals, schools, church study area (the historical range of the tall grass prairie), groups and businesses all helped and in less than a year, there were 22 sites totalling 102 ha, with an average $25,000 had been raised. A matching grant of $25,000 size of 5 ha. The peripheral area provided 44 sites from Manitoba Natural Resources’ Special Conservation totalling 1906 ha, with an average size of 29 ha. Al- Fund allowed Nature Manitoba to take title to their first though not all potential sites were investigated, it was 130 ha prairie. A new certificate for Prairie Patrons safe to say that only a fraction of 1% of Manitoba’s tall was produced featuring the Western Prairie Fringed- grass prairie still remained. The final report of the orchid (Platanthera praeclara), an endangered species

105 whose only Canadian location is within the vicinity of Other properties that were purchased through CWHP the Preserve, and another $25,000 was raised. This time, became the property of the MHHC or were donated by Nature Manitoba entered into a partnership with NCC the RM of Stuartburn to become a Wildlife Manage- to provide funding and, using another grant of $25,000 ment Area. By the end of the five-year agreement, the from the Special Conservation Fund, was able to pur- goal of 1000 ha had been realized and the Manitoba chase four additional prairies to bring its total holdings to Tall Grass Prairie Preserve had become a reality. Once 356 ha. The importance of involving the general public NCC joined the program, they took over acquisitions in the growth of the preserve cannot be understated. for the Preserve and have steadily increased the Preserve Public awareness and interest in the Preserve generated holdings to over 5000 ha today (Fig. 1). Table 1 shows considerable political good will and support. the land ownership as of May 2009; it has continued to grow since then.

6000

5000

s 4000

3000

Hectare 2000

1000

1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 Figure 1. Preserve growth over time (courtesy of C. Borkowsky).

Table 1. Preserve Land Ownership (May 2009) Manitoba Habitat Heritage Corporation 390 ha Manitoba Conservation WMA 325 ha Nature Manitoba 358 ha Nature Conservancy of Canada 3515 ha

WWF and WHC gradually withdrew their participation has been required to determine whether differences as NCC and CWS became more involved in the project. observed are actually statistically significant. As well, Today, activities in the Preserve are overseen by a man- the Universities of Manitoba and Winnipeg and others agement committee comprised of the five remaining have shown an interest in doing research at the program partners and a Local Advisory Committee. The Preserve or incorporating the Preserve as part of their Management Committee operates under a Memorandum study area. The abundance of species at risk at the of Understanding that is renewed every five years. The Preserve has also promoted interest as well as funding main objectives of this committee are to ensure the long- opportunities. The Preserve is home to three federally term protection of the Preserve, develop a compre- and/or provincially listed endangered species: Western hensive management strategy, and arrange for funding Prairie Fringed Orchid, Small White Lady’s-slipper for all activities. Another objective is to find a legal (Cypripedium candidum) and Great Plains Ladies’- designation that would protect the area in the long term. tresses (Spiranthes magnicamporum). Six threatened Although Preserve properties have been included in species of flora and fauna also occur here: Culver’s Root Manitoba’s Protected Areas Initiative, there is still no (Veronicastrum virginicum), Riddell’s Goldenrod (Soli- legal mechanism allowing this objective to be met. dago riddellii), Western Silvery Aster (Symphyotrichum sericeum), Red-headed Woodpecker (Melanerpes erythro- Another area in which partnerships have played a role cephalus), Dakota Skipperling (Hesperia dacotae) and is in research activities at the Preserve. Preserve staff Powesheik Skipperling (Oarisma powesheik), as well carry out baseline inventories and actively monitor as several species of concern. management regimes, but expertise from universities

106

Educating the public about the Preserve and tall grass with woody species, it would be fenced and used as prairie in general led to the production of a brochure pasture. The type of grazing was nearly always season- about the Preserve and to the development of education long. These types of land uses became part of the local programs. Nature Manitoba developed a curriculum- farm culture. based school program in 1998 that provides free class- Tall grass prairie is a warm-season grassland community room presentations and optional field trips. NCC has with growth typically beginning in late May or early expanded on this program and has worked to secure June. It produces seed in July and is most vulnerable to funding to cover the transportation costs for schools to over-grazing prior to the three-leaf stage. Research visit the preserve. conducted by North Dakota State University had determined that the most effective way to graze this The Prairie and the People type of native grassland was by using a twice-over grazing system. This system promoted grazing during It was 1896 when the Ukrainian pioneers first settled the three-leaf to flowering stage, and then again fol- the area in southeastern Manitoba known today as the lowing the flowering stage. The management of the Tall Stuartburn Municipality. These people were farmers, Grass Prairie Preserve adopted the twice-over grazing and had travelled to Canada to avoid political perse- system, even though the season-long system familiar to cution in their homeland. They were looking for a the local community was simpler and easier to manage. peaceful place to continue their traditional lifestyle. Both grazing systems required hay to be harvested and They observed many large fields of thick grass (indi- processed for winter use. The twice-over grazing system cating rich soils and good pasture for cattle) with rich required that the pastures be divided into paddocks and forests that could be used for building materials for the cattle rotated through each paddock on a predeter- their homes. mined schedule. A partnership was struck between the The Homestead Act required the pioneers to begin Stuartburn Piney Agricultural Development Association, development of the acreages granted to them soon after Manitoba Agriculture, Food and Rural Initiatives, and the their arrival to Canada. They began the process of break- Preserve partnership. The grazing project was launched ing the land and converting it to something considered and was monitored both for cattle weight gain and to usable. Formidable challenges greeted them as they determine the impact of grazing on prairie health. This encountered swamps and fields of ‘sleeping sheep’ partnership became the first joint initiative between the (large boulders), and each year they were expected to ex- Preserve partnership and the local community. pand their cultivated acreages. The homeland of these The grazing project ran for approximately eight years. pioneers contained richer soils and had a better climate The cattle appeared to maintain a significant weight while these new lands had severe limitations for agri- gain but the prairie health declined. The cattle producers culture. The soils had formed from glacial deposits and had difficulty understanding the benefits of the system poorly sorted glacial till was evident everywhere. These when measured against the amount of effort needed for new Canadians adopted a pastoral lifestyle once they its maintenance. Input from monitoring resulted in a determined the limitations of their new properties. refinement of the system, and more effort is made each The grassland community that the pioneers had settled year to refine the grazing system as well as the moni- on was indeed tall grass prairie, which in this modern toring process. More effort is needed to promote the world is very rare and has a very high value as a natural resource, the value of the native grasslands, and the resource. In 1992 the Nature Conservancy of Canada concept that it is worth the additional effort to ensure accepted a much larger role with the hiring of a Land the survival of the rare native prairie. Manager responsible for leading both land securement The grazing project partnership, along with the estab- and stewardship on the preserve. lishment of the Local Advisory Committee, facilitated Haying (forage harvest) and grazing was the most the development of better public understanding of the common form of land use within the local community, how’s and why’s of managing tall grass prairie. Woody resulting from over 100 years of land use by the pioneers encroachment can result from lack of fire, over-grazing and their descendants. Once the land was broken, the or removal of traditional haying practices. Woody capability for agriculture increased and the land could encroachment is also one of the largest threats to the be used for cultivated crops or as good hayland. The survival of this native grassland. Prairie managers use hayland would be either a mixture of introduced and a variety of methods to combat this invasive process. native species or only native species. Otherwise, if the Local methods for managing this challenge were land was stony and contained many wetlands along enhanced with this additional knowledge.

107

Prairie managers across the Great Plains use prescribed The Local Advisory Committee was pivotal in the estab- fire to control invasion by woody species and intro- lishment of the first ecotourism venture on the preserve, duced grass species, and for the general enhancement the Prairie Shore trail east of Tolstoi. The Committee of native grasslands that have evolved with fire. Since received provincial grant funding to complete a walk- settlement, the local community has viewed fire as a ing trail over a mile in length. This trail would be the damaging, undesirable disturbance that could result in only focus for many public activities on the preserve the destruction of property, loss of human life, as well for many years until the Nature Conservancy of Canada as kill livestock. Adopting managed burns as a legiti- completed the Agassiz Trail on Provincial Road 201. mate management tool proved to be a hurdle that the Both of these facilities play an essential role in allow- local community had to overcome. Public forums were ing the public to experience and enjoy the preserve. As held to inform the public about preferred prairie man- the work and research on the preserve continues to grow, agement strategies. The annual Prairie Day event was the demand for more educational facilities increases. developed to encourage public visitation to the Preserve, Education programs for school-aged children were as well as to provide a venue where visitors could ask discovered to be especially successful. questions about the development of management strat- Over the years the funding support for the tall grass egies. This venue allows management to showcase the project has evolved from predominantly local support to resource and to legitimize accepted land management international support and interest. NCC led the part- practices. The establishment of local partnerships with nership in the development of a comprehensive plan- community members or groups is essential to main- ning process. This process, called Ecoregional/Natural taining the link that allows information to flow from Areas Conservation Planning, includes land steward- preserve management to the community. ship goals as well as securement goals. These plans The land securement process began in the late 1980s on a validate the on-the-ground processes and are required for project-by-project basis, with land purchases completed successful partnerships with larger funding agencies. by Nature Manitoba and the provincial government. At If one were to summarize the reasons the Manitoba the time, the local community was amused to see an Tall Grass Prairie Preserve has been a success, one of organization from outside their community purchase the key reasons would be that all of the partners have what they considered to be waste land. Securement been committed to the same goal. However, flexibility increased over the years as additional prairie sites in the partnership has allowed partners to meet their became available. The local community did support own needs as well as those of the Preserve. There has fee-simple purchase, as most of the lands purchased been a continuity of core partners, while at the same time were idle and were needed to consolidate the holdings. partnerships continue to evolve to meet the changing needs of the Preserve. As well, different partners can Competition for these lands was virtually non-existent access different types of funding. Encouraging the public until the economy changed and large corporations showed to become part of the process makes the Preserve more interested in purchasing large blocks of land in the area relevant to society and engenders political good will. on which to construct facilities for the hog industry. Involvement of the local community is an essential but Land was needed to spread the liquid waste accumulated often difficult process, due to the differing needs and in these large barns, and land quality seemed irrelevant. values in the community. The local community had mixed feelings about this new initiative and began to scrutinize land securement As a closing note, the continuity of the seasonal staff at for the preserve as well as for the hog industry. Even- the Tall Grass Prairie Preserve has been a huge benefit. tually, the world market for the products of the hog Laura Reeves (botanist), Christie Borkowsky (biologist), industry diminished. Support for the work and advance- and land manager John Tkachuk are an extremely loyal ment of the tall grass prairie project returned. and dedicated team and the enthusiasm and continuity they bring to the Preserve are priceless.

108

Engaging Indigenous Urban Youth in Environmental Learning: The Importance of Place Revisited

Natalie Swayze Faculty of Education, University of Manitoba

Abstract – Bridging The Gap (BTG) is an innovative environmental learning program based in Winnipeg, Manitoba, providing free full-day field trips and follow-up programs for Grade Four students from the Inner City District of the Winnipeg School Division. Students visit two of Winnipeg’s largest, high-quality natural areas, Assiniboine Forest and Living Prairie Museum. Students engage in curriculum- based, hands-on learning activities and participate in relevant initiatives that show respect for, and gratitude and appreciation of, Manitoba’s natural environment. BTG’s programming incorporates indigenous cultural ideas into program content. A key element of the program is the concept of respect – for the earth, for the animals and for each other. Note – The presentation at the conference also included contributions from Deanna Kuzina and Rob Apatagon.

Introduction Life is full of choices. Yet sometimes the most influen- standards from formal education, thereby becoming ac- tial aspects of our lives are those that we don’t choose. countable within a larger educational system. When striv- Our families, our ethnicity, the places where we grow ing to meet these curriculum outcomes and fit within up – these reflect the critical “unchoices” in our lives. other national and/or international mandates, I must As an environmental educator, researcher, and human, ask: How relevant are these standards within a local I am becoming increasingly aware of the impacts these context, and to my specific place2? “unchoices” have on me, and the children that I teach As the field of environmental learning evolves and our and learn with. With this awareness comes a sense of societies become increasingly diverse and complex, I responsibility and a commitment to carefully decide am mindful that all education is political and inher- how I develop my environmental learning1 programs. ently value laden. All rational thought in today’s post- Coupled with a growing sense of an “impending envi- colonial contexts requires questioning of context, ronmental crisis” comes a recognition of the human role values and relativeness (Willinsky 1998). In order to in contributing to it. Indeed, this sense of crisis has hist- adequately accommodate a multiplicity of views, one orically been a powerful impetus for environmental must consider that “curricula are created by people within learning. Transforming behaviours and relationships temporal, political, cultural, economic, and cultural con- with the environment, and ultimately developing indi- texts,” (Ornstein and Hunkins 2004: 62), with models and vidual and community capacity to actively engage in techniques “filtered through a political or social lens, environmental stewardship, is generally regarded as especially race, class, and gender” (91). These complex environmental learning’s ultimate goal (Hungerford and issues must be considered when seeking to teach and Volk 1990, Tilbury 1995). However, there are various plan in inclusive ways. What is worth knowing in envi- mechanisms, strategies and techniques employed in ronmental learning and who should be involved in de- environmental learning to achieve this goal. ciding this? Whose views are most important? Are we prepared to be critical of national and/or international As an environmental educator, I am determined to think mandates, or even challenge them? Would it be more carefully about the choices I make when developing beneficial to instead develop teaching and learning strat- programs, as I become critically aware of the various egies that are contextualized at a local level, relevant influences that impact my decision-making process. within a specific place and its unique social, environ- Non-formal environmental learning programs targeting mental and economic contexts? This paper will explore school-age children frequently seek to meet curriculum these issues while describing my pedagogical decision-

1 Although various opinions exist regarding nomenclature, my view and the use here of the term “environmental 2 The term “place” is used here with a view that place learning” is inclusive of “environmental education,” embodies multiple dimensions, including spatial, “education for sustainable development,” “education for geographical/political, and temporal. sustainability,” and other relevant terms.

109 making process in developing and delivering a program to address learning outcomes from Manitoba’s Science for urban Indigenous youth called Bridging the Gap curriculum. The program has since evolved to reflect (BTG). some of its place-specific attributes. The Context – Situating the BTG Program Using an action research methodology, the program focus is now being continuously modified to reflect three BTG initially began in 2004 as an innovative, informal key considerations: 1) the fastest growing segment of environmental learning program based in Winnipeg, the province’s population is Aboriginal; 2) Winnipeg is Manitoba. The city lies at the confluence of the Assini- home to the largest urban Aboriginal population in the boine and Red Rivers, a historic focal point of routes country (Hanselmann 2001, Mays 2005); and 3) the high- travelled by Aboriginal peoples. The rivers provided est percentage of Winnipeg’s population of Aboriginal transportation for trade and knowledge sharing, and youth lives in and attends school in the core area of the linked many Aboriginal peoples. The general area sur- city (the inner-city) (Statistics Canada 2003). For the rounding Winnipeg was populated for thousands of years group of learners participating in BTG, over fifty per- by Aboriginal peoples who would use the area for camps, cent are of Aboriginal descent (Métis, First Nations or hunting, fishing, and trading. Winnipeg is located within Inuit). the prairies of western Canada, in a native tall grass prairie ecosystem. At one time, tall grass prairie covered There is a close fit between the program’s goals and one million square kilometres in central North America, traditional Indigenous cultural values, identified as con- and in Manitoba alone, it covered one and a half mil- cepts at the heart of sustainability, and a need to rekindle lion acres. Today, tall grass prairie is all but gone. In traditional cultural values of sustainable living for this Manitoba, only 1/20th of 1% of the original tall grass urban, largely Indigenous population, affected by hist- prairie remains. orical issues related to colonialism (disruption of culture and loss of connection to land) (Aikenhead 2000, I developed BTG while employed with the City of Cajete 1999). In exploring ways to respectfully include Winnipeg’s Naturalist Services Branch. The Naturalist traditional Indigenous cultural perspectives within the Services Branch has been actively involved in developing BTG program, the ongoing challenge has been to ensure and delivering curriculum-aligned, environmental learn- that attempts to do this meaningfully support learning ing programs for youth in urban contexts, playing a while respectfully reflecting the local cultural traditions, key role in promoting awareness of the cultural and languages, beliefs and perspectives. What initially began ecological benefits of Winnipeg’s natural areas and en- as token attempts to include traditional Aboriginal cul- couraging stewardship of natural habitats within an urban tural ideas has since become a more holistic approach to setting. Native habitats within the city including wet- making the program culturally relevant. What is hoped lands, aspen parkland forest, and endangered tall grass is that the decisions I have made to date, and those that prairie are now permanently protected from develop- are yet to come, will continue to reflect and be relevant ment through policy measures. Resident indigenous plant to the specific place that I inhabit along with the children and animal communities are now preserved as an inte- and others taking part in the BTG program. gral component of Winnipeg’s ecological and cultural heritage. Theoretical Framework – A Critical Pedagogy However, like many large cities, the majority of Win- of Place in an Urban Indigenous Context nipeg’s high-quality natural areas are located in the sub- urbs, and few natural areas are found in the downtown David Gruenewald’s “critical pedagogy of place” area. As a result, for students in inner-city neighbour- (2003) (hereafter referred to as CPP) provided the hoods, there are inherently fewer opportunities to visit theoretical framework to engage in a process of critical and explore high-quality urban natural areas. Along with reflection about my pedagogical decision-making process this, an over-representation of low wages, poverty and when including Indigenous knowledge in BTG. A CPP family instability commonly persist in inner-city neigh- was selected as a framework with particular relevance bourhoods. BTG was designed to attempt to address to BTG in relation to the potential influences while these issues. The program was created to provide free revising the original program. From my perspective, a programs for Grade Four students from the inner city CPP not only provides an ideal structure to improve of Winnipeg. As part of a full-day field trip, children my understanding of this program and my pedagogical visit high-quality urban natural areas, spending time in decision-making process, it also expanded my views guided explorations, facilitated discussions, hands-on on how placed-based education can be applied, and the activities and data collection. When BTG began, it ori- role of critical, place-based approaches within broader ginally had an ecology-based focus and was designed educational reform movements.

110

The following analysis reflects the changes I have living in local natural areas meet their habitat needs, made as a researcher-practitioner in BTG as the prog- children could discuss some of their similar needs for ram has transitioned from using the provincial science food, water and space. After discussing some of the curriculum as the primary focus and starting point in traditional ways that humans have met their needs designing learning experiences, to a program that is (traditional plant use, hunting, trapping), children could adapted to, and accounts for, BTG’s unique socio- be guided to consider how the ways in which these ecological situation. In analyzing my decision-making needs are met have changed over time, particularly in process within a CPP, I became intrigued by the notion contemporary urban settings. Learners could be guided to of “inhabiting” vs. “residing” in a place, and the potential reconsider common misconceptions of human relation- existence of a continuum between these two. This con- ships with the land (i.e., food does not “come from the tinuum reflects my belief and those shared by other store” and water does not “come from the tap”). Aboriginal educators (Aikenhead 2000, Cajete 1999) c) Embracing Place-specific Cultural Attributes – that learning is a continual lifelong journey, one that Relevant cultural attributes of BTG should be embedded we embark upon along with the learners we work with, in the program goals, and embraced proactively as inte- ideally moving towards the “inhabitant” end of the gral components of BTG, not as afterthoughts or add- spectrum. As the primary program developer in BTG, ons. The overall learning objectives for the program have the decisions I’ve made to date contributed to should include the original ecological concepts and skills movement towards the “inhabitant” end of the spectrum from the Science curriculum, but also should place equal while achieving progress toward the broader goals of emphasis on relevant learning outcomes from Mani- the program? I dare to say yes. I believe the success toba’s Aboriginal Languages and Cultures Curriculum realized to date with BTG is based on a commitment to: Framework. Accordingly, key learning objectives for a) De-Emphasizing the Formal Curriculum – When BTG should include the ability of children to: BTG began, it had an ecology-based focus and was 1. recognize how knowledge of plant and animal designed to address learning outcomes from Mani- populations and interactions helped Aboriginal toba’s Science curriculum. A new emphasis on embrac- peoples to survive in the past; ing the local ecological and cultural attributes would require that place-specific elements be used as the 2. demonstrate proper protocols when working starting point when developing teaching and learning with Elders; and activities, not the formal curriculum. Specific Learning 3. describe the traditional Aboriginal perspective Outcomes (SLOs) from the provincial curricula are on natural resources (e.g., no ownership of then selected based on the following criteria. First, SLOs natural resources; all resources are to be shared). must be relevant to the types of natural areas that are studied in the program (wetlands, tall grass prairie, and Elders should also continue to be involved in the out- aspen parkland forests) and the specific issues involved in door field trips as part of BTG and provide traditional preserving and protecting these natural areas (as well as cultural teachings, but additional changes should be the resident plant and animal populations within the considered to enhance Elder involvement. For example, urban setting). Secondly, the SLOs must provide suitable through follow-up activities, learners would have more connections to the Elders’ cultural teachings and align exposure to Elders and Indigenous perspectives which with specific Indigenous knowledge bundles. As a result, could facilitate opportunities for building relationships. curricular SLOs are incorporated in the program if they Consideration of distinct worldviews is also important fit with the local ecological and cultural realities, not when seeking to develop compatible learning experiences vice versa. and teaching strategies. A continued emphasis within BTG should be to reinforce the concept that humans are b) Embracing Place-specific Ecological Attributes – In animals, a concept aligned with the traditional Indigenous light of BTG’s urban context, the concept of an “urban view of our relationship with the natural world. This re- habitat” should be embraced. Children should be en- quires assuming a distinct viewpoint where all humans, couraged to recognize that humans are dependent on perceived as animals, are part of a larger ecological the natural world and use living things and natural res- system. Children involved in BTG should be encour- ources. They should be guided to discover that nature aged to view themselves as human animals, an integral exists within an urban context, and to consider their and interdependent part of the environment, not removed role as residents of an urban habitat and what it means from it. Rather than having a distinct or superior status to to live respectfully from the land within this context. other life forms, all human activities are discussed as For example, after sharing ideas about how wildlife integral aspects of the environment.

111 d) Re-envisioning Program Goals – It is important to class (Russell et al. 2000), there is a need to come to be mindful that re-inhabiting and decolonizing place terms with the potential monoculturalism that pervades takes time and involves significant work in the face of it. As Canadian society becomes more complex, more global pressures. Like many other environmental educ- urbanized, and more ethnically, linguistically, and geo- ators, I have what could be referred to as idealistic am- graphically diverse, people of diverse ethnic, cultural, bitions and hopes for the future of the world, and the linguistic and racial groups, along with the working potential of the transformative role of environmental class, continue to be under-represented in environmental learning. While hesitating to suggest that my expecta- learning – either overlooked or playing marginal or in- tions for the program should be lowered, I sense that significant roles. As a practitioner, part of this challenge they perhaps must become more realistic. I must accept will be my ability to recognize that different cultures that transformations of behaviours, and ultimately dev- may value different bodies of knowledge and different eloping individual and community capacity to actively ways of knowing, while remaining cognizant that all engage in environmental stewardship, takes time, and education is political and value-laden. When planning that feelings about a place take longer to develop than programs, it is essential that I continue to be cautiously abstract knowledge. Coming to knowing is a life-long aware of the potential for education to be used negatively journey, one that will not be accomplished through one to maintain a certain status quo, and I must remain program alone. I cannot expect children to instantly dev- willing to challenge prevailing norms and demands to fit elop pro-environmental behaviours as a result of parti- within generalized guidelines and practices. During a cipating in BTG (or any other program for that matter), period of growing demands for accountability and pres- and to evaluate the success of BTG based on such an sures to fit within national or internationally mandated ambitious goal fails to account for some of the important priorities, I have a new sense of responsibility to con- achievements that the program can make. Although the sider the relevance of these priorities to the specific transformative goals of environmental learning may be places that I work. lofty, when applied at the local level and made relevant Whether or not education can save the world, or whether to a specific place, there is tremendous potential to realize the world needs saving in the first place, humanity’s progress in preserving cultural and ecological integrity. role in historical and contemporary social, economic and Conclusion ecological injustices cannot be ignored. I choose to believe in the human capacity to contribute to positive It has been suggested by others that all education is change in seeking resolution to injustice as we endea- environmental education. Whether or not this is true, vour to re-inhabit our shared home. With this opportunity not all environmental education is good education. In comes an accordingly huge responsibility. I must be cau- today’s world, many of us find global information avail- tiously aware of the lure to conform to universalized able at our fingertips, yet often neglect to consider the standards and the potential to inadvertently or uninten- direct relevance of this information within the places tionally reinforce a specific status quo or world-view. I we actually reside and seek to inhabit. Environmental choose to believe that education plays a critical role in learning grounded on a set of basic principles or an seeking to resolve the root causes of environmental imposition of universal values ignores the particularities problems and commit to do my part. Mindful that “no of varied socio-ecological contexts. Even what some one lives in the world in general,” (Geertz 1983: 262) I consider to be best practices must be called into question, will continue to carefully consider how my decisions as a and assessed based on their relevance to the specific researcher, educator and human reflect and influence socio-ecological contexts in which we work. My exper- my own lived experiences and those of others with whom ience with Bridging the Gap has caused me to be more I am engaged. Although the transformative goals of en- critical about the choices I make when designing my vironmental learning may be lofty, I have found that programs, given me the courage to question prevailing when applied at the local level and made relevant to a notions of best practices, and changed the way I view specific place, there is the potential to realize progress environmental learning. in preserving cultural and ecological integrity. Chal- Mindful that environmental learning has traditionally lenged to “do my part” and “be the change,” the ideal represented the voice and vision of the white middle- starting place is clearly my own backyard.

112

Literature Cited Aikenhead, G. 2000. Rekindling Traditions: Cross-cultural Mays, A. 2005. Community pathways of aboriginal young science & technology units project. University of Sask- leaders. University of Winnipeg, Winnipeg, MB. atchewan College of Education. Ornstein A. and F. Hunkins. 2004. Curriculum foundations, http://www.usask.ca/education/ccstu/ Accessed March principles and issues. Pearson Educational Press, Boston, 17, 2006. MA. Cajete, G. 1999. Igniting the sparkle: An Indigenous science Russell, C., A. Bell and L. Fawcett 2000. Navigating the education model. Kivaki Press, Skyand, NC. waters of Canadian environmental education. Pages 196- Geertz, C. 1983. Local knowledge: Further essays in Inter- 227 in T. Goldman and D. Selby (eds.), Weaving Con- pretive Anthropology. Basic Books, New York, NY. nections. Sumach Press, Vancouver, BC. Gruenewald, D. 2003. The best of both worlds: A critical Statistics Canada. 2003. Aboriginal peoples of Canada: A pedagogy of place. Educational Researcher 32(4): 3-12. demographic profile. Statistics Canada, Ottawa, ON. Hanselmann, C. 2001. Urban aboriginal people in western Tilbury, D. 1995. Environmental education for sustainability: Canada. CanadaWest Foundation, Calgary, AB. Defining a new focus of environmental education in the Hungerford, H. and T. Volk. 1990. Changing learner behav- 1990s. Environmental Education Research 1: 195-212. iour through environmental education. Journal of Envi- Willinsky, J. 1998. Learning to divide the world: Education ronmental Education 21(2): 8-21. at empire’s end. University of Minnesota Press, Minn- eapolis, MN.

113

Cultivating a Future for Prairie Conservation

Ryan Brook College of Agriculture and Bioresources, University of Saskatchewan

Abstract – The demographics, livelihoods, attitudes and values of people living on the prairies appear to be changing at an unprecedented rate, and these transformations have vital, but poorly understood, implications for conservation. While biological issues such as landscape change, invasive species, and maintaining networks of native vegetation are essential elements of conservation efforts, generating and maintaining a culture of support for conservation is at least equally important. I begin by providing an overview of some broad trends in conservation perspectives and issues. I then provide a case study from the corridor between Riding Mountain National Park and Duck Mountain Provincial Forest as an example of the trends in changes in land management by protected area managers, farmers, recreational landowners and aboriginal peoples. Many of these observed transformations mirror broader changes at provincial and national levels. Analysis of use of the corridor region by elk, deer, moose and wolves indicates that understanding habitat use and conservation attitudes requires an integrated approach involving diverse approaches and datasets. I advocate for a renewed commitment for engaging youth in outdoor activities and conservation research activities. At the same time, all stakeholders in conservation must be more effectively informed about the issues in their region and involved in an integrated decision-making process. Local and traditional knowledge can be used effectively with scientific data to support these decisions and together they can provide effective monitoring of environmental and social change.

114 POSTER SESSIONS

115 PATTERNS OF GLOBAL CHANGE

Adapting Conservation Strategies for Future Climate Change in the Tallgrass Aspen Parkland

Phil Gerla, Cary Hamel*, Russ Reisz, Meredith Cornett, Marissa Ahlering and Jon Eerkes The Nature Conservancy *Nature Conservancy of Canada – Manitoba Region

Abstract – The Tallgrass Aspen Parkland of Manitoba and Minnesota lies within a North American ecotone between the boreal region, tall grass prairie, and northern hardwood forest. Roughly 20% of this landscape is protected through ownership or management by government agencies or conservation organizations. Historically, a dynamic mosaic of prairie, woodland and wetland dominated the landscape. Fire previously shaped upland ecology, driven by fluctuations in Holocene climate. Current threats to biodiversity include fire suppression and aspen encroachment, ditching and channelization, invasive/alien species, and the loss of moose through disease. Accelerated global climate change will likely exacerbate the threats. A model ensemble suggests that by 2050 annual temperature will rise by >3°C, with the greatest increase occurring in winter. Precipitation is predicted to increase by 20% for the period from December through February. We identify likely aggravated threats and possible adaptation strategies for the Tallgrass Aspen Parkland: 1. The timing of increased precipitation will worsen spring floods and disrupt riparian species composition, facilitating spread of invasive species. Wetlands will experience more open water, radically changing current habitat. These stresses underscore the urgent need for protection of key areas representing the full range of landscape variability. Restoration of hydrology that is currently impaired is also important to addressing this threat. 2. A longer growing season and an atmosphere enriched in carbon dioxide will enhance aspen expansion at the expense of native grass. Concurrently, present fire management techniques designed to control encroachment will become increasingly difficult to implement and less effective. To mitigate the impact, by 2020 at least 20% of prescribed burns should occur outside the current spring season timeframe. 3. Increasing temperature (and perhaps precipitation) may compromise the health of large mammals. For example, the moose population in northwestern Minnesota has declined significantly. It may not be possible to maintain moose as a conservation target in this landscape under changing conditions.

Impacts of Climate Change on the Grasslands of the Canadian Prairies Jeff Thorpe Saskatchewan Research Council

Abstract – The grasslands of Canada’s Prairies Ecozone show trends in composition and productivity that are driven by climate. These trends can be represented by mathematical models. Models have been extended to future climatic scenarios by using the grasslands of the U.S. Great Plains as analogues for a warmer future. The zonation of grassland types is predicted to shift northward, with future climates becoming increasingly suitable for U.S. types such as short grass prairie. These changes imply gradual northward movement of species not currently found in Canada, and the proportion of warm-season (C4) species in our grasslands will probably increase. However, models suggest that climatic warming will cause only modest changes in grassland productivity, which is limited mainly by levels of precipitation.

116 DEALING WITH CHANGE

Do I Need a SARA Permit? Overview of Need and Conditions for Permitting

Paul Gregoire Canadian Wildlife Service

Abstract – The federal Species at Risk Act (SARA) provides legal protection for species at risk. The Act prohibits the killing, harming or harassing of individuals, the damage or destruction of the residence, and the destruction of critical habitat, except under authority of a permit. Research activities that may impact federally listed species at risk may require a federal SARA permit. Specific criteria and time lines must be met before a permit can be issued. Not all activities are permitted. It is important that research and monitoring activities be planned well in advance of the need for a permit to avoid any delays in field work.

Introduction Researchers may spend many months preparing for field If the answers to 1 through 3 are all YES, and the answer work only to encounter delays due to regulatory and to either 4 or 5 is YES, then the person is advised to bureaucratic requirements that have not been met. If a apply for a SARA permit. person is undertaking field work on species listed under the federal Species at Risk Act (SARA), and particu- What if my activity is not on federal lands? larly if the activity is located on federal lands, a SARA SARA comes into full force on lands that the federal permit may be required. This poster describes the proto- government has jurisdiction over, namely federal lands. cols for obtaining a SARA permit issued by Environment If the activity is not on federal lands, i.e., it is on private Canada. or provincial lands, the prohibitions apply only to migra- Do I need a permit? tory birds (protected under the MBCA), and aquatic species (protected under the Fisheries Act), unless an Consider the following questions: Order in Council is made. Therefore on private and prov- 1. Does the activity affect a species listed under incial lands, a person would only require a SARA permit Schedule 1 of SARA? for migratory birds and aquatic species. The prohibitions would not apply to such species as Burrowing Owl1, 2. Is the species listed on Schedule 1 as Swift Fox, Woodland Caribou, as well as plants and in- threatened, endangered or extirpated under 2 vertebrate species on these lands . SARA? (not as Special Concern) 3. Does the activity have the potential to Be advised, however, that one may still require a contravene the prohibitions under SARA: Provincial permit to disturb these species. (a) kill, harm, harass, or be in the possession of; Who can issue a permit? (b) damage or destroy the residence of; (c) destroy any part of the critical habitat of a Only the Competent Minister can issue a permit. The species. Competent Minister includes Environment Canada, the 4. Is the activity on federal lands? Parks Canada Agency, and the Department of Fisheries and Oceans. 5. If the activity is not on federal lands, will it affect a migratory bird (as defined under the federal Migratory Birds Convention Act 1 Hawks, owls, upland game birds and blackbirds are not [MBCA]) or an aquatic species (as defined protected under the MBCA. under the federal Fisheries Act)? 2 If the provincial laws do not effectively protect the species, the minister may invoke an Order in Council to have the prohibitions apply.

117 If the activity affects aquatic species under the Fisheries What activities are authorized? Act, the permit application should be submitted to Fish- Three types of activities are authorized and must be eries and Oceans Canada. identified in the permit application. If the activity is on Parks Canada lands or historic sites, S.73(2) The agreement may be entered into, or the the application should be sent to Parks Canada. permit issued, only if the competent minister is of If the activity is on other federal lands (i.e., Agriculture the opinion that: and Agri-food Canada lands (formerly PFRA), Depart- (a) the activity is scientific research relating to ment of National Defence lands, or Reserve lands under the conservation of the species and the Indian Act), the application should be sent to Envi- conducted by qualified persons; ronment Canada. (b) the activity benefits the species or is If the activity affects listed migratory birds (under the required to enhance its chance of survival MBCA) anywhere, the application should be sent to in the wild; or Environment Canada. (c) affecting the species is incidental to the How do I apply for a permit? carrying out of the activity. Incidental activities are activities that may inadver- SARA permit application forms are available on the tently affect a species by the carrying out of the activity. website http://www.sararegistry.gc.ca. Choose the Common examples include activities associated with “Permits & Agreements” heading located to the left of industrial development, e.g., road construction, seismic the screen. There are then three choices: activities and gas wells. 1. for activities in National Parks or preserves, follow the link to the Parks Canada website; What conditions must be met? 2. for activities affecting aquatic species SARA identifies three pre-conditions that must be satis- protected under the Fisheries Act, follow the fied in the permit application. link to the Fisheries and Oceans Canada website; S.73(3) The agreement may be entered into, or the permit issued, only if the competent minister is of 3. for all other species and locations, fill out the the opinion that Environment Canada Permit form. (a) all reasonable alternatives to the activity Completed Environment Canada applications should that would reduce the impact on the species be sent to the regional federal permit coordinator. Permit have been considered and the best solution applications for the provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan has been adopted; and Manitoba should be sent to: (b) all feasible measures will be taken to Paul Gregoire minimize the impact of the activity on the SARA Permit Coordinator species or its critical habitat or the Canadian Wildlife Service residences of its individuals; and Environmental Stewardship Branch (c) the activity will not jeopardize the survival Environment Canada or recovery of the species. Room 200, 4999-98 Avenue Research activities must be well planned and justified. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6B 2X3 Permits will be reviewed on a case-by-case basis and [email protected] Ph: 780 951-8695 the precautionary principle will be applied. Environment Canada retains the discretion to refuse permits outright It may take between 60 and 90 days to process a permit, or to attach conditions necessary to ensure the protec- so early application is advised. Permits undergo two tion of the species, to minimize the impact of the science reviews, regional and national approvals, French authorized activity on the species, or to provide for its translation, and are posted on a national registry. recovery. This may include limits on the activities per- Tip: To prevent delays, the applicant is reminded to mitted, the number of individuals affected, timing include a detailed, stand alone, description of the field restrictions, measures to protect non-target SARA methodology, as that information is essential for the species, disposal, etc. Permits will not be issued for permit officer. “insurance” purposes.

118 Permit duration the use of federal bands and incorporation into the database. When banding MBCA SARA species, the No permit may be issued for a term longer than three banding office will add a SARA clause to make the years. Agreements shall not exceed five years (but are banding permit compliant with SARA. If a person will rarely issued). be undertaking more than simply banding the species, Special Cases the person will require a separate SARA permit. When Birds under the Migratory Birds Convention Act banding non-MBCA SARA species on federal lands, banders are required to acquire a separate SARA permit Efficiencies: If a SARA species is protected under the from their regional office allowing them to band on MBCA, a person will require an MBCA Scientific federal lands. When banding non-MBCA SARA species Permit in addition to the SARA permit (e.g., for Piping on private or provincial lands, the banding office will Plover, Loggerhead Shrike, Sage Thrasher, Mountain issue conditional banding permits for provincial SARA Plover). However, to reduce duplication of process, the species (to enable the use of federal bands), but because SARA permit requirements can be embedded into the there is no federal jurisdiction on these lands, they are MBCA Scientific Permit. If this is your case, you are only subject to the appropriate provincial approvals. advised to contact the regional Migratory Bird permit coordinator on how to proceed (John Dunlop, Cana- Incidental take: SARA enables permitting for inci- dian Wildlife Service, Environment Canada, Saska- dental take/harm activities, but the MBCA does not toon, SK). currently have provisions for this. Therefore, a SARA Banding: The federal banding office only issues band- permit cannot be issued for incidental activities that ing permits. These permits are only issued to enable would be in contravention of the MBCA.

119 The Impacts of Drought on Species at Risk and Their Habitat in the Northern Mixed Grass Prairies

Susan Rever University of Regina

Abstract – Drought is linked to land degradation, therefore future management of mixed prairie grasslands will require an improved understanding of past and future climate trends. Past grassland productivity analyses show that vegetation index averages were typically lower during drought years. During a severe drought, photosynthesis is significantly reduced, which decreases grassland productivity. I found that the normalized difference vegetation index and soil adjusted vegetation index are negatively correlated with temperature, while the normalized difference moisture index is positively correlated with precipitation and aridity, and negatively correlated with potential evapotranspiration (PET). The moisture stress index is positively correlated with PET, and negatively correlated with precipitation and aridity. Past aridity measurements for the West Block of Grasslands National Park (GNP) indicate that this area was a semi-arid ecoregion from 1978 to 2006. If current trends continue, GNP will fall into the arid classification by 2020 for the month of July. All three global climate models (CGCM2 A21, CSIROMk2b B11 and HadCM3 B21) predict a significant decrease in density and vigour of vegetation by 2050. A decrease in grassland productivity, vegetation density, vigour and canopy water content, along with a more arid climate, will have a considerable impact on the vegetation communities that currently dominate the West Block of GNP. This means a decrease in habitat diversity and suitability for many animal species. The configuration, density and quality of landscape elements, such as foraging and nesting habitat, required by species at risk to reproduce and find prey will likely be altered in response to increased aridity. In addition, species at risk could experience higher mortality rates and lower reproduction in response to higher temperatures and water stress. Management is needed to protect remaining mixed prairie grasslands and ensure viable populations of species at risk. This includes grassland restoration, conducting long-term climate studies, maintaining dense and widespread populations of prey, and maintaining alternative water sources.

120 Good Management is the Key: The Canadian Cattlemen’s Association National Environmental Stewardship Award

Peggy Strankman Canadian Cattlemen’s Association

Abstract – The Canadian Cattlemen’s Association Environmental Stewardship award provides national recognition of a cattle operation that exemplifies the initiatives undertaken by Canadian producers in their role as innovative stewards of the land. This year the award went to the Campbell family, of the B & C Ranch, Inc. of Meadow Lake, Saskatchewan, in recognition of their significant work in protecting the environment. The Campbells say that they have never thought of themselves as environmentalists, but they have implemented practices that best serve the operation’s domestic and wildlife inhabitants. They feel it is encouraging that not only are ranchers changing their perception of what it means to be an environ- mentalist, but also that the general public is beginning to see that farmers and ranchers could be the environment’s best hope. They believe that exposure from awards like The Environmental Stewardship Award (TESA) serves as an important catalyst on the way to significant change. The Campbells worked with Ducks Unlimited Canada to install a system of water control gates along the Beaver River to ensure the wetlands always contain water. On-farm, they implemented practices to maintain and enrich grazing lands – key factors in reducing greenhouse gas emissions from cattle and reducing fossil fuel use. To be eligible for the national TESA, nominees must win their provincial cattle association stewardship award. Each nominee demonstrates significant dedication to environmental stewardship, proving that these sustainable practices improve all aspects of the environment for current and future inhabitants. As environmental stewardship role models, their willingness to share their experience typifies the commitment that Canadian farmers and ranchers make to the environment and the agricultural community. Living and working on it daily, our producers are true stewards of the land.

121 Species at Risk, Agriculture and AgriFood Research Farms, and Creating Awareness

Erl Svendson Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada

Abstract – When one thinks of a farm, and in particular a research farm, one usually imagines that the land has been cropped from edge to edge of the property. This is true in many cases; however, there are always exceptions. At Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC), there are research farms across Canada with significant portions that have not been cultivated or developed due to topography, soils, hydrology or research focus. And while these properties by themselves (with one exception) are too small to represent an ideal home for most species at risk, they are adjacent to similar uncultivated land, thereby contributing to a larger habitat. To date, 33 COSEWIC-ranked species at risk have been documented on 7 research sites in British Columbia, Alberta and Quebec. For a few species, such as Soapweed and the three moth species associated with this plant, the only self-sustaining populations are found on AAFC research land. For all species at risk, these sites provide good to excellent habitat and, since the Species at Risk Act (SARA) applies primarily to federal land, a measure of protection as well. Discovering species at risk on research properties has meant creating a greater awareness of species at risk issues for the staff that work there. AAFC staff ask questions such as: what is SARA and what are the prohibitions; which species at risk can be found on a site; what will it mean for research, general operations and infrastructure maintenance/development; and how can habitat be improved or managed more effectively? The questions are dealt with through information sessions, brochures and on-going consultation.

122 ECOLOGICAL CHANGES

Can Plains Rough Fescue Grasslands be Restored after Well Site and Pipeline Construction?

Mae E. Elsinger Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada M. Anne Naeth Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta

Abstract – Rumsey Block is a remnant of Plains Rough Fescue (Festuca hallii (Vasey) Piper) prairie in southern Alberta, Canada. Reclamation success of 17 pipelines and 36 well sites was assessed by comparing them to undisturbed prairie and determining the influences of age, construction and revegetation methods, and cattle grazing. With few exceptions, these disturbances had different soil and plant community characteristics than undisturbed prairie. Reclamation success was more closely related to methods of construction and revegetation and grazing pressure than to age. Greater similarity between undisturbed prairie and well sites or pipelines was related to construction methods that leave sod and topsoil intact. Revegetation by natural recovery resulted in a more diverse community than seeding either native or non-native mixes, but progress is slower on open soil disturbance than on minimal disturbance. In most cases increased grazing pressure was associated with lower reclamation success.

Introduction This poster is based on a Master of Science research proj- year period as construction and reclamation techniques ect conducted by the first author under the supervision of have evolved. the second author. The project is an investigation of soil The assessment was completed with the overall objective properties and plant community characteristics on well of determining whether or not the disturbances had re- sites and pipelines that had been constructed over a forty- covered.

123 Research Questions Site Description Do plant community and soil properties differ between The 183 km2 Rumsey Ecological Reserve and Natural reclaimed well sites or pipelines and adjacent Plains Area, located southeast of Red Deer, Alberta, contains Rough Fescue grassland? one of the largest remnants of Plains Rough Fescue (Festuca hallii (Vasey) Piper.) grassland in the world. Oil Do age and methods of well site or pipeline construction and gas development and summer cattle grazing are the and reclamation influence restoration of Plains Rough major anthropogenic disturbances. Fescue grassland?

Methods Plant community composition and ground cover were Data were statistically explored with bar charts and assessed on 53 well sites and pipelines and adjacent un- non-metric multi-dimensional scaling (NMS) ordinations. disturbed areas in July 2006. Communities consisted of Group differences were tested with multi-response 129 vascular plant species and canopy cover of live veg- permutations procedures (MRPP). etation, litter, stones, feces, club moss and bare soil. Physical and chemical properties of soil were assessed Results in the same locations as vegetation in June and July 2007. Most disturbances had different soil and plant com- Properties consisted of total organic carbon and nitro- munity properties than adjacent prairie. Construction, gen concentrations; calcium, magnesium, sodium and revegetation and grazing had more influence than age potassium cation concentrations; pH, electrical conduc- on restoration success. tivity, penetration resistance and bulk density.

Disturbance Undisturbed Prairie More disturbance colonizers (Wheat Grass, More late seral species Smooth Brome, Kentucky Bluegrass) (fescue and Porcupine Grass) More bare ground, extreme values in litter and More club moss herbaceous cover Higher cation concentrations, pH, EC, surface Higher total organic carbon bulk density and penetration resistance and nitrogen

124 Soil handling caused significant changes in plant com- to multiple species abundance values. Sites furthest apart munity and soil properties. Disturbances seeded with ag- on the diagrams are most dissimilar. ronomic or native mixes had different plant composition from undisturbed prairie. Data points (sampling sites) are Grazing may retard plant community succession and located in the following ordination diagrams according increase bare soil but increases plant species richness.

Implications for Ecological Change Preserved plant roots, seeds, asexual propagules and soil these cumulative impacts threaten wildlife, species at microorganisms allow plant communities on physically risk and the Plains Rough Fescue plant community? intact topsoil to recover in a relatively short time period. Soil manipulation exceeds a threshold beyond which recovery time is greatly increased. Recommendations The ultimate intent of seeding a mixture of native plant • Keep topsoil and sod intact. species is to accelerate restoration, but this generally has not been achieved at Rumsey in the time frames studied. • Construct during fall and winter months and Community composition of many disturbances that have minimize the size or width of soil stripping and been seeded has not moved beyond those species that excavation zones. were present in the seed mixture. • Where there are small areas of soil disturbance, Continuous grazing pressure is associated with slower allow revegetation by natural recovery while recovery. Grazing systems that incorporate effective rest preventing and controlling invasion by non-native periods are likely to improve the rate of recovery. plant species. If the pace of industrial development exceeds the pace • Incorporate rest periods during the growing season of recovery, the total area of alteration increases. Will into grazing systems.

Acknowledgements Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Agri-Environment Services Branch Alberta Sustainable Resource Development – Public Lands Canadian Natural Resources Ltd.; Trident Exploration; Husky Exploration University of Alberta Department of Renewable Resources Peggy Desserud, Melanie Wood, Darin Sherritt, Tremayne Stanton-Kennedy, Anayansi Cohen-Fernandez, Hélène Marcoux, Barry Cole, Wilbur Stewart

125 Revisiting the Nesting Ecology of Western Grebes after 40 Years of Changes at Delta Marsh, Manitoba

Nicholas La Porte and Nicola Koper Natural Resources Institute, University of Manitoba

Abstract – As one of the largest marshes on the Canadian prairies, Delta Marsh is a major nesting area for Western Grebes (Aechomophorus occidentalis) in Manitoba. Since the 1970s, artificially stabilized hydrology, the increased presence of Common Carp, and invasion by a cattail hybrid that is out- competing native vegetation have significantly impacted Delta Marsh and may have severely impacted its Western Grebe population. To evaluate the impact of stressors within Delta Marsh on Western Grebes, and to facilitate comparisons across time, in 2009 we repeated surveys originally conducted by G.L. Neuchterlein (M.S. thesis, Colorado State University, 1975) on the nesting ecology of Western Grebes at Delta Marsh in 1973 and 1974. We calculated changes in the number of nests and colonies, nesting success and loss rates, chick-to-adult ratio, and habitat structure by comparing 2009-10 data with Nuechterlein’s data. In 2009, 49% of initial nests in the two largest colonies were successful, compared to 84% in the corresponding high-water year of 1974, and chick-to-adult ratio was 0.55, compared to 0.88 in 1974. In terms of nesting losses, 47% of nests in the two largest colonies were destroyed by wave action, compared to 22% in 1973-74. The increase in the proportion of nests destroyed by wave action and the significant structural changes in marsh vegetation used for nesting suggest that the breeding success of Western Grebes at Delta Marsh may have been negatively impacted. These data will help identify and prioritize actions to improve the management and conservation of Western Grebes in Delta Marsh and similar coastal marshes.

126 Canada’s Endangered Shrubsteppe Ecosystem

William Preston

Abstract – In Canada, the Shrub-steppe Ecosystem occurs in the south Okanagan Valley from Penticton south to the International Boundary, a distance of approximately 60 kilometres, as well as in the adjacent Similkameen valley. This is the nearest to desert of anywhere in Canada and has been described as a northward extension of the Great Basin Desert of Washington, Oregon and Nevada. Due to current agricultural practices – mainly the wine industry – much of this ecosystem has been lost or badly fragmented. Another major threat is real estate development that is moving further and further into the surrounding hills. All of this has had an adverse effect on the unique wildlife of the valley, resulting in perhaps more endangered and threatened species than anywhere else in Canada. Many of these species occur nowhere else in Canada.

The shrub-steppe ecosystem in Canada extends from A few of the numerous insects and other invertebrates Penticton, B.C. south to the International Boundary, a found here are: distance of approximately 60 kilometres – a tiny part of • Ground Mantis (Litaneutria minor) Canada. This ecosystem, comprised of Antelope Bush • several species of shield-backed katydids (Purshia tridentata), Big Sage (Artemisia tridentata), and Rabbitbush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus), occurs nowhere • several species of Eleodes (Tenebrionidae) else in Canada. It is essentially a northern extension of • a mydas fly (Nemomydas pantherina) the Great Basin Desert of Washington, Idaho, eastern Most of these have only recently become endangered or Oregon and northern Nevada, and is the only desert-like threatened, since major loss and fragmentation of habitat area in Canada. due to the expanding wine industry. Others disappeared Both plant and animal species occur here that are found long before the advent of the wine industry: nowhere else in Canada. Some examples are: • Sage Grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) • desert race of the White-tailed Jackrabbit (Lepus • Burrowing Owl (Athene cunicularia) townsendii townsendii), not seen since 1980 • Pygmy Horned Lizard (Phrynosoma douglassii). (extirpated?) • Great Basin Pocket Mouse (Perognathus parvus), Agriculture and the ever-expanding human population now considered endangered probably had some bearing on their disappearance. • Pallid Bat (Antrozous pallidus) Unfortunately, Antelope Bush habitat is excellent for • Poorwill (Phalaenoptilus nuttallii) growing grapes, and the greater part of it has been taken over by vineyards. The greatest loss has been the sandy • Desert Night Snake (Hypsiglena chlorophaea), benchlands covered by Antelope Bush and Big Sage along endangered the east side of the valley. This has resulted in a great • Great Basin Gopher Snake (Pituophis catenifer many threatened and endangered species – more than deserticola), threatened anywhere else in Canada. • Western Rattlesnake (Crotalus oreganus), My purpose for this poster was to show some of the threatened habitat, what has happened to it, and a few of the inter- • Great Basin Spadefoot (Spea intermontanus) esting species making up the unique fauna. This poster • Tiger Salamander (Ambystoma mavortium), was based on my own observations, having grown up endangered in the valley, having conducted studies on the Western Rattlesnake, and from frequent visits to the area over the years.

127 Field Evidence of Nontarget and Secondary Poisoning by Strychnine and Chlorophacinone Used to Control Richardson’s Ground Squirrels in Southwest Saskatchewan

Gilbert Proulx Alpha Wildlife Research & Management Ltd.

Abstract – Richardson’s Ground Squirrels (Spermophilus richardsonii) are considered to be major pests in southwest Saskatchewan where recent population outbreaks have caused damage to grasslands, pastures and crops. Although it is known that poisons pose potential threats to wildlife, since 2008, southwest Saskatchewan farmers have used large quantities of 0.4% strychnine (an acute poison available as freshly mixed and ready-to-use baits) and chlorophacinone (an anticoagulant that causes fatal hemorrhages) to control ground squirrels. In the last two years, I have gathered field evidence that both strychnine and chlorophacinone kill ground squirrels but also a diversity of songbirds, small mammals, and predators including raptors, American Badger (Taxidea taxus), and Long-tailed Weasel (Mustela frenata). The control of Richardson’s Ground Squirrel populations and the future of all predators, including species at risk, lie in the implementation of an Integrated Pest Management Program.

Introduction In 2000-2001, the Canadian prairies experienced a severe ground squirrels. The program requires that 2% liquid drought with a warm winter and low precipitation (Liu strychnine be mixed with grain to formulate 0.4% freshly et al. 2004) that depressed plant growth (Heath et al. mixed (FM) baits. In 2008, distributors of anticoagulant 1973) and created ideal habitat conditions for Richard- (chlorophacinone) baits also offered ready-to-use (RTU) son’s ground squirrel (Spermophilus richardsonii) (Yensen oat mixtures to farmers. As a result, massive poisoning and Sherman 2003). Ground squirrel populations irrupted campaigns were conducted across private land (Fig. 1). with spring densities often exceeding 40 adults/ha (Proulx For example, in the rural municipality of Mankota (1,696 and Walsh 2007, Proulx et al. 2009). Poor grassland km² of farmland located about 150 km southeast of management, the use of inefficient rodenticides, the loss Swift Current, Saskatchewan) alone, 730 cases (12 x of predators, and socio-economic changes further exa- 250 ml bottles per case) of liquid strychnine, produc- cerbated the situation created by the drought (Proulx ing 8,760 kg of poison bait, were sold in May-June 2010). In 2007, an Emergency Registration program of 2008, compared to a total of 30 cases in the previous 10 2% liquid strychnine was granted by the Pest Manage- years (M. Sherven, Administrator, R.M. of Mankota, pers. ment Regulatory Agency of Canada and became effec- commun., 2008). tive in 2008 (Wilk and Hartley 2008) for the control of

Figure 1. Bait stations with anticoagulant-treated oats placed at the border of a cropland to control Richardson’s Ground Squirrels, southwest Saskatchewan, summer 2008.

128 Over 2,000 kg of RTU chlorophacinone-treated oats Methods were sold to farmers during the same time period (T. Ground squirrel trapping occurred in spring (5 May-1 Schultz, Edmonton Exterminators, pers. commun., 2008). June) and summer (14 June-2 July). Poison tests were Even though non-target and secondary poisoning has carried out during two test periods: spring (13 April-1 been frequently reported in the past (Howell and Wishart 1969, Hegdal and Gatz 1977, Wobeser and Blakley 1987, June, 2007-2009) and summer (14 June-2 July, 2008- James et al. 1990), federal Members of Parliament and 2009). Ground squirrels were captured in 15 x 15 x 48 cm Tomahawk live-traps (Tomahawk Live Trap, Toma- Senators argued that the 1993 strychnine ban was un- hawk, WI) baited with peanut butter on bread. Poison justified and requested that the poison be made avail- baits (hulless oats or canary seeds) were applied as per able to all farmers (Government of Canada 2001, Stand- ing Senate Committee on Agriculture and Forestry 2001). label instructions. Strychnine baits (Nu-Gro Co., Brant- Even though secondary poisoning of predators feeding ford, ON, and Maxim Co., Regina, SK) were applied at burrow systems where ground squirrel captures and re- on rodents poisoned by anticoagulants was reported in captures occurred, and in all holes with signs of activity the past (McDonald et al. 1988, Hosea 2000), RTU located within the delineated study plots. Active holes chlorophacinone baits were sold as posing no secondary were identified by flagging and shovelling dirt in all poisoning problems (Schultz 2008). openings the day before treatment, and marking re- The purpose of this paper is to opened holes on treatment day. One tablespoon of bait 1. report primary poisoning of non-target species (13-15 g) was placed as far as possible into burrow and secondary poisoning of predators in openings using a long-handled spoon. Treated holes southwest Saskatchewan, and were covered with dirt. Anticoagulant baits (13-15 g of 2. raise concerns about the negative impact of 0.7% chlorophacinone mixed with hulless oats or win- such poisoning on the survival of species at ter wheat; Nu-Gro Co., Brantford, ON) were placed in risk and predators in general. burrow openings, which were left open after treatment. A second treatment of burrow openings occurred 48 h later. Anticoagulant applications also involved bait Study Area stations with 1 kg of treated grains that were placed 40 The study was carried out in southwest Saskatchewan m apart along the perimeter of a few study plots; they (Fig. 2) in grassland plots (0.4 to 1.4 ha) with similar were refilled 48 h later. Some treatments involved the ground squirrel populations. combined use of treatment at burrow openings and bait stations. Bait rejection was monitored in all 2008 study plots 24 h after treatment. Since bait rejection was almost nil with anticoagulants, only data related to strychnine were reported here. Live trapping was initiated the day following completion of treatments, and lasted up to 15 days to capture all animals present. Dead animals found on surface were collected and autopsied.

The assessment of the potential impact of poisoning on Burrowing Owls (Athene cunicularia) was assessed with regurgitation pellets collected at three different nests located near study plots. Pellets were dated, bagged and kept frozen until analysis by Alpha Wildlife Research & Management laboratory in Sherwood Park, AB. They were soaked overnight in a mild water-bleach solution, washed through a sieve, and oven-dried at 75oC. Pellet remains were identified according to Chandler (1916) and Moore et al. (1974). Frequencies were compared to each other with Fisher and Student-t tests; comparisons of Figure 2. Location of study area in southwest means involved analysis of variance followed by Tukey Saskatchewan, Canada. test (Zar 1999).

129 Table 1. Frequency of strychnine bait rejection and non-target species found dead on surface, spring and summer 2008 and 2009. # of ground # of burrow Study squirrel burrow openings with Poison bait plot size (ha) openings treated rejected bait (%) Non-target species Spring 2008 RTU 0.4% oats 0.6 442 34 (7.7) 3 Horned Larks1, 1 Deer Mouse2 1 Horned Lark, 0.7 435 40 (9.2) 3 Chestnut-collared Longspurs3 FM 0.4% oats 1.4 440 31 (7.1) 2 Deer Mice 0.6 455 46 (10.1) 4 Deer Mice FM 0.4% 0.7 406 14 (3.5) – canary seeds 0.8 651 47 (7.2) – FM 0.2% oats 1.1 276 45 (16.3) 1 Horned Lark, 1 Common Grackle4 1.0 433 49 (11.4) 1 Horned Lark Summer 2008 RTU 0.4% oats 1.1 357 57 (19) 1 Olive-backed Pocket Mouse5 0.9 265 38 (16.7) – FM 0.4% oats 0.7 393 67 (20.6) 2 Deer Mice 0.9 307 34 (12.5) 1 Common Grackle FM 0.4% 0.7 258 15 96.2) 4 Deer Mice canary seeds 0.4 252 29 (13.0) – FM 0.2% oats 0.9 269 28 (11.6) 1 Horned Lark, 1 Deer Mouse 0.7 533 56 (11.7) – Spring 2009 RTU 0.4% oats 0.7 363 – 1 Western Meadowlark6 3.5 788 – – FM 0.4% oats 1 Vesper Sparrow7 1.1 258 – 1 Northern Harrier8, 7 Deer Mice 0.8 196 – 1 Deer Mouse 2.2 1652 – – 0.9 567 – 1 Vesper Sparrow 0.9 427 – 1 Western Meadowlark 1.2 509 – – Summer 2009 RTU 0.4% oats 0.3 144 – 4 Deer Mice 0.4 126 – – FM 0.4% oats 0.3 197 – – 0.7 208 – – 0.3 364 – 2 Deer Mice 0.5 619 – 1 Horned Lark, 4 Deer Mice 0.3 276 – 1 Deer Mouse 0.2 81 – – 1Eremophila alpestris, 2Peromyscus maniculatus, 3Calcarius ornatus, 4Quiscalus quiscula, 5Perognathus fasciatus, 6Sturnella neglecta, 7Pooecetes gramineus, 8 Circus cyaneus

130 Table 2. Average number of Richardson’s Ground Squirrels found dead on surface in fields treated with 0.4% strychnine baits and anticoagulant baits, spring and summer 2008 and 2009. Average study Average # of Richardson’s plot size – ha Ground Squirrels dead on Poison bait (n) (standard deviation) surface (SD) Spring 2008 0.4% strychnine baits (6) 0.8 (0.3) 9.3 (8.6) Anticoagulant baits (10) 0.7 (0.2) 11.7 (5.4) Summer 2008 0.4% strychnine baits (6) 0.8 (0.2) 5.8 (5.3) Anticoagulant baits (10) 0.7 (0.3) 0.9 (1.2) Spring 2009 0.4% strychnine baits (8) 1.4 (1.0) 4.6 (5.4) Anticoagulant baits (8) 0.7 (0.2) 21.1 (20.5) Summer 2009 0.4% strychnine baits (8) 0.4 (0.2) 2.0 (2.4) Anticoagulant baits (8) 0.4 (0.1) 1.9 (2.3)

Results Bait Rejection and Non-target Species Secondary Poisoning On average, strychnine bait rejection was greater in Anticoagulants: One American Badger (Taxidea taxus) summer (13.9%) than in spring (9.1%) (t = 2.275, P < and three Long-tailed Weasels (Mustela frenata) died nine 0.05; Table 1). However, non-target species found dead days after the first day of treatment with chlorophaci- on surface were frequent during both seasons, in 2008 none-treated baits, in spring 2008 and summer 2009, and 2009 (Table 1). respectively. Signs of bleeding were present at the badger den. Long-tailed Weasels captured in study plots In 2008, one White-tailed Jackrabbit (Lepus townsendii) died while under observation. Autopsies confirmed the was found dead beside a bait station filled with anticoag- presence of intestinal hemorrhages, bleeding from the ulant-treated oats. An autopsy confirmed the presence anus, and blood seeping from gums and underfoot pads. of hemorrhages in the body cavity. In 2009, two Deer Mice were found in fields treated with anticoagulants. One male weasel captured on July 6, 2009 in a poison- free pasture was radio-collared for further studies, but Number of Ground Squirrels Dead on Surface was found dead the next day with intestinal hemorrhages On average, seven (SD: 6.8) ground squirrels were found dead on surface in study plots that averaged 0.7 ha (±0.3 ha) in size (Fig. 3). The number of Richard- son’s Ground Squirrels found dying or dead on surface was significantly different (F7,56 = 4.950, P < 0.05) between seasons and years (Table 2). The highest abundance of ground squirrels found dead on surface was in study plots treated with anticoagulant baits in spring of 2008 and 2009, and strychnine baits in spring 2008 (Table 2). The least number of ground squirrels found dead on surface was in a study plot treated with anticoagulant baits in summer 2008. All study plots with numbers between those with the highest and lowest abundances of ground squirrels found dead on surface had Figure 3. Richardson’s Ground Squirrels found dead similar (P > 0.05) abundances of dead ground squirrels on surface in a study plot treated with poison baits, on surface. southwest Saskatchewan, summer 2008.

131 Table 3. Frequencies and mean volumes (%) of food items in Burrowing Owl regurgitation pellets, southwest Saskatchewan, 2008. May (n = 9) June–July (n = 19) August (n = 5) Frequency Mean volume1 Frequency Mean volume1 Frequency Mean volume1 Food item % % (SD) (%) % (SD) (%) % (SD) MAMMALIA Richardson’s Ground 3 (33.3) 32.4 (48.7) 5 (26.3) 26.2 (45.1) 1 (20.0) 14.0 (–) Squirrel Deer Mouse 5 (55.6) 34.9 (41.5) 4 (21.1) 19.6 (39.8) 1 (20.0) 18.0 (–) Western Harvest Mouse2 – – 1 (5.3) 5.3 (22.9) – – Unknown – – 5 (26.3) 26.9 (43.1) – – Total 8 (88.9) 67.3 (39.3) 15 (78.9) 69.5 (43.6) 2 (40.0) 32.0 (–)

AVES Passeriformes – – – – 1 (20) 12.0 (–) Galliformes – – 1 (5.3) 1.3 (5.7) – – ARTHROPODA Beetles and crickets 7 (77.8) 32.1 (39.8) 11 (57.9) 29.2 (41.8) 5 (100) 56.0 (41.6) VEGETATION Unknown 1 (11.1) 0.5 (1.7) 1 (5.3) 0.1 (0.2) – – 1Some pellets contained more than one food item; 2 Reithrodontomys megalotis resulting from anticoagulant poisoning. Bait stations with Discussion anticoagulant-treated oats were found along roadsides a Because farmers fail to find carcasses after poisoning, few hundred metres away from the edge of the pasture. they usually claim that non-target species poisoning is In July 2009, a juvenile Swainson’s Hawk (Buteo swain- infrequent (G. Proulx, pers. observ.). Carcass detection soni) was observed moving in a strange manner on the rates may be low due to scavenging or difficulty in find- ground, near its nest tree. Its body was found a few days ing small animals in vegetation (McKinnon et al. 2002, later but without the head and intestinal tract. Several G. Proulx, pers. observ.). Our findings are field evidence regurgitation pellets with anticoagulant-treated oats were of poisoning of non-target species by both strychnine found at the base of the tree, located a few hundred and anticoagulants. metres from fields with these baits. Many Richardson’s Ground Squirrels and other small Strychnine: One Northern Harrier (Circus cyaneus) was mammals poisoned by strychnine and anticoagulant baits found in spring 2009 in a study plot treated with 0.4% were found on surface. Small mammals are important strychnine baits. One Deer Mouse (Peromyscus mani- prey of terrestrial carnivores (Proulx et al. 2009) and culatus) was found in its stomach. An autopsy of the raptors (MacCracken et al. 1985, Schmutz and Hungle mouse revealed the presence of at least two strychnine- 1989), and secondary poisoning may be significant in treated kernels. landscapes with greater use of ground squirrel poison baits. As predators preferentially select for prey moving Burrowing owl food habits slowly and abnormally, they focus on ground squirrels, In 2008, small mammal remains in regurgitation pellets mice and voles displaying a pre-lethal anticoagulant- from three nests were similar in frequency (Fisher, P > toxicosis-induced behaviour that increases exposure and 0.05) and volume (F2,30 = 1.588, P > 0.05) from May to vulnerability to predation (Wood and Phillipson 1977, August. In May and June-July, however, small mammal Brakes and Smith 2005). This is true for Burrowing Owls, remains were found in >78% of pellets, and repre- which are considered opportunistic predators (Gleason sented, on average, > 67% of pellet volumes (Table 3). and Craig 1979, Green et al. 1993). Burrowing Owls nest- Ground squirrel remains were found in 33% and at least ing in agricultural fields may adopt a specialized diet 26% (some bone remains could not be identified with (Moulton et al. 2005) centered on an abundance of certainty) of pellets in May and June-July, respectively. poisoned ground squirrels. As MacArthur and Pianka

132 (1966) suggested, a species may specialize when prey 2001), owls may leave their protected nesting sites to availability is high and search time is low. Differential hunt in poisoned fields. The likelihood of poisoning consumption and caching of prey, decomposition rate these birds is even greater as some landowners will not of remains, and age- or sex-based differences in forag- disclose the presence of Burrowing Owls on their land ing may bias pellet collections and composition (York for fear of losing control over the management of their et al. 2002, Moulton et al. 2005). However, when one property (G. Proulx, pers. notes). Therefore, poison baits considers food consumption and pellet formation rates may be used by neighbours unaware of the nearby pre- (Marti 1973), the high frequency of Burrowing Owl sence of nesting sites. The future of Swift Foxes (Vulpes pellets with mice and ground squirrel remains from May velox) and Black-footed Ferrets (Mustela nigripes) may to July suggests multiple feedings, a necessary condition also be bleak outside the borders of Grasslands National for anticoagulants to produce mortality (Marsh 1994). Park where they have recently been re-introduced (Parks Burrowing owls may also feed on carrion (Coulombe Canada 2009a, b). 1971), and strychnine-killed ground squirrels may have In the past, attempts to control outbreaks of Richard- an impact on the health of owls (James et al. 1990). son’s Ground Squirrel populations have been ineffective Because it is difficult to find carcasses and ascertain (Proulx 2010). The control of ground squirrel popula- cause of death, proof of secondary poisoning is difficult tions, and the future of terrestrial and avian predators to assemble. The death of a badger in 2008 was based on lies in the implementation of an Integrated Pest Manage- circumstantial evidence. The deaths of weasels in 2009, ment Program involving farmers, government agencies, however, were indisputable field evidence of secondary conservation groups and professional wildlife managers poisoning by anticoagulants. The 2008 and 2009 field (Proulx 2010). This is a long-term proactive program observations raise concerns about the sustainability of where monitoring, preventive cultural practices, and var- predator populations. Nearly 30 years ago, the Long- ious control methods (mechanical, physical, biologi- tailed Weasel was considered threatened in western cal and chemical) must be strategically coordinated to Canada by COSEWIC (Proulx and Drescher 1993). maintain rodent population at acceptable density levels This status was based on Gamble’s (1982) report suggest- (Witmer and Proulx 2010). ing that population declines resulted from habitat loss and increased use of agricultural pesticides. Proulx et al. Acknowledgements (2009) collected 197 weasel scats from April to Sep- tember 2008. In 2009, Proulx et al. (2010) found only Funding for this work was provided by Advancing 33 scats in the same landscapes. Similarly, 41 American Canadian Agriculture and Agri-Food in Saskatchewan Badger scats were found in 2008 (Proulx et al. 2009) vs. (ACAAFS) (as a Collective Outcome Project with nine in 2009 (Proulx et al. 2010). This drop in the pres- ACAAF in Alberta), the Alberta Ministry of Agriculture ence of carnivore signs is worrisome and suggests that the and Rural Development (Agriculture Development Fund) intensive use of poison baits to control ground squirrels and the Saskatchewan Association of Rural Municipal- may have a severe impact on predators in southwest ities (SARM). Thank you to Neil MacKenzie, Keith Saskatchewan. MacKenzie and Kara Walsh for field assistance, and to Concern about the future of terrestrial predators in pois- Benjamin Proulx for analysis of Burrowing Owls pellets. oned landscapes extends to species at risk. Undoubtedly, I am grateful to Geoffrey Holroyd and Helen Trefry, Burrowing Owls feed on Richardson’s Ground Squirrels Canadian Wildlife Service, and Neil MacKenzie and from May to August. In spite of valuable stewardship Pauline Feldstein, Alpha Wildlife, for comments and programs (e.g., Operation Burrowing Owl, Keel et al. discussions during the preparation of this manuscript.

Literature Cited Brakes, C.R. and R.H. Smith. 2005. Exposure of non-target frenata longicauda. COSEWIC Report, Ottawa, ON. small mammals to rodenticides: short-term effects, reco- Gleason, R.L. and T.H. Craig. 1979. Food habits of burrowing very and implications for secondary poisoning. Journal of owls in southeast Idaho. Great Basin Naturalist 39: 273-276. Applied Ecology 42: 188-128. Government of Canada. 2001. House of Commons Debates Chandler, A.C. 1916. A study of the structure of feathers 137 (099), 37th Parliament, October 22, 2001, Ottawa, ON. with reference to their taxonomic significance. Zoology Green, G.A., R.E. Fitzner, R.G. Anthony and L.E. Rogers. (California) 13: 243-266. 1993. Comparative diets of burrowing owls in Oregon Coulombe, H.N. 1971. Behavior and population ecology of and Washington. Northwest Science 67: 88-93. the burrowing owl, Speotyto cunicularia, in the Imperial Heath, M.E., D.S. Metcalfe and R.F. Barnes. 1973. Forages. Valley of California. The Condor 73: 162-176. The science of grassland agriculture. Iowa State Univer- Gamble, R.L. 1982. The ecology and distribution of Mustela sity Press, Ames, IA.

133 Hegdal, P.O. and T.L. Gatz. 1977. Hazards to seed-eating Proulx, G. and R.K. Drescher. 1993. Distribution of the birds and other wildlife associated with surface strych- long-tailed weasel (Mustela frenata longicauda) in Alberta nine baiting for Richardson’s ground squirrels. Environ- as determined by questionnaires and interviews. Canadian mental Protection Agency report under Inter-agency Agree- Field-Naturalist 107: 186-191. ment EPA-IAGD4-0449, Washington, DC. Proulx, G. and K. Walsh. 2007. Effectiveness of aluminum phos- Hosea, R.C. 2000. Exposure of non-target wildlife to anti- phide, strychnine and chlorophacinone to control Richard- coagulant rodenticides in California. Proceedings, Verte- son’s ground squirrels (Spermophilus richardsonii) in spring brate Pest Conference 19: 236-244. in southern Saskatchewan. Alpha Wildlife Research & Howell, J. and W.M. Wishart. 1969. Strychnine poisoning in Management Ltd. report to Pest Management Regulatory Canada geese. Bulletin Wildlife Disease Association 5: 119. Agency, Ottawa, ON. James, P.C., J.A. Fox and T.F. Ethier. 1990. Is the operational Proulx, G., N. MacKenzie, K. MacKenzie, B. Proulx and K. use of strychnine to control ground squirrels detrimental to Stang. 2010. The Richardson’s ground squirrel (Spermoph- burrowing owls? Journal of Raptor Research 24: 120-123. ilus richardsonii) research and control program 2009-2010. Keel, M.A., J. Keith and C.S. Palaschuck. 2001. A popula- Alpha Wildlife Research & Management Ltd. report to Sask- tion decline recorded by Operating Burrowing Owl in katchewan Association of Rural Municipalities (SARM), Saskatchewan. Journal of Raptor Research 35: 371-377. Regina, SK. Liu, J., R.E. Stewart and K. Szeto. 2004. Moisture transport Proulx, G., K. Walsh, N. MacKenzie and K. MacKenzie. 2009. and other hydrometeorological features associated with Assessment of the effectiveness of Rozol®, Phostoxin®, the severe 2000/01 drought over the Western and Central Strychnine, RoCon®, and various treatments to control Canadian Prairies. American Meteorological Society 17: Richardson’s ground squirrels (Spermophilus Richardsonii) 305-319. in southern Saskatchewan, in spring and summer 2008. Alpha Wildlife Research & Management Ltd. report to MacArthur, R.H. and E.R. Pianka. 1966. On optimal use of Saskatchewan Agriculture Development Fund, Regina, SK. a patchy environment. American Naturalist 100: 603-609. Schmutz, J.K. and D.J. Hungle. 1989. Population of ferruginous MacCracken, J.G., D.W. Uresk and R.M. Hansen. 1985. and Swainson’s hawks increase in synchrony with ground Burrowing owl foods in Conata Basin, South Dakota. squirrels. Canadian Journal of Zoology 67: 2596-2601. Great Basin Naturalist 45: 287-290. Schultz, T. 2008. Rozol tips. Edmonton Exterminators Informa- Marsh, R.E. 1994. Current (1994) ground squirrel control tion Sheet provided to Mankota farmers, Mankota, SK. practices in California. Proceedings Vertebrate Pest Confer- ence 16: 61-65. Standing Senate Committee on Agriculture and Forestry. 2001. Issue 29 – Evidence, Ottawa, ON. Marti, C.D. 1973. Food consumption and pellet formation rates in four owl species. The Wilson Bulletin 85: 178-181. Wilk, C. and S. Hartley. 2008. Management of Richardson’s ground squirrel. Agriview, Saskatchewan Agriculture. McDonald, R.A., S. Harris, G. Turnbull, P. Brown and M. http://www.agriculture.gov.sk.ca/agriview_March_08_7 Fletcher. 1988. Anticoagulant rodenticide in stoats (Must- Accessed 18 February 2010. ela erminea) and weasels (Mustela nivallis) in England. Environmental Contamination 103: 17-23. Witmer, G. and G. Proulx. 2010. Rodent outbreaks in North America. Pages 253-268 in G. Singleton, S. Belmain, P. McKinnon, D.T., P. Mineau, L.D. Knopper and C. Wilk. Brown, and B. Hardy (eds.), Rodent outbreaks – ecology 2002. Strychnine poisoning of non-target species and impacts. International Rice Research Institute, Metro resulting from ground squirrels control. Unpublished Manila, Philippines. report, Saskatchewan Environment, Regina, SK. Wobeser, G.A. and B.R. Blakley. 1987. Strychnine poisoning of Moore, T.D., L.E. Spence and C.E. Dugnolle. 1974. Identifica- aquatic birds. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 23: 341-343. tion of the dorsal guard hairs of some mammals of Wyom- ing. Wyoming Game and Fish Department Bulletin No. 14. Wood, D.A. and J. Phillpson. 1977. The utilization of poison Cheyenne, WY. hoppers designed for grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) control. Biological Conservation 11: 119-127. Moulton, C.E., R.S. Brady and J.R. Belthoff. 2005. A comparison of breeding season food habits of burrowing Yensen, E. and P.W. Sherman. 2003. Ground squirrels: owls nesting in agricultural and non-agricultural habitat Spermophilus and Ammospermophilus species. Pages in Idaho. Journal of Raptor Research 39: 429-438. 211-231 in G.A. Feldhammer, B.C. Thompson, J.A. Chapman (eds.), Wild mammals of North America: biol- Parks Canada. 2009a. Black-footed ferret FAQs. ogy, management, and conservation. The Johns Hopkins http://www.pc.gc.ca/pn-np/sk/grasslands/edu/edu1/f.aspx University Press, Baltimore, MD. Accessed February 18 2010. York, M.M., D.K. Rosenberg and K. Sturm. 2002. Diet and Parks Canada 2009b. The Swift Fox – a long road home. food-niche breadth of burrowing owls (Athene cunicu- http://www.pc.gc.ca/pn-np/sk/grasslands/edu/edu1/c.aspx laria) in the Imperial Valley, California. Western North Accessed February 18 2010. American Naturalist 62: 280-287. Proulx G. 2010. Factors contributing to the outbreak of Zar, J.H. 1999. Biostatistical analysis. 4th edition, Prentice Richardson’s ground squirrel populations in the Canadian Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Prairies. 24th Vertebrate Pest Conference, Sacramento, CA.

134 Deferring Grazing Has Immediate Nesting Success Benefit

Laura Rogasky and Robert B. Emery Ducks Unlimited Canada

Abstract – Grazing is a major land-use of prairie grasslands but overgrazing can reduce range health and therefore the ability of a site to produce forage. The impact of heavy grazing on prairie wildlife, including waterfowl, is a concern. Preliminary results from research supported by Ducks Unlimited Canada (DUC) suggested that duck nesting productivity was higher in pastures that received moderate grazing pressure than in either idled or heavily grazed pastures. Using data collected during 2002- 2008 by DUC’s Spatial and Temporal Variation in Nesting Success of Prairie Ducks study (SpATS) at ninety-one 41 km2 study sites in Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba, we modelled the relationship between grazing pressure and duck nesting success to see if similar effects were evident at a broader spatial scale. SpATS is a long-term study (10 years: 2002-2011) examining how nesting success of prairie waterfowl varies in relation to landscape composition. We recorded grasslands as grazed or idled in both the previous year (Year 1) and current year of the study (Year 2). We found that duck nesting success in grasslands grazed in Year 1 and idled in Year 2 was higher (grazed-idled; 20.5%, 95% CI = 14.7 - 26.4%, n = 499 nests) than in grasslands idled in both years (idled-idled; 14.2%, 95% CI = 8.4% - 19.9%, n = 232) and in grasslands grazed in both years (grazed-grazed; 12.4%, 95% CI = 8.5 - 16.4%, n = 766). A lack of idled-grazed grasslands precluded nesting success estimates for this land-use type (n = 15 nests). As a proxy for grazing pressure, mean visual obstruction of vegetation (VOR) was 2.00 (SD = 1.50), 2.27 (SD = 1.61), and 2.59 (SD = 1.54) at nests in grazed-grazed, grazed-idled, and idled-idled grasslands, respectively. This work corroborates a link between good range management and the suste- nance of prairie wildlife populations.

135 The Effects of Hydrology on the Plant Community Structure of the Tall Grass Prairie

Ryan Sheffield and John Markham Department of Biological Sciences, University of Manitoba

Abstract – The distribution and abundance of tall grass prairie plant species shifts in both space and time. Heterogeneity also exists in the environmental factors of a prairie, such as soil water conditions, nutrient availability, fire history and soil biota. My research investigates whether the changes in the environment correspond to the differences in the plant community. Recent literature has found strong trends between grassland plant species distribution and soil water conditions. At the scale of tens of meters, we hypothesize that soil water is the dominant environmental factor controlling the spatial differences in the plant community. Water availability can limit plant growth and survival in two ways: flooding creates anaerobic soil conditions and dry soils create water limitation. The Tall Grass Prairie Preserve in Southern Manitoba is a predominantly lowland tall grass prairie and we have found water-logged conditions to be more prevalent than water limitation. Thirty permanent one m2 plots were set up at each of three different locations at the Tall Grass Prairie Preserve. Soil water content, depth of aerobic soil and depth to water table were measured weekly throughout the past two growing seasons. Vegetation assessments surveying the presence and abundance of the plant species in each plot were completed in both seasons and the maximum cover value for each species was analyzed. One analysis that provided evidence for correspondence between the plant community and the environment was for plots grouped according to vegetation data with a cluster analysis. When these groups were imposed onto the environmental data and then an ANOVA test performed, the groups created by the vegetation data also showed significant environmental differences. Analyzing the water conditions over time with a regression equation elucidates trends not found in the spatial analysis previously mentioned. Soil water conditions have proven to affect the plant community structure in the tall grass prairie and further analysis may reveal a stronger control of the environment on the vegetation in this ecosystem.

Effects of Bison and Cattle Grazing on Grassland Songbirds

Maggi Sliwinski and Nicola Koper Natural Resources Institute, University of Manitoba

Abstract – Grassland songbirds are experiencing significant declines, in part due to loss and degradation of habitat following transformation of many grasslands to agricultural lands. Grasslands were historically grazed by large, free-roaming herds of bison numbering in the millions, but bison have been largely replaced by fenced cattle. Research on grazing strategies, preferences and behaviours of bison and cattle have shown that they are different and cause disparate effects on the landscape; they may, therefore, differ in their effects on songbird abundances. We conducted songbird surveys in Grasslands National Park (GNP) in Saskatchewan to compare songbird abundance between habitat grazed by bison (West Block GNP) and habitat grazed by cattle (East Block GNP) in 2009. Site selection in both blocks was stratified across ungrazed (controls), medium and heavily grazed sites. We used generalized linear models to determine whether there was an interaction between grazer species and grazing intensity. Western Meadowlarks and Savannah Sparrows responded differently to bison grazing intensity than to cattle grazing intensity, while Baird’s Sparrow, Chestnut-collared Longspur, and Sprague’s Pipit did not. This research will be continued for at least one additional year to decrease any effect of spurious results. Cattle may be an appropriate ecological substitute for bison for managing abundance of some songbird species, but not others.

136 Diverse Diet and High Productivity Show the Adaptability of Swift Foxes in Southeastern Alberta to Changing Environments

Helen Trefry and Geoffrey L. Holroyd Environment Canada

Abstract – Swift Foxes have been successfully reintroduced into Canada over the past 30 years and appear to be increasing at Onefour in southeastern Alberta, where we have documented them depre- dating Burrowing Owl nests. Little is known about their summer diet in Canada. In 2008 and 2009 we were able to monitor activity for five Swift Fox pairs with kits in southeastern Alberta using motion- activated “Reconyx” cameras. Of five den sites located, two were re-used the following year. Each Swift Fox pair had three or four kits emerge with high survival before dispersal. Dispersal occurred quickly in mid-August when all foxes disappeared from the burrow system and did not return the following month. Females were in attendance at the den burrow full-time during the first half of the summer, and then spent less time as the kits grew and became more active. Prey were identified on the camera images and from feathers that we collected during camera changes. Reconyx cameras did not capture all food deliveries and prey items could not always be identified to species. However the prey deliveries captured reveal a diverse diet and indicates the importance of a healthy varied prairie ecosystem to conserve this fox. The diet of some pairs was predominantly ground squirrels while others ate primarily birds or Sagebrush Voles. The flexibility in prey bodes well for the success of these reintroduced predators in a changing landscape. The role of the much maligned and poisoned ground squirrel is especially important for some pairs. While no poisoning of ground squirrels occurred in our study area, the Swift Fox would be very vulnerable to secondary poisoning of this prey elsewhere.

137 PlantWatch Saskatchewan: Become a PlantWatch Volunteer and Help Track Climate Change

Deanna Trowsdale-Mutafov Nature Saskatchewan

Abstract – It is increasingly well-documented that not only is climate change occurring, but it is due primarily to greater emissions in greenhouse gases over the last few decades. Higher temperatures, extended drought periods, greater air pollution, widespread habitat changes, more forest fires and a prevalence of extreme weather provide evidence for this claim. Prairie ecosystems, as well as other ecosystems, are being impacted. PlantWatch Saskatchewan is a volunteer monitoring program that has been designed to help identify changes that are affecting our environment. This program enables citizen scientists to contribute to an understanding of how and why the natural environment is changing. PlantWatch is an active phenology program which provides baseline data to document biological responses to climate change. Since plants flower largely in response to the amount of warmth to which they are exposed, earlier flowering occurs after warmer winters, and later flowering occurs after colder winters. Because our climate is changing, winters are becoming warmer and Canadian PlantWatch data indicates that plants are blooming earlier in the spring. Analysis of this data also allows scientists to measure impacts of climate change on ecosystems, and on the plants and animals that inhabit them. The PlantWatch program not only encourages volunteers to record blooming dates for 20 indicator plant species, but also provides plant watching and climate change information to participants and to the public. The message of plant watching and climate change has been presented to many schools through a PowerPoint presentation and PlantWatch materials over the past several years. Presentations are given to schools and groups about observation and appreciation of wild plants, responsible stewardship of our environment, and climate change and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. The very popular PlantWatch Saskatchewan poster was recently printed in both official languages. It is available to all interested individuals, schools and other groups.

138 CHANGES IN THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

Benefits of Crop Conversion Programs for Prairie Species Restoration

Holly L. Hennin Department of Biology, University of Regina Ray G. Poulin Royal Saskatchewan Museum Christopher M. Somers Department of Biology, University of Regina

Abstract – Agriculture has caused the loss of more than 80% of native grasslands across North America, resulting in large-scale declines of associated animal species. As a means of restoring or maintaining grassland biodiversity, some organizations employ crop-conversion programs (converting cropland into non-native grassland) as a conservation tool. The effectiveness of these crop conversion programs and their benefits to endangered species and native biodiversity has not been adequately assessed. We compared the abundances of four taxa: raptors, small mammals, grasshoppers and fossorial mammals (e.g., ground squirrels, badgers) on three different habitat types: crop conversion (non-native grassland; N=33), native prairie (N=33) and cropland (N=33) across much of southern Saskatchewan. To determine species density and diversity we used various standardized surveying and sampling techniques. We analyzed these data using multivariate statistics paired with AIC to model which vegetative and landscape factors have the most influence on each taxa. We suggest how to improve crop conversion programs to enhance native species diversity and abundances on the prairies of North America.

139 Determining Critical Habitat for the Northern Prairie Skink: Groundtruthing a GIS Mapping Method

Pamela Rutherford and William McFadden Department of Biology, Brandon University James Duncan and Nicole Firlotte Manitoba Conservation

Abstract – In Canada, the Northern Prairie Skink (Plestiodon septentrionalis) is limited to a small area of sandy soils in southwestern Manitoba. This species was listed as endangered by COSEWIC in 2004. The primary conservation issue for the prairie skink is habitat loss, which is occurring at their primary and secondary locations (Carberry and Lauder Sandhills, respectively). As in the rest of North America, the amount of mixed grass prairie habitat has declined as a result of numerous factors: cultivation, urbanization, road construction, fire suppression and the invasion of the exotic Leafy Spurge. In Feb- ruary 2009, a Prairie Skink Recovery Team working group developed and applied a GIS protocol to delineate suitable (aka “proposed critical habitat”) and recovery habitat for the Northern Prairie Skink. Using ArcView 3.2a, the group mapped two polygons around all skink capture sites in Spruce Woods Provincial Park: 1. recovery habitat: 100 m radius circle around the capture location based on knowledge of their movement patterns, and 2. suitable habitat: all known suitable habitat, e.g., grassland, low shrub and sand, within the 100 m radius recovery habitat polygon. Recovery and suitable habitat polygons were mapped using the best available orthophotos, and current knowledge of prairie skink biology. In summer 2009, suitable habitat polygons mapped by GIS were ground-truthed in the field by walking within their perimeters while recording actual suitable habitat polygons in ArcPad on a handheld PDA. In addition, orthophotos were taken using an UAV (unmanned aerial vehicle) at one site. The degrees of overlap between the three methods were mapped and compared in ArcMap 9.3. The degree of overlap between the orthophoto and ground-truthed polygons ranged from 27 - 94% (N=12 sites). There was more overlap between the ground-truthed and UAV polygons than between the ground-truthed and orthophoto polygons (5% vs 86%).

140 How Does Petroleum Development Affect Burrowing Owl Nocturnal Spaceuse?

Corey Scobie, Troy I. Wellicome*, Erin M. Bayne and Alan Marsh Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta *Canadian Wildlife Service

Abstract – The Burrowing Owl is a federally listed endangered species that continues to decline throughout its Canadian range. The prairies have seen a steady increase in petroleum development, raising concerns about potential impacts to species at risk, such as the Burrowing Owl. Risk to Burrowing Owls from petroleum development include changes to habitat and the introduction of sensory disturbances that might alter nocturnal space-use while foraging at night. The female owls incubate and brood chicks while the male flies as far as four km from the nest to hunt prey. Some habitat features may present increased mortality risk if owls are attracted to them (e.g., roads), or other features may increase overall home-range size if they are avoided (e.g., compressor stations), thus influencing prey delivery and associated fledging rate. We predicted that owls will avoid auditory disturbances, such as compressor stations and oil wells, but will be attracted to perches from which they can hunt (gas wells) and to areas of lush vegetation (road ditches). We tracked 57 adult male Burrowing Owls in Alberta and Saskatchewan using miniature GPS data loggers. Their nests were surrounded by varying amounts of petroleum development and maintenance. Sound was measured from sound-producing structures within owl home ranges, and traffic data was collected with pneumatic-tube traffic counters from 53 roads near nests, concurrent with owl tracking. Anthropogenic features (roads, gas and oil wells, buildings, etc.) and habitat types were classified and recorded around all nests. A resource selection function was used to evaluate owl use of habitat features and areas with anthropogenic disturbances. We show whether adult male Burrowing Owls are influenced by anthropogenic features and sensory disturbance while travelling at night. In the future, we will explore how these movements may influence owl survival, nest success and fledging rate.

141 CHANGING SOCIO-ECONOMIC PRESSURES

Why do Landowners Practice Biodiversityfriendly Farming in the Central Parkland Region of Alberta?

Shawn A. Banack and Glen T. Hvenegaard University of Alberta, Augustana Campus

Abstract – The reasons why landowners engage in biodiversity-friendly practices in Alberta are either not well known or are region-specific. This study sought to understand landowner motivations, triggers and barriers associated with biodiversity-friendly farming practices, using a case study from the Central Parkland Region of Alberta. Using snowball sampling, in March 2009 we conducted in-depth semi- structured interviews (13-35 minutes each) with nine landowners engaging in biodiversity-friendly farming practices. Landowners mentioned fifteen practices; those most often mentioned were reduced tillage, direct seeding, rotational grazing, nesting projects, reduced use of pesticides and fertilizers, and crop rotation. All landowners wanted to do more for biodiversity, such as fencing wetlands and delaying hay harvests. The interviews revealed that the landowners were motivated by moral obligation, self-fulfillment, wildlife, economics, future generations, and positive reinforcement. By comparison, in other regions which offer financial incentives, landowners are more often motivated by economics. Key triggers to action included personal concern, relevant courses, mentors and economic opportunities. However, landowners faced several barriers in practicing biodiversity-friendly farming, such as financial con- straints, social isolation or lack of time. To overcome such barriers, landowners maintained self- confidence, sought positive reinforcement, gathered more information and ignored societal judgments. If governments and society want to protect more biodiversity in the Central Parkland Region of Alberta, they should address these motivations and barriers in current and future programs that target landowners. While economic gain is not a central motivator for landowners, time and money are key barriers. Thus, economic incentives (e.g., cost-sharing or tax relief) would help overcome significant barriers. Education and demonstration programs would appeal to landowners’ major motivations and allow the public to see the benefits that arise from such practices. Recognition programs can also help create positive reinforcement and self-fulfillment for landowners and overcome social barriers.

Introduction and Background Agricultural farming practices can have detrimental Past studies show that people engage in environmentally- effects on biodiversity (McLaughlin and Mineau 1995), friendly behaviour for many different reasons. Such be- reducing the potential for many benefits to society. haviour can be conceptualized through the theory of Farming in Alberta’s Central Parkland region (64,455 reasoned action (Ajzen and Fishbein 1980) which can km2) has contributed to habitat degradation and conver- be applied to farming practices in Alberta. This theory sion (e.g., tillage, wetland drainage, misuse of fertilizers states that behaviour is influenced by intention to en- and pesticides, improper grazing, crop rotation), leaving gage in that specific behaviour. In turn, that intention between 5% (van Tighem 1993) and 12% in native vege- is a function of personal attitudes and subjective norms tation (Bjorge et al. 2004). As a result, government and about the behaviour. First, attitudes are affected by one’s conservation agencies have developed programs to pro- evaluation of the outcome of a behaviour and by whether mote biodiversity on farms. Moreover, some landowners one believes that this behaviour will lead to an out- voluntarily engage in biodiversity-friendly farming prac- come (Needham and Rollins 2009). Second, subjective tices. To help agencies improve programs and increase norms are what you think other people think you should participation rates, this study sought to understand land- do, as determined by beliefs about what others feel is owners’ motivations, triggers and barriers associated with appropriate and whether or not you are motivated to biodiversity-friendly farming practices. comply with others. This relates to farming practices

142 (the behaviour) and desired outcomes (an increase in • Provide nest boxes for birds (6) biodiversity), as influenced by perceptions of what is • Increase edge cover and corridors for wildlife appropriate (e.g., economic growth, status quo, eco- habitat (5) logical integrity), what others think (e.g., what will the • Plant or maintain shelterbelts (5) neighbours think of me?), willingness to comply with • Rotate crops appropriately (5) others (e.g., should I be influenced by what my neigh- • Directly seed crops (5) bours think?), and whether one feels that an action will • Reduce or eliminate pesticides and/or lead to a certain outcome (e.g., does delayed haying really fertilizers (3) help duck nesting success?). • Graze rotationally (3) • Feed cattle away from water bodies (1) Methods • Leave brush piles on land (1) In March 2009, we used snowball sampling to conduct • Keep cattle out of pastures with nesting ducks in-depth semi-structured interviews (M = 19 min) with present (1) nine landowners that engaged in biodiversity-friendly • Prepare an environmental farm plan (1) farming practices near Camrose, Alberta, within the Cen- tral Parkland natural region. The interviews addressed All landowners wanted to participate in more of these farm characteristics and landowners’ motivations, trig- biodiversity-friendly farming practices. gers and barriers associated with biodiversity-friendly Landowners reported 40 motivations which we grouped farming practices. We recorded, transcribed and analyzed into six categories: moral obligation, self-fulfillment, interviews for common themes. wildlife, economic, future generations, and positive reinforcement. Table 1 provides a summary of these moti- Results vations with some representative quotes. The landowners’ mean age was 53 years. The mean farm Landowners reported 19 triggers that started their interest size was 731 acres (ranging from 320 to 1400 acres). in biodiversity-friendly farming. We categorized these Landowners reported biodiversity-friendly farming prac- into four categories: personal concern, courses, mentors, tices on 58 occasions, representing 14 categories. These and economic opportunities (Table 2). included (number of responses in brackets): Landowners reported 22 barriers to their biodiversity- • Maintain or improve soil health (9) friendly farming practices. We grouped these into three • Protect areas with native vegetation (7) categories: financial issues, lack of time and knowledge, • Fence off or protect riparian areas and and social issues (Table 3). wetlands (6)

Table 1. Motivations of landowners to engage in biodiversity-friendly farming practices (L1 = landowner #1; # = number of motivations reported)

Category # Representative Quotes Moral obligation 9 • “I have respect for the environment” (L3) • “Because of my religion, I feel I would be doing wrong to abuse the land” (L5) • “We take part in these practices because of this very strong desire we have to preserve this diversity” (L5) • “I try and make amends for the damage I had done” (L3) • “When I’m gone, I want to leave the landscape of the countryside in better shape than I got it in” (L8) • “You have to think about who is downstream from our activities” (L7) Self-fulfillment 8 • “But also, the greatest beneficiaries are ourselves because we see it, we participate in it, we have that good feeling.” (L5) • “It’s a feel-good thing, there is no economic advantage, it’s all intrinsic.”(L7) • “No matter how small the action we take, it has a positive effect upon nature and the personal satisfaction in the knowledge that we can have an impact upon our environment.” (L9) Table 1 continued next page….

143

Table 1. (Motivations) continued Category # Representative Quotes Wildlife 7 • “I enjoy hunting and fishing.” (L2) • “Not only do I enjoy the birds, but they also keep the pests away.” (L3) • “I’m a trapper in the winter, so over the next 50 years there can be an awful lot of muskrats trapped out of that slough!” (L4) Economic 7 • “We don’t have the high input…and equipment…costs that other people do.” (L3) • “I had neighbours around me in the drought year, averaging a tonne and a half per cutting. So they got 3 tonnes in the year off their field. I did one cutting and got 8.5 tonnes.” (L6) Future generations 5 • “The future, your kids, they’re going to need places…that can grow healthy food …and have healthy soil” (L1) • “I’m not going to be here forever and I’d like to leave it in better shape than when I found it…for future generations” (L4) Positive 4 • “A forage specialist from Alberta Agriculture said to me ‘you know, you’re doing reinforcement something that is so far ahead of the old paradigm’” (L3) • “A motivator is the implicit support of one’s family.” (L8) • “We all…desire for positive reinforcement.” (L9)

Table 2. Triggers associated with landowners’ biodiversity-friendly farming practices (L1 = landowner #1; # = number of triggers reported)

Category # Representative Quotes Personal 10 • “I was triggered, in part, by my job here. I see what people are doing right and wrong concern and what I want my place to look like.” (L8) • “Perhaps our age…we appreciate nature more so than in earlier years. It’s my observation that as you get older, you do tend to think differently.” (L9) • “I honestly don’t know how to answer that question, call it a land ethic.” (L6) Courses 3 • “We took the holistic management course.” (L3) • “Some of the things I learned when I was in University.” (L1, L8) Mentors 3 • “Love of nature was instilled in me from a very young age.”(L1) • “My dad is a real conservationist, so he’s mentored me on lots of different things.”(L8) Economic 3 • “I was in debt so deep that I knew if I didn’t make a change, I would have to sell my opportunities farm.” (L6) • “I had to start leaning out of the economic model” (L6) • “Initially, there was an economical gain.” (L3, L4)

144 Table 3. Barriers associated with biodiversity-friendly farming practices (L1 = landowner #1; # = number of barriers reported)

Category # Representative Quotes Financial issues 9 • “It does cost us to do these things. But we’re quite willing to pay those costs, to the extent we are, but there’s a limit, due to economic necessity” (L5) • “To fence a dugout or something…there’s an initial cost of posts and wire.” (L4) Time and 7 • Self-explanatory knowledge Social issues 6 • “I’ve walked into coffee shops and experienced ridicule and been laughed at.” (L3) • “When I say at the curling rink, “no, I’m not doing this”, they say “well, why wouldn’t you?” Definitely there is some social pressure…” (L8) • “My neighbours, in all directions, have every tree dozed and I mean you should see the benefits that I give them.” (L6) • “There is certainly some resistance in the neighbourhood to my farming practices, but I don’t give a damn.” (L4)

Discussion In order to increase participation rates and improve simple conservation practices without the expectation agency programs to promote biodiversity-friendly farm- of monetary compensation; however, when the farmers ing practices, it is important to note that landowners were asked to take part in more intensive practices (shrub have a variety of motivations, triggers and barriers. Thus, planting, chemical reductions), they required monetary there is no single policy approach to increase participa- compensation. This is likely similar to respondents in our tion that will be appropriate for all landowners. As a study. result, agencies will need to develop flexible and varied The most important triggers for participants in this study programs to attract landowners, overcome their barriers, related to a landowner’s personal concern. Through some and maintain their interest. process (e.g., awareness, mentor, course or event), land- In terms of motivations, the landowners in this study owners suddenly or gradually developed concern for were interested in biodiversity for many different reasons. environmental protection. These landowners then trans- By comparison, participants in the Natural Advantage lated this concern into action through biodiversity- Program of Ducks Unlimited Canada (DUC 2008) were friendly farming practices. More research is needed to motivated primarily by (using our categories) moral determine the dynamics of these triggers. obligation, wildlife and positive reinforcement. In the Participants in our study faced a few significant barriers DUC study, motivations related to self-fulfillment were to adopting such practices, the most common being rare, and motivations related to economics and future financial, logistical (time and knowledge) and social. generations were not mentioned. The Alberta Research Council (ARC 2006) reported Elsewhere, several studies concluded that money is the that the most common barriers to adopting rural con- most important motivator for conservation efforts by servation practices had to do with financial (e.g., debt, farmers (Wilson and Hart 2000, Kollmuss and Agyeman revenue) or technological considerations (e.g., unsuit- 2002, Berentsen et al. 2007, Cooper and Signorello ability to one’s operation or uncertainty about effec- 2008). However, many of these studies were conducted tiveness). Furthermore, for 15% of respondents, know- in countries where economic incentives from govern- ledge hindered their ability to engage in conservation ment were common. Participants in our study were not practices. Similarly, Rosenberg and Margerum (2008) motivated by economics. For Farmar-Bowers and Lane found time and labour to be the second most important (2009), many farmers take part in conservation efforts barrier for watershed restoration practices. Hines et al. solely out of interest without expecting any compensa- (1987) found that lack of knowledge, lack of action tion; however, financial compensation may be necessary strategies, locus of control, attitudes, lack of verbal to overcome barriers. Herzon and Mikk (2007) found that commitment, and a lack of individual sense of res- many farmers were willing to take part in low-cost, ponsibility all contribute to barriers to engaging in

145 environmentally-friendly behaviours. One of the most friendly practices more economical. Lastly, Atari et al. effective ways of promoting responsible environmental (2009) found that livestock farmers implemented con- behaviour is sharing knowledge of, and skill in, envi- servation efforts at a higher rate than that of crop farmers. ronmental action strategies (Sia et al. 1985). Where social pressure was a barrier, some of our participants ignored Conclusion those pressures or sought positive reinforcement from others whom they respect. This study sought to determine the range of motivations, These results illustrate the important role of personal triggers and barriers associated with biodiversity-friendly attitudes and subjective norms as described within the farming practices. The study did not attempt to determine theory of reasoned action (Ajzen and Fishbein 2000). which variables were most or least common; further First, personal attitudes of landowners in our study are research is needed in that regard. influenced by past experiences, mentors, courses, insights Nevertheless, some recommendations are possible. It into moral obligations, self-fulfillment and future gen- appears that moral obligations and feelings of self- erations. Such influences are represented by our land- fulfillment are important motivations for our study owners’ diverse motivations. These attitudes can shape participants. These value-based beliefs and motivations one’s feelings about the appropriateness of conserving are difficult to change and long-lasting (Needham and biodiversity. Most landowners can understand the con- Rollins 2009). For those without these motivations, nections between actions and desired outcomes. Never- education can help develop an interest and concern for theless, Kollmus and Agyeman (2002) concluded that biodiversity issues. For example, programs can dem- people often will act only in their self-interest, and some onstrate the benefits of biodiversity-friendly practices may believe that their actions will not make a differ- in order to reduce the potential knowledge and social ence in the bigger picture. This sense of apathy is critical barriers. In turn, it is possible that the values and beliefs and can be countered with sound scientific research to of the landowners may change, prompting them to feel document the biodiversity success of beneficial manage- morally obligated to eliminate the practices causing detri- ment practices. mental environmental effects and replace them with prac- Second, subjective norms also play a role in creating in- tices that are beneficial to the environment. Moreover, tentions to engage in biodiversity-friendly behaviours. these education programs could trigger landowners to For example, landowners are concerned about what engage in such practices and provide for more mentoring others think about biodiversity and about their specific relationships. farming practices. Landowners desire positive reinforce- In addition, recognition programs can positively rein- ment from their peers, management agencies, scien- force landowners’ commitment to biodiversity-friendly tists and the public. Providing this reinforcement can practices. Such positive reinforcement may help land- help increase confidence in what they do. On the other owners overcome social barriers and trigger other land- hand, landowners are aware of how they are farming owners to participate. The majority of the landowners differently and notice when their peers make negative want to do more for biodiversity; however, lack of comments about those differences. However, most land- money, time and knowledge were barriers. In the ARC owners committed to biodiversity-friendly practices have (2006) study, 32% of respondents did not adopt conserva- enough independence and conviction to maintain their tion practices due to lack of financial incentives. Programs current actions despite concern from others. offered by government and non-government agencies The results of this study and others (ARC 2006; Langpap can address these barriers by providing economic incen- 2006) show that while financial incentives are important, tives, timely and site-specific information, and support they are not the only motivator. Program organizers for their proposed practices. should recognize landowners’ other motivations in order to increase program participation. Furthermore, other Acknowledgements farm characteristics may be influential. For example, Lambert et al. (2007) found that larger farms are able We thank our respondents, as well as Sean Moore, to spread the fixed and human capital costs of conserva- Glynnis Hood, and Julie Cook for their information, tion practices over a large land base, making biodiversity- advice, and support of this project.

146 Literature Cited Ajzen, I. and M. Fishbein. 1980. Understanding Attitudes and Hines, J.M., H.R. Hungerford and A.N. Tomera. 1987. Anal- Predicting Social Behaviour. Prentice Hall, Englewood ysis and synthesis of research on responsible environ- Cliffs, NJ. mental behaviour: a meta-analysis. Journal of Environ- Alberta Research Council (ARC). 2006. Study on Identi- mental Education 18(2): 1-8. fying Rural Sociological Barriers to Adoption. Alberta Kollmuss, A. and J. Agyeman. 2002. Mind the gap: why do Research Council, Edmonton, AB. people act environmentally and what are the barriers to Atari, D.O.A., E.K. Yiridoe, S. Smale and P.N. Duinker. pro-environmental behaviour? Environmental Education 2009. What motivates farmers to participate in the Nova Research 8: 239-260. Scotia environmental farm plan program? Evidence and Lambert, D.M., P. Sullivan, R. Claassen and L. Foreman. environmental policy implications. Journal of Environ- 2007. Profiles of US farm households adopting conser- mental Management 90: 1269-1279. vation-compatible practices. Land Use Policy 24: 72-88. Berentsen, P.B.M., A. Hendriksen, W.J.M. Heijman and Langpap, C. 2006. Conservation of endangered species: can H.A. van Vlokhoven. 2007. Costs and benefits of on-farm incentives work for private landowners? Ecological Econ- nature conservation. Ecological Economics 62: 571-579. omics 57: 558-572. Bjorge, R., J. Schieck, L. George and G. Nieman. 2004. Con- McLaughlin, A. and P. Mineau. 1995. The impact of agri- servation and status of native vegetation in the Parkland cultural practices on biodiversity. Agriculture, Ecosys- natural region - Central Parkland. Pages 34-36 in G.C. tems, and Environment 55: 201-212. Trottier, E. Anderson and M. Steinhilber (eds.), Proc- Needham, M.D. and R. Rollins. 2009. Social science, con- th eedings of the 7 Prairie Conservation and Endangered servation, and protected areas theory. Pages 135-167 in Species Conference, Natural History Occasional Paper No. P. Dearden and R. Rollins (eds.), Parks and Protected 26. Provincial Museum of Alberta, Edmonton, AB. Areas in Canada: Planning and Management. 3rd ed. Cooper, J.C. and G. Signorello. 2008. Farmer premiums for Oxford University Press, Don Mills, ON. the voluntary adoption of conservation plans. Journal of Rosenberg, S. and R.D. Margerum. 2008. Landowner moti- Environmental Planning and Management 51: 1-14. vations for watershed restoration: lessons from five water- Ducks Unlimited Canada (DUC). 2008. Evaluation of the sheds. Journal of Environmental Planning and Manage- Natural Advantage Program. Ducks Unlimited Canada, ment 51: 477-496. Calgary, AB. Sia, A.P., H.R. Hungerford and A.N. Tomera. 1985. Selected Farmar-Bowers, Q. and R. Lane. 2009. Understanding farmers’ predictors of responsible environmental behaviour: an anal- strategic processes and the implications for biodiversity ysis. Journal of Environmental Education 17(2): 31-40. conservation policy. Journal of Environmental Manage- van Tighem, K. 1993. Alberta’s endangered spaces: keeping ment 90: 1135-1144. the wild in the west. Borealis 12: 1-14. Herzon, I. and M. Mikk. 2007. Farmers’ perceptions of bio- Wilson, G.A. and K. Hart. 2000. Financial imperative or diversity and their willingness to enhance it through agri- conservation concern? EU farmers’ motivations for partici- environment schemes: a comparative study from Estonia pation in voluntary agri-environmental schemes. Environ- and Finland. Journal of Nature Conservation 15: 10-25. mental Planning A 32: 2161-2185.

147 Sandstone Ranch Stewardship Credit Program Pilot Project

Dana Blouin Nature Conservancy of Canada – Alberta Region

Abstract – The Stewardship Credit Program Pilot Project is being developed by the Nature Conserv- ancy of Canada to maintain and enhance natural capital on the Foothills Fescue grasslands of the Milk River Ridge of southern Alberta. This program, modelled on similar Grassbanking initiatives in the United States, is being developed to create a new conservation tool for use on the agricultural landscapes of Alberta and Canada. The Nature Conservancy of Canada (NCC), together with the Alberta Conservation Association (ACA), the Alberta Fish and Game Association (AFGA) and the Sandstone Ranch Grazing Co-operative, currently own and manage the 4,200 acre Sandstone Ranch on the North Fork of the Milk River, approximately 75 km south of Lethbridge, Alberta. This property provides an ideal opportunity to implement a pilot project for the Stewardship Credit Program. The Sandstone Ranch Grazing Co-op members will have the opportunity to access grazing on the portion of the ranch owned by NCC, ACA and AFGA at a decreased cost by implementing beneficial management practices that will maintain and increase natural capital on their personal ranches in the vicinity. The project will enable participating ranchers to reduce their production costs and increase the quality of their beef by providing their cattle with healthy forage, while allowing the opportunity to rest their private land to increase forage production in the long-term. The pilot began in 2008 and will continue until 2011. Deliverables for this pilot project include detailed assessments of participating ranches, the development of methodology to assign value (credits) to overall ranch land and waterway health, and tools to further enhance the natural capital. A yearly monitoring program will also be developed, and all information gathered from the pilot project will be incorporated into a handbook that can be shared with other conservation and agricultural agencies across Alberta and Canada.

148 The Value of Sustainably Managed Grasslands: The Mixed Grass Prairie Habitat Stewardship Project

Kathy Murray Critical Wildife Habitat Program Peggy Westhorpe Manitoba Conservation

Abstract – Manitoba’s Critical Wildlife Habitat Program (CWHP) has a goal to identify, preserve and manage the remaining critical habitats in Manitoba, with a particular interest in native grasslands and the species they support. The Mixed Grass Prairie Grazing Project focuses on improving privately owned mixed grass prairie grasslands used as pasture for cattle. Landowners participating in this program sign a voluntary five-year grazing agreement that outlines an agreed-upon stocking rate and requires implementation of a twice-over grazing rotation on the native prairie pasture. The CWHP cost-shares the infrastructure required to create paddocks for the rotation, and offers ongoing technical support. The value of sustainable grazing on native pasture is most clearly demonstrated for producers who participate in having their cattle weighed before and after the grazing season (June 1 to October 15). Weight gains are a meaningful unit of measure for cattle producers; in many cases, measuring weight gains on grazing project pastures has prompted changes in management on other properties, as more pounds of beef equals more dollars. CWHP staff conduct vegetation inventories throughout the five-year agreement to monitor changes in habitat quality, and find that value as wildlife habitat typically improves by at least one grade level, based on the Manitoba Conservation Data Centre’s mixed grass prairie grading guidelines.

The majority of the remaining native prairie habitat in importance of setting stocking rates based on the forage Manitoba is privately owned, and is typically used as value of species present on a pasture and the long-term pasture for cattle. Consequently, it is essential to work financial and ecological benefits of a grazing schedule with cattle producers to maintain and improve healthy that complements native grass biology. prairie habitat. The Critical Wildlife Habitat Program The twice-over rotational grazing system has been (CWHP) initiated the Mixed Grass Prairie Habitat Stew- documented to enhance grassland habitats by increasing ardship project to promote conservation practices that native grass cover and reducing bare ground (Manske benefit wildlife habitat while helping to increase farm 2003). A twice-over rotation also offers the benefit of family income on native mixed grass prairie pasture- more consistent cow/calf weight gains throughout the lands in Manitoba. The project uses financial incentives growing season than a traditional season-long grazing to cover a portion of infrastructure costs, as well as strategy (Biondini and Manske 1996). As part of the extension and ongoing technical support to promote Mixed Grass Prairie Habitat Stewardship Project, cow/ sustainable grazing practices and introduce management calf producers with a minimum of one quarter section techniques that facilitate restoration of degraded prairie (160 acres, 65 ha) of mixed grass prairie pasture are habitat. To date, 55 grazing project agreements have been eligible to enter into a five-year grazing agreement signed, covering 20,600 acres of mixed grass prairie in with the CWHP. The landowner agrees to follow a twice- Manitoba. over grazing rotation in exchange for an infrastructure The most common management decisions that negatively cost-share of up to $1,250 per quarter section. Project impact native prairie pastures in Manitoba are over- staff work with landowners to set up the paddocks for stocking and grazing too early or too late in the growing the rotation and negotiate a stocking rate that allows season. Farm management decisions on stocking rates the grassland to improve from a degraded state while and grazing schedules are typically adjusted to accom- providing adequate forage for the duration of the grazing modate winter feed supplies, calving dates, or to reduce season. Light to moderate forage use is documented as labour in the farmyard. The Mixed Grass Prairie Habitat a sustainable practice compatible with maintenance or Stewardship Project strives to foster a shift in farm improvement of range condition (Biondini et al. 1998, management priorities. The project emphasizes the Holecheck et al. 1999, Papanastasis 2009). While stock-

149 ing density is typically reduced on a twice-over grazing prairies in Manitoba are Snowberry (Symphoricarpos oc- system, the grazing season is long (June 1 to October cidentalis) and Wolf Willow (Elaeagnus commutata). 15) in comparison with typical season-long grazing, Woody encroachment into grassland areas results in which often ends in September. loss of plant diversity at a local level (Lett and Knapp 2005) and reduces value for landowners as grazing land The perceived success or value of pastureland is trad- (Moss et al. 2008). Grasslands heavily encroached by itionally based on the number of cattle that can be shrubby growth also offer reduced habitat value for grass- sustained on the property for a given period of time. land dependent birds such as the Sprague’s Pipit (Envi- To help demonstrate the value of sustainable grassland ronment Canada 2008). The goal of the mowing initiative management to cattle producers, project staff provide a is to demonstrate an effective, non-chemical method for scale to weigh cattle before and after each grazing season. the long-term reduction of woody species on pasture- Examining cow and calf weights over time allows prod- land. Studies show that a single burn or removal treat- ucers to match improved pasture condition to improved ment is not effective in controlling Snowberry (Romo cattle performance. Annual records of weight gain on et al. 1993, Anderson and Bailey 1979), and control treat- pasture allows producers to calculate the total pounds ments for woody vegetation are most effective when of beef produced in a single grazing season and translate applied during the growing season (Richberg 2005). this to a dollar figure based on market value. Those who participate in the weighing program have found it The Snowberry and Wolf Willow colonies on grazing to be a meaningful measure of the income gained from project pastures are mowed twice each summer, in June a particular property and often use the information to and August. Cutting height is six to eight inches, which change management practices on other properties. removes the shrub canopy while leaving grass available for grazing and longer shrub stems to prevent injury to In addition to grazing, other habitat management pre- the feet of cattle grazing in these mowed areas. Mowed scriptions have been introduced to grazing project pastures are monitored to document changes in the vege- pastures. Prescribed burning has focused on three tative and avian communities. Control sites are also moni- grassland management priorities: litter removal in wet tored where suitable pastures are available near the meadows, non-native cool-season grass suppression, mowed sites. and suppression of woody encroachment. Landowners have been receptive to the possibility of having their The extension component of the program is focused on pastures burned, particularly in areas with limited options two annual events: a spring pasture tour in June and a for management. In pastures with a wet meadow com- three-day educational workshop in November. Dr. L. ponent, cattle typically prefer dry uplands and avoid Manske, Range Scientist at North Dakota State Univer- accumulated litter in low-lying areas. In this type of sity, participates in both events, providing information landscape, landowners find that grazing pressure is on grassland ecology, animal nutrition and the twice- more evenly distributed following a burn. Non-native over rotational grazing system. cool-season grass suppression deals primarily with The pasture tour is very popular and has been attended Kentucky Bluegrass on mixed grass prairie grazing by as many as 40 private land managers. The tour typi- project pastures. Kentucky Bluegrass offers little value cally features three grazing project stops, including sites as forage after flowering in May and June (Moore in different landscapes and a burned or mowed site if 2003) and tends to remain ungrazed, accumulating as possible. Each tour stop focuses on the landowners, litter under twice-over rotational grazing management. who typically relate the history of management on the Burning activities in late April and early May are property and their experience with twice-over rotational implemented to damage the early season growth of grazing and the Mixed Grass Prairie Habitat Steward- Kentucky Bluegrass, which helps limit the existing cover ship Project. Tour participants include landowners not and further expansion of this species. Long-term sup- currently involved in CWHP programming as well as pression of woody encroachment cannot be achieved some who have twice-over grazing systems but would with a single burn event, but aboveground stems can be like to learn more about grassland ecology. Participants killed when adequate litter is present to maintain a hot particularly enjoy the testimonials from landowners in- fire. Coupled with attention to grazing management, volved in the project and the opportunity to walk on prescribed fire has been a popular and successful tool the pastures to see the results for themselves. for restoring native species composition on prairie pastures in southwest Manitoba. The November workshop is a three-day event, offering Mowing was initiated in June 2009 on grazing project an overview of grassland ecology, native grass biology pastures degraded by invasive shrub encroachment. and an examination of the nutritional requirements of The most common invasive shrub species on mixed grass grazing animals. The workshop features presentations

150 by existing grazing project co-operators, who present tices are financially beneficial for cattle producers. The their cattle weights and relate their experience with the ongoing staff support for each project co-operator is also program. The final day of the workshop is an opportunity critical to the long-term success of the project overall; for participants to create an annual forage plan to facili- staff spend a great deal of time with co-operators to ensure tate the proper management on native pastures during a thorough understanding of, and compliance with, the the growing season. Participants leave the workshop with twice-over rotational grazing strategy. For cattle prod- a more meaningful understanding of the grazing system, ucers, the most valuable outcomes from the project are a how it works, and how it could be applied to their native reliable grazing season from June 1 to October 15 each pastures, as well as background on grassland manage- year, and better-than-average cattle weight gains from ment and how it contributes to habitat conservation. their native prairie pasture. Interviews are conducted with grazing project co-operators at the end of the five-year To achieve a widespread improvement in the quality of agreement. Most landowners indicate that after follow- native mixed grass prairie habitat in Manitoba, this proj- ing the system through several growing seasons, they ect focuses on co-operation with cattle producers. The see an improvement in the health of the pasture and weigh scale has been an important tool in demonstrating plan to continue using the twice-over rotational grazing that ecologically sustainable grassland management prac- strategy in the future.

Literature Cited Anderson, M.L. and A.W. Bailey. 1979. Effect of fire on a lands. North Dakota State University, Dickinson Research Symphoricarpos occidentalis shrub community in central Extension Center. Alberta. Canadian Journal of Botany 57: 2819-2823. http://www.grazinghandbook.com/ Accessed June 23 2010. Biondini, M.E. and L. Manske. 1996. Grazing frequency and Moore, J. 2003. Common native pasture plants of southern ecosystem processes in a northern mixed prairie, USA. Manitoba: A landowner’s guide. Critical Wildlife Habi- Ecological Applications 6: 239-256. tat Program, Manitoba Conservation, Winnipeg, MB. Biondini, M.E., B.D. Patton and P.E. Nyren. 1998. Grazing Moss, R., B. Gardiner, A. Bailey and G. Oliver (eds.). 2008. intensity and ecosystem processes in a northern mixed- A guide to integrated brush management on the western grass prairie, USA. Ecological Applications 8: 469-479. Canadian plains. Manitoba Forage Council, Brandon, MB. Environment Canada. 2008. Recovery Strategy for the Papanastasis, V.P. 2009. Restoration of degraded grazing Sprague’s Pipit (Anthus spragueii) in Canada. Species at lands through grazing management: Can it work? Rest- Risk Act Recovery Strategy Series. Environment Canada, oration Ecology 17: 441-445. Ottawa, ON. Richburg, J.A. 2005. Timing treatments to the phenology of Holechek, J.L., H. Gomez, F. Molinar and D. Galt. 1999. root carbohydrate reserves to control woody invasive Grazing studies: What we’ve learned. Rangelands 21: plants. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Massachusetts, 12-16. Amherst, MA. Lett, M.C. and A.K. Knapp. 2005. Woody plant encroach- Romo, J.T., P.L. Grilz, R.E. Redmann and E.A. Driver. ment and removal in mesic grassland: Production and 1993. Standing crop, biomass allocation patterns and composition responses of herbaceous vegetation. Amer- soil-plant water relations in Symphoricarpos occidentalis ican Midland Naturalist 153: 217-231. (Hook.) following autumn or spring burning. American Manske, L. 2003. Biologically effective management of grazing Midland Naturalist 130: 106-115.

151 Social Components of a Changing Conservation Ethic and its Consequences for Conservation Science in Canada’s National Parks

Rafael Otfinowski, Tracy Bowman and Krista Scott Parks Canada

Abstract – Conservation of natural areas requires scientific expertise as well as social and political support. In fact, local support for conservation remains weak in areas where it is regarded as detached from people’s daily needs. As an organization mandated to conserve the integrity of ecosystems, Parks Canada depends on both social and political support for the continuation of its conservation programs. Here, we explore what kind of social conservation ethic may emerge in response to changes in the Canadian population and how this might influence support for conservation science programs in our national parks. Principal changes in the Canadian population can be captured based on three emerging trends: growing urban centres, an ageing population, and increasing immigration. Using published reports, we review the urbanization of Canadian cities and discuss the projected demographic shifts in the Canadian population. We ask specifically whether increasing urbanization could result in a loss of ecological literacy among Canada’s youth, and explore changing perceptions of wilderness travel among the growing older cohort of our population. These trends are further discussed in the context of an increasing number of new Canadians, whose socio-cultural norms contribute new perspectives to our collective conservation ethic. In order to fulfill its mandate to preserve and restore the integrity of protected areas, Parks Canada must find social and political support for its conservation programs. Our discussion explores links between changing social and demographic trends and an emergent conservation ethic, an ethic that we argue is key to continued support for conservation science programs in the national parks.

152 CHANGES IN PRAIRIE HEALTH

Do Grassland Songbirds Avoid Natural Gas Wells?

Holly J. Kalyn Bogard and Stephen K. Davis* Department of Biology, University of Regina *Canadian Wildlife Service

Abstract – The quantity and quality of remaining grasslands in southwestern Saskatchewan, Canada, are threatened by expansion of natural gas development. The number of natural gas wells has nearly tripled in the past 10 years. Current management strategies do not consider the effect of natural gas development on grassland birds, as the impacts are not known. We quantified the abundance of grassland birds across a gradient of gas well densities to determine the extent to which natural gas development affects songbird abundance on native grasslands. We conducted 1250 point counts in 105 plots (256 ha) at varying distances from natural gas wells. Well density ranged from 0-16 natural gas wells per 256 ha. We considered the effects of natural gas well density, well distance, and an additive and interactive effect of well density and distance. We recorded 12 grassland songbird species, including four species of high conservation concern; Sprague’s Pipit, McCown’s Longspur, Chestnut-collared Longspur, and Baird’s Sparrow. Effects of natural gas development varied among species. Both Chestnut-collared Longspur and Baird’s Sparrow abundance was positively correlated with distance from natural gas wells in areas with high well density. Sprague’s Pipit and McCown’s Longspur abundance was not correlated with well density or distance to natural gas wells. This information will allow federal and provincial agencies to make informed decisions regarding wildlife and land-use policies associated with natural gas development on native mixed grass prairie.

153 Alberta Piping Plover Predator Exclosure and Population Monitoring Program

Lance Engley and Amanda Rezansoff Alberta Conservation Association

Abstract – The Piping Plover (Charadrius melodus) is an endangered shorebird that breeds along the Atlantic Coast, the Great Lakes and the Great Plains in Canada and the US. It nests on gravel beaches often found on waterbodies with fluctuating water levels or highly alkaline conditions. Several factors have led to rapid declines in Piping Plover populations in Alberta and across North America, including habitat damage, increased pressure from predators and human disturbance. The first Alberta Piping Plover Recovery Plan was released in 2002. Since that time, the Alberta Con- servation Association has been leading a Piping Plover program that addresses several of the recovery actions identified in the plan. The two primary objectives of the program are to reduce the number of eggs lost to predators through the application of predator exclosures, and to work with landowners and other agencies to implement stewardship activities that help to enhance Piping Plover habitat in Alberta. Predator exclosures are small metal cages that are placed over active nests. The mesh used is large enough to allow the incubating adults to pass freely in and out of the exclosure, but small enough that it prevents the primary nest predators (coyotes, foxes, gulls, crows, etc.) from being able to prey on the eggs. The hatching success of nests which are exclosed is nearly double that of nests which are not exclosed. The habitat enhancement component focuses largely on working with landowners to prevent livestock from damaging habitat and trampling nests during the breeding season. This has been accomplished through the installation of temporary or permanent fencing, off-site watering units and implementation of deferred grazing regimes. In addition, educational and cautionary signage has been erected where ATV use and other human activity is high.

154 Reducing Crested Wheatgrass Seed Production through Prescribed Burning and Timed Intensive Grazing in Grasslands National Park of Canada

Michael Fitzsimmons, Rafael Otfinowski and Adrian Sturch Parks Canada

Abstract – Exotic plant invasions pose a growing threat to the endemic diversity and function of ecosystems. In Grasslands National Park of Canada (GNP), Crested Wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum (L.) Gaertn.), a Eurasian species introduced to southwest Saskatchewan to provide spring forage for cattle, continues to invade native prairies from historically seeded areas. Invading plants alter the diversity, structure and standing biomass of prairies, and impact their use by endemic species including Plains Bison and Black-tailed Prairie Dogs. Here, we present ongoing research to restore areas of native prairie invaded by Crested Wheatgrass. Using a combination of prescribed burning and timed intensive grazing, Parks Canada has been exper- imenting with methods to reduce seeds produced by the invading plants. In 2009, a 70 ha site near Two Trees Trail in GNP was burned in April and grazed by cattle in June (1.0 AUMs/ha). Ten permanently marked belt transects 1 m by 100 m were used to assess Crested Wheatgrass seed-head production in late summer of 2008 and 2009 – five in a control area and five in the 2009 treatment area. In the absence of grazing and burning, Crested Wheatgrass seed-head production in 2009 exceeded 2008 levels by 190% to 1606%. Mean seed-head densities per transect ranged from 5.3 to 18.9 seed-heads/m2 in 2009 and from 0.6 to 5.9 seed-heads/m2 in 2008. In the treatment area, 2009 seed-head production means on transects were 11% to 22% of that observed in 2008. Mean Crested Wheatgrass seed-head densities per transect in the treatment area ranged from 0.2 to 2.1 seed-heads/m2 for 2009 (after treatment) and from 2.1 to 10.1 seed-heads/m2 for 2008 (prior to treatment). Grazing will continue inside the 2009 burn area during 2010 and 2011 in order to further diminish the seed production by Crested Wheatgrass. This initial burning and timed intensive grazing treatment will be followed up by spraying of Crested Wheatgrass and then seeding of native species. Results of our research will contribute to plans to restore other areas invaded by Crested Wheatgrass in Grasslands National Park, as well as provide valuable methods for the restoration of other areas of native prairie throughout western Canada.

155 Floristic Quality Assessment of the Manitoba Tall Grass Prairie Preserve

Katrina Hamilton Clayton H. Riddell Faculty of Earth, Environment and Resources, University of Manitoba Julie Sveinson Pelc Nature Conservancy of Canada – Manitoba Region Laura Reeves Critical Wildlife Habitat Program Cary Hamel Nature Conservancy of Canada – Manitoba Region

Abstract – One challenge facing land managers is the current lack of a standardized method of measuring the floristic quality of conservation lands. This project aims to address this by developing a floristic quality assessment system specific to the Manitoba Tall Grass Prairie Preserve. The results of this assessment will allow stakeholders to empirically evaluate site quality based on existing data, monitor changes in site quality over time, and assess the effectiveness of habitat restoration efforts. The assessment system will be based on a floristic quality index, developed by a panel of experts familiar with the preserve’s specific ecological conditions. The index is based on the concept of species conservatism; i.e., the degree of fidelity to a specific habitat type that a species exhibits. Each individual species is assigned a coefficient value between 0 and 10, which represents their fidelity to the habitat type. Non-native species are assigned a weediness value between -1 and -3, indicating their potential to compromise habitat diversity. The end result is an assessment system that evaluates the floristic quality of a site based on richness of conservative taxa and the presence of potentially noxious weeds. This project will involve the development of two separate indices for application in the upland prairie and sedge meadow habitat types. All findings will be tested against long-term vegetation data to determine the usefulness of the indices as a quantitative measure of site quality.

Invasive Species Council of Manitoba: Invasives Awareness

Cheryl Heming Invasive Species Council of Manitoba

Abstract – Invasive Species have in the past and will in the future continue to invade our prairie landscape. The Invasive Species Council of Manitoba is dedicated to maintaining a healthy bio- diverse landscape through the prevention, early detection, education and awareness of invasive alien species management.

156 Preserving the Cultural and Ecological Integrity of the Mixed Grass Prairies in Grasslands National Park

Sharon Thomson and Rafael Otfinowski Parks Canada

Abstract – The conservation of ecological integrity is a priority for Canada’s National Parks. Tradition- ally defined as the conservation of species diversity and the processes that support them, conservation goals also extend to cultural resources. People are a part of ecosystems, and in prairies throughout North America, human land use over thousands of years has left a rich cultural resource record that provides an invaluable indication of prairie productivity. Here, we present ongoing research exploring the relationship between restoring grazing to prairie landscapes and potential impacts to the cultural resources of Grasslands National Park (GNP) in Saskatchewan. Restoring grazing to GNP constitutes an effort to increase the ecological integrity of mixed grass prairies within the Park. Higher standing plant biomass, increased cover of non-native plants, and a decline in the populations of several vertebrate and invertebrate species indicate that grazing disturbance is integral to the conservation of prairie ecosystems. In a multi-scale, multi-year experiment, the Park is quantifying the impacts of grazing disturbance on the structure, function and composition of prairie communities. In addition to measuring the impact of grazing on the prairie biodiversity, the condition of cultural resources located throughout the experimental units will be similarly examined for the duration of the experiment. The twenty-six cultural sites selected for monitoring range from small lithic scatters to more extensive features, including rock cairns and tipi rings. Sites were selected at varying distances from water, roads and fencelines, in both upland and riparian areas, and were distributed among pastures representing the three classes of grazing intensity. At each location, photographs, sketches and descriptions of the condition of each artifact will serve to quantify changes in the condition of cultural resources. Cultural resource monitoring sites will be revisited over the 10-year course of the grazing experiment; two times in areas grazed at medium and low intensity, and four times in areas grazed at high intensity. Results of this experiment will help quantify the impacts of grazing on cultural sites in GNP and contribute to calculating optimal stocking rates. More importantly, this study will help incorporate the protection of cultural resources into the restoration of ecological integrity within protected areas throughout the prairies.

157 CHANGES IN PRAIRIE AND SPECIES CONSERVATION

Seed Bank Project to Conserve Manitoba’s Native Orchid Species

Doris Ames and Peggy Bainard Acheson Native Orchid Conservation Inc.

Abstract – In 2006, we began a new project to conserve native orchid species. This involves the collection of native orchid seed capsules in Manitoba for long-term storage in Canada’s national seed-bank in Saskatoon. The seed-bank’s formal name is Plant Gene Resources of Canada. Although we believe that conservation of their habitat is the best way to protect native orchids, we also know that long-term seed storage will improve our ability to respond to rapid environmental changes that may be harmful to them. Since 25% of Canada’s vascular plants are considered rare and there are many orchid species among them, we believe it is important to conserve their genetic biodiversity by storing some of their seeds in an appropriate facility. This poster illustrates some of our activities in seed collection and preparation as well as some of the procedures carried out at Plant Gene Resources of Canada to ensure survival of the orchid seeds during long-term storage.

The Manitoba Breeding Bird Atlas

Christian Artuso Bird Studies Canada

Abstract – The Manitoba Breeding Bird Atlas is a citizen-science project of many partner organizations, including Bird Studies Canada, Nature Manitoba, The Manitoba Museum, Environment Canada, Manitoba Conservation and others, to engage Manitobans in gathering essential baseline data on the distribution and abundance of all bird species breeding in the province, including special surveys for species at risk. Data will be collected from 2010 to 2014 following standardized protocols. We have a three-phase mission: (1) to increase and strengthen the pool of active volunteers in ecosystem monitoring; (2) to produce high-quality data on all species of birds throughout the province; and (3) to create a state-of-the-art living document (web-based interactive mapping tool, regularly updated and accessible to all, as well as bilingual printed editions) with multiple applications including long-term monitoring and education. This poster provides information on this ambitious project.

158 Manitoba Tall Grass Prairie Preserve: Providing Habitat for Protected and Provincially Rare Species

Christie Borkowsky Critical Wildlife Habitat Program

Abstract – The establishment of the Manitoba Tall Grass Prairie Preserve in 1989 secured some of the highest quality and largest parcels of tall grass prairie remaining in the province. Shortly after securement by either Nature Manitoba (formerly Manitoba Naturalist Society) or Manitoba Habitat Heritage Corporation, seasonal staff began inventory efforts to document the various floral and faunal species in the area. With the addition of the Nature Conservancy of Canada, the Preserve has grown in size (to nearly 5,000 hectares), as has the list of species. To date, over 900 species have been documented for the area, with eleven species protected under the federal Species at Risk Act and seven species by Manitoba’s Endangered Species Act. The Preserve provides refuge for many provincially rare species, some of which have very limited distributions.

Following two years of survey work in the late 1980s by When a parcel of land is acquired, a baseline inventory the Manitoba Naturalists Society (now Nature Manitoba), is completed to document the flora and fauna. Along a recommendation was made to establish a tall grass with confirmed identifications from other knowledge- prairie preserve in southeastern Manitoba where some able prairie enthusiasts, Preserve staff have identified: of the largest contiguous and highest quality tall grass 356 species of plants (319 native, 37 exotic), 166 species prairie remnants remained (M. Latta, pers. commun.). of birds, 6 species of reptiles, 9 species of amphibians, The Critical Wildlife Habitat Program (CWHP) was 47 species of mammals and 294 species of butterflies established in 1989 to administer the Tall Grass Prairie and moths (Critical Wildlife Habitat Program 2005). A Conservation Project. That year, the first three properties recent study of the micro-moths will likely add an add- were purchased for what is now known as the Manitoba itional 20 - 30 species to the list. Among this list of nearly Tall Grass Prairie Preserve. One of the properties was 900 species, eleven are currently listed under the federal selected due to the presence of the Western Prairie Species At Risk Act, seven are listed under Manitoba’s Fringed-orchid (Platanthera praeclara). Presently, all Endangered Species Act and many others are considered of the land that has been acquired for the Preserve is in to be rare within the province (Table 1). the western portion of the Rural Municipality of Stuartburn, about 100 km south of Winnipeg (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Distribution of the Manitoba Tall Grass Prairie Preserve lands by agency.

This map is for illustration only and may contain omissions or errors. Data Sources: Manitoba Land Initiative (orthophotos, Transportation, Towns, Wildlife Management Area); Nature Conservancy of Canada – Manitoba Regional staff; Nature Manitoba; Manitoba Habitat Heritage Corporation. Projection: NAD 83 UTM Zone 14.

Manitoba Habitat Heritage Corporation Nature Manitoba Nature Conservancy of Canada Stuartburn Wildlife Management Area

159

Protected and provincially rare species found in or near the Manitoba Tall Grass Prairie Preserve with protection status and provincial rank.

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME SARA1 ESA2 COSEWIC3 S Rank4 Plants Cooper’s Milkvetch Astragalus neglectus - (Torr. & Gray) Sheldon S1 Culver’s Root Veronicastrum virginicum - (L.) Farw. TH S1 Dwarf Huckleberry Vaccinium caespitosum - Michx. S2 Field Sedge Carex conoidea - Schkuhr ex Willd. S1 Four-flowered Yellow Loosestrife Lysimachia quadreflora - Sims S2 Great Plains Ladies’-tresses Spiranthes magnicamporum - Sheviak EN S1? Grooved Yellow Flax Linum sulcatum - Riddell S3 Northern Adder’s-tongue Ophioglossum pusillum - Raf. S1 Riddell's Goldenrod Oligoneuron riddellii - (Frank ex Riddell) Rydb. SC TH SC S2 Showy Tick-trefoil Desmodium canadense - (L.) DC. S2 Slender False Foxglove Agalinis tenuifolia - (Vahl) Raf. S2S3 Small Sundrops Oenothera perennis - L. S1S2 Small White Lady’s-slipper Cypripedium candidum - Muhl. ex Willd. EN EN EN S1 Two-flower Dwarf-dandelion Krigia biflora - (Walt.) Blake S2 Western Prairie Fringed-orchid Platanthera praeclara - Sheviak & Bowles EN EN EN S1 Western Silvery Aster Symphyotrichum sericeum - (Vent.) Nesom TH TH TH S2 Wild Crane’s-bill Geranium maculatum - L. S1 Birds Red-headed Woodpecker Melanerpes erythrocephalus - (Linnaeus) TH TH S2S3B Short-eared Owl Asio flammeus - (Pontoppidan) SC SC S3S4B Whip-poor-will Caprimulgus vociferus – Wilson TH S4S5B Willow Flycatcher Empidonax traillii - (Audubon) S2S3B Yellow Rail Coturnicops noveboracensis - (Gmelin) SC SC S3S4 Mammals Plains Pocket Gopher Geomys bursarius - (Shaw) S3 Amphibians Northern Leopard Frog Rana pipiens - Schreber SC SC S4 (Prairie population) Butterflies Dakota Skipper Hesperia dacotae - (Skinner) TH TH TH S2S3 Monarch Danaus plexippus - (Linneaus) SC SC S5 Powesheik Skipperling Oarisma powesheik - (Parker) TH TH S2 Codes: EN – Endangered; TH – Threatened; SC – Special Concern; S1 – Very Rare; S2 – Rare; S3 – Uncommon; S4 – Widespread; B – Breeding Status References: 1 Species at Risk (2009), 2 Manitoba Endangered Species Act (2010), 3 COSEWIC (2009) 4 Manitoba Conservation Data Centre (2010), NatureServe (2009)

160 The CWHP brought together government and non- partners are involved in the development of annual government organizations. The first five partners were monitoring and management plans for the Preserve. The Nature Manitoba, World Wildlife Fund, Wildlife Habitat goal of these plans is to ensure that all activities are Canada, Manitoba Habitat Heritage Corporation and effective in maintaining ecosystem viability and pro- Manitoba Conservation. In 1993 and 1994, respect- moting beneficial management practices for tall grass ively, the Nature Conservancy of Canada and Envi- prairie. ronment Canada (Canadian Wildlife Service) joined in Preserve staff complete annual monitoring projects for the efforts to protect the remaining tall grass prairie in Small White Lady’s-slippers (Cypripedium candidum), Manitoba. World Wildlife Fund and Wildlife Habitat Western Prairie Fringed-orchid and Great Plains Ladies’- Canada are no longer active in this partnership; how- tresses (Spiranthes magnicamporum). Site visits are made ever, their contributions were vital for the securement to check on other protected and rare species occurring in of habitat, early inventory work, and development of a the area. Over 35 research projects have taken place at long-term management strategy. the Preserve, and several have featured protected species In the past 20 years, the Preserve has grown from 193 such as the Powesheik Skipperling (Oarisma powesheik), ha to slightly more than 5,000 ha. Organizations that Western Prairie Fringed-orchid and Small White Lady’s- hold title to the properties that form the Preserve include slipper. Nature Manitoba, Manitoba Habitat Heritage Corporation and Nature Conservancy of Canada. Provincial Crown Acknowledgements lands within the Stuartburn Wildlife Management Area are also included in the Preserve. Since joining the Thank you to Peggy Westhorpe (Manitoba Conserva- Program in 1993, the Nature Conservancy of Canada has tion), Laura Reeves (Critical Wildlife Habitat Program) taken a leadership role in habitat securement and now and Chris Friesen (Manitoba Conservation Data Centre) holds title to a majority of the Preserve property. All for their assistance.

Literature Cited COSEWIC. 2009. Database of wildlife species assessed by Species Act. Manitoba Laws website, Government of COSEWIC. Government of Canada website. Manitoba. http://www.cosewic.gc.ca/eng/sct5/index_e.cfm http://web2.gov.mb.ca/laws/statutes/ccsm/e111e.php Accessed February 19 2010. Accessed February 19 2010. Criticial Wildlife Habitat Program. 2005. Manitoba Tall NatureServe. 2009. NatureServe Explorer: An online ency- Grass Prairie Preserve Species Checklist. Winnipeg, MB. clopedia of life [web application]. Version 7.1. Nature- Manitoba Conservation Data Centre. 2010. MBCDC Species of Serve, Arlington, VA. Conservation Concern. Manitoba Conservation website, http://www.natureserve.org/explorer Accessed February Government of Manitoba. 19 2010. http://www.gov.mb.ca/conservation/cdc/consranks.html Species at Risk. 2009. Species at Risk Public Registry. Species Accessed February 19 2010. at Risk website, Government of Canada. Manitoba Endangered Species Act. 2010. The Endangered http://www.sararegistry.gc.ca Accessed February 19 2010.

161 The Genus Allium: Conservation Status in the Canadian Prairie Provinces

Hyeok Jae Choi Korea National Arboretum; Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan

J. Hugo Cota-Sánchez Department of Biology and W. P. Fraser Herbarium (SASK), University of Saskatchewan

Abstract – A revision of the taxonomy of Allium in the Canadian Prairie Provinces (CPP) is presented based on observations of herbarium specimens and fieldwork. The focus of this study is on the rarity and conservation status of the species investigated. A key to species and a brief discussion of the taxonomic treatment along with distribution maps, illustrations, information on nomenclatural types, and ecological data are also provided. Five species are recognized: A. schoenoprasum, A. geyeri var. tenerum, A. textile, A.cernuum, and A. stellatum. In this study A. geyeri var. geyeri and A. tricoccum are excluded from the CPP’s flora. The rarity and conservation status of Allium in the CPP are as follows: 1. schoenoprasum, listed as S2 in Saskatchewan, is also rare in Manitoba but its rarity status has not been formally assessed in the province 2. geyeri var. tenerum is the rarest Allium taxon with distribution restricted to the Waterton National Park area of Alberta, and currently listed as S2. The change to rarity rank S1 is recommended; and 3. the status of A. cernuum was reassessed and is recommended as a S1S2 rare species in Saskatchewan, an assessment based on its current distribution in southwestern habitats.

Introduction Materials and Methods With over 700 species, Allium is widely distributed in This revision is based on 716 herbarium specimens of the northern hemisphere, especially in the temperate 508 collection numbers from the following herbaria: regions of Eurasia, but it is also found in the southern University of Alberta (ALTA), Agriculture and Agri-Food hemisphere in regions of Africa and Central and South Canada, Ottawa (DAO), Linnean Society of London America. Approximately one-sixth of the world’s Allium (LINN), Missouri Botanical Garden (MO), New York diversity is represented in North America; i.e., about Botanical Garden (NY), University of Saskatchewan 96 species, 12 of which are known in Canada (McNeal (SASK), and University of Manitoba (WIN). 1992, McNeal and Jacobsen 2002). There is general agree- General morphology: Observations and photographing ment regarding the number of species in the Canadian of specimens were made using a TESSOVAR Photo- Prairie Provinces (CPP); however, a formal taxonomic macrographic Zoom System with Nikon D100. treatment is lacking. Here, we have combined quantitative investigations with qualitative and specimen-based Microstructures: Plant tissues were fixed in 70% ethanol, observations of vegetative, floral and seed characters to washed twice with 0.1M phosphate buffer (pH 6.8), re- address the taxonomy of Allium in the CPP. The goals fixed in 2.5% glutaraldehyde, and dehydrated in ethanol- of this study are: acetone series. Then the tissues were critical-point dried 1. to expand the current knowledge on with Polaron E3000 Series II, mounted on stubs, and morphology and distribution; coated with gold in an ion sputter coater, Edwards S150B. The samples were observed and photographed with a 2. to address taxonomic issues, clarify the Philips 505 (1983) scanning electron microscope (SEM). identity of nomenclatural types, and provide a taxonomic treatment with new illustrations of Map of geographic distribution: Distributional maps the species; and were generated using a customized map development 3. to review the rarity and conservation status of tool especially designed and based on the open-source TM Allium in the CPP. code Google Maps API on-line development tool.

162 Results and Discussion Taxonomic Characters Macromorphological characters: Several vegetative and A. stellatum is characteristically distinguished by the morphological parts provided useful taxonomic char- prominent ridged walls. This feature is particularly acters at the specific level. Among these are the shape useful in distinguishing A. cernuum from its close rela- and development of rhizome, texture and sculpture of tive A. stellatum. The periclinal walls of the seed coat can the bulb’s outer tunica, shape and structure of leaf and be divided into three types: minutely roughened, gran- scape in cross-section, number of leaves, the growing ulate, and verrucate (Fig. 1I–P). The minutely roughened pattern of scape, bulblet development, and shape and size type is an attribute of A. stellatum (Fig. 1L, P), and the of some reproductive traits. granulate type is characteristic of A. schoenoprasum and A. textile (Fig. 1I, J, M, N). The verrucate type in Microstructures of leaf epidermis and seed testa: The the seed coat is seen in A. cernuum (Fig. 1K, O) and A. leaf epidermal cells of the Allium species investigated geyeri (Fig. 19 of Kruse 1988). Our data demonstrate are usually rectangular to linear in shape (Fig. 1A–H). that seed testa sculpture is a source of valuable traits in A. schoenoprasum exhibits only cells of the linear type Allium taxonomy as these provide key characters to (Fig. 1A, E). The cuticular cell sculpture pattern is distinguish closely related species; e.g., A. geyeri from smooth (Fig. 1B, C, F, G) or ridged (Fig. 1A, D, E, H). A. textile, and A. cernuum from A. stellatum.

Figure 1. Epidermal cells of leaf (A–H) and seed testa (I–P) in Allium of the Canadian Prairie Provinces. From the left to right: A. schoenoprasum A. textile A. cernuum A. stellatum A–D: Adaxial view E–H: Abaxial view Lc: linear cell Rc: rectangular cell Cr: ridged cuticle Rs: raised stomata Ds: depressed stomata Pw: periclinal wall Aw: anticlinal wall C: channel V: verruca

163 Taxonomic Treatment Allium L., Sp. Pl. 1: 294, 1753. TYPE: A. sativum L. (lectotype). REMARKS: In this revision of the CCP species, we reco- as the Canadian flora. In addition, we have excluded A. gnize five species, namely: A. schoenoprasum, A. geyeri tricoccum from this study because there is no substantial var. tenerum, A. textile, A. cernuum, and A. stellatum evidence of its present occurrence in Manitoba, where (Table 1). We conclude that the existing records of A. it was previously reported. Currently, only one specimen geyeri var. geyeri in the CPP are due to the misiden- of A. tricoccum (DAO 157082), collected by W.R. Leslie tification of herbarium specimens. In fact, we verified in 1923 in Morden, about 100 km southwest of Winni- the identity of these voucher specimens as A. textile. peg, exists on record (Scoggan 1957). However, Lowe Therefore, despite the fact that A. geyeri var. geyeri is (1943) does not mention A. tricoccum in his list of listed as S1 (five or fewer occurrences) in Saskatchewan Manitoba plants, and neither does Marshall (1989) in the (Harms 2003) and as S2 (6 to 20 occurrences) in Alberta Pembina Hills flora. We suspect that the only voucher (Kershaw et al. 2001), we recommend the exclusion of specimen (DAO 157082) may have come from a culti- this species from the rare list in these provinces as well vated plant (annotated by W.G. Dore in 1971).

Table 1. A comparison of the past and present Allium classification views in the Canadian Prairie Provinces (AB = Alberta, SK = Saskatchewan, MB = Manitoba, dash = not recognized, y = recognized). Taxonomic view Scoggan 1957 Moss 1959 Harms 2003 McNeal and This study Taxon (MB) (AB) (SK) Jacobsen 2002 1. A. schoenoprasum var. schoenoprasum – – – y (AB, SK, MB) y (AB, SK, MB) 2. A. schoenoprasum var. sibiricum y y y synonym of 1 synonym of 1 3. A. geyeri var. geyeri – y y y (AB, SK) – 4. A. geyeri var. tenerum – y – y (AB) y (AB) 5. A. textile y y y y (AB, SK, MB) y (AB, SK, MB) 6. A. cernuum y y y y (AB, SK) y (AB, SK) 7. A. stellatum y – y y (SK, MB) y (SK, MB) 8. A. tricoccum y – – – –

Figure 2. Geographic distribution and estimated edge (—) of Allium species in the Canadian Prairie Provinces. A: A. schoenoprasum B: A. textile C: A. cernuum D: A. geyeri var. tenerum (AB) and A. stellatum (SK and MB) AB: Alberta SK: Saskatchewan MB: Manitoba TS: Taiga Shield BS: Boreal Shield BP: Boreal Plain PR: Prairie HP: Hudson Plain MC: Mountain Cordillera WB: Water body

164

Key to the Allium Species of the Canadian Prairie Provinces 1. Leaf blades terete, with 2 rows of vascular bundles and hollow in cross-section, epidermal cells linear; scapes hollow in cross-section; tepals 10.0-15.0 mm long; ovary ellipsoid, with hood-like appendages at base; capsules ellipsoid; seeds elliptical, angular in cross-section.……………………………………………….….1. A. schoenoprasum 1. Leaf blades flat, channelled, semiterete, or V-shaped, with 1 row of vascular bundles and solid in cross-section, epidermal cells rectangular to linear; scapes solid in cross- section; tepals 3.8-8.8 mm long; ovary subglobose, without appendages or with crest- like appendage at apex; capsules cordiform; seeds oval to broadly oval, semiterete in cross-section. 2. Rhizomes obsolete, erect, 0.5-2.7 mm long; tunicas of bulbs fibrous, reticulate; outer filaments non-exserted; styles non-exserted; seeds broadly oval. 3. Leaves usually 3 or 4; umbels with 8-20 bulblets; perianth pink; ovary with crest- like appendages at apex; seed testa with verrucate periclinal cell walls………… ………………………………………………………..2. A. geyeri var. tenerum 3. Leaves usually 2; umbels without bulblets; perianth white; ovary without appendages at apex; seed testa with granulate periclinal cell walls………..3. A. textile 2. Rhizomes condensed, oblique, 2.0-7.7 mm long; tunicas of bulbs membranous, smooth; outer filaments exserted; styles exserted; seeds oval. 4. Leaf blades nearly flat in cross-section; scapes recurved at the upper parts before and after anthesis; perianth campanulate, pink to white, with greenish midveins, inner tepals ovate, 5.0-6.7 mm long, 3.0-4.3 mm wide; outer tepals oval to orbicular, subrounded at apex, 3.8-4.8 mm long, 3.1-4.2 mm wide; inner filaments exserted; seed testa with verrucate or rarely minutely roughened periclinal cell walls………………………………….………4. A. cernuum 4. Leaf blades nearly channelled to V-shaped in cross-section; scapes recurved at the upper parts before anthesis and becoming erect during flowering; perianth stellate, deep pink, with reddish midveins, inner tepals elliptical-lanceolate, 7.2-7.7 mm long, 2.3–3.5 mm wide; outer tepals elliptical, acute at apex, 6.0- 6.2 mm long, 2.8-3.0 mm wide; inner filaments non-exserted; seed testa with minutely roughened periclinal cell walls…………………………5. A. stellatum

1. Allium schoenoprasum L., Sp. Pl. 1: 301, 1753 (Fig. 3). LECTOTYPE: SIBERIA and BALTIC REGION. LINN 419.37 (LINN photo!). CPP: Wet meadows, rocky or gravelly mountain slopes, map confirms the rare status of this species as evidenced stream banks and lake shores of Alberta, Saskatchewan by the existence of few collections in Saskatchewan and and Manitoba (Fig. 2A). Manitoba, with five and four localities, respectively (Fig. 2A). To our knowledge, there is no designation record CONSERVATION STATUS: This species has been listed about this plant’s rarity status in Manitoba, and we rec- as a rare plant in Saskatchewan. It is ranked as S2 by the ommend a more thorough survey to evaluate its distrib- Saskatchewan Conservation Data Centre (SCDC 2009). ution and demography in order to accurately determine In turn, Harms (2003) includes this species in the threat- the rarity status of this species. ened category, i.e., an imperilled species that, due to its rarity, is likely to become endangered. Our distribution

165 2. Allium geyeri S. Watson var. tenerum M.E. Jones, Contr. W. Bot. 10: 28, 1902 (Fig. 4B–F). HOLOTYPE: UNITED STATES. Idaho, Washington. 15 Jul 1899. M.E. Jones 6597 (?: isotypes: MO!; NY photo!). CPP: Meadows and damp places along streams in mount- few remaining individuals below 1000), considering the ainous areas of southwesternmost Alberta (Fig. 2D). limited number (five) of herbarium collections available and the narrow distribution range (Fig. 2D). The CONSERVATION STATUS: This variety has been listed rarity of this taxon in Canada may be correlated with as S2 together with var. geyeri in Alberta (Kershaw et its being at its northernmost range limit, as it is a rela- al. 2001). Although field population studies are lacking, tively common species in the U.S. (McNeal and Jacobsen herbarium records indicate that A. geyeri var. tenerum 2002). Regardless of this distributional pattern, pro- is the rarest Allium species in the CPP. Its distribution active research such as population monitoring should is restricted to the Waterton National Park area of be implemented to protect this species in the Canadian Alberta (Fig. 2D). We recommend changing its provincial localities. rarity ranking to S1 (five or fewer occurrences, or very

3. Allium textile A. Nelson & J.F. Macbride, Bot. Gaz. 56: 470, 1913 (Fig. 5). HOLOTYPE: UNITED STATES. Missouri. Plate No. 1840 (Bot. Mag.!). CPP: Dry grasslands, hills and riversides of Alberta, Sask- or four leaves tend to develop longer perianth than those atchewan, and Manitoba (Fig. 2B). individuals with two leaves. Specimens of A. textile with more than three leaves have been misidentified as A. REMARKS: A. textile is the most widespread species of geyeri var. geyeri in various Canadian herbaria, but the the genus in the CPP (Fig. 2B). This species exhibits former is easily distinguished by its white perianth (vs. extreme variability in plant length, leaf number and pink) and absence of crest-like appendage in the ovary floral size. Although the number of leaves is generally (vs. distinct appendage), as well as longer pedicel and two, some specimens may have three or four leaves. shorter scape (Figs. 4A, 5). Our field observations indicate that individuals with three

4. Allium cernuum Roth, Arch. Bot. (Leipzig) 1: 40, 1798 (Fig. 6). NEOTYPE: (Jacobsen 1980, p. 151) CANADA. British Columbia. 2 Jul 1941. W.A. Weber 2248 (WS; isoneotype: GH, UC, MO, WTU, NY photo!). CPP: Dry hills and arid slopes of Alberta and Saskatche- population demographic numbers, suggesting that this wan (Fig. 2C). species might not be well categorized within the S1S2 rank. Harms’ (2003) vulnerable status may be more ap- CONSERVATION STATUS: A. cernuum is quite rare in propriate as this species is locally abundant. However, Saskatchewan and is listed as S1S2 by the SCDC. considering that the existence of the Meadow Lake pop- Similarly, Harms (2003) includes this species in the vul- ulation is questionable, we recommend maintaining the nerable category, i.e., a species at risk because of de- rank of this species as S1S2 until wide-ranging surveys clining numbers and typically found in 16 to 25 sites, of the Meadow Lake and the Cypress Hills populations which are reasons for special concern. Our data for the are conducted (Choi and Cota-Sánchez 2009). southwestern population are encouraging in terms of

5. Allium stellatum Ker Gawler, Bot. Mag. 38: 1576, 1813 (Fig. 7). HOLOTYPE: UNITED STATES. Missouri. Collected by Nuttall. Plate No. 1576 (Bot. Mag.!). CPP: Open plains and wooded areas of Saskatchewan and Manitoba (Fig. 2D). Its closely related species, A. cernuum, occurs allopatri- REMARKS: This species is widely distributed and rela- cally in the mountainous and boreal shield areas of west- tively common in the prairie and adjacent boreal plains ern Alberta and two isolated parts (Meadow Lake and of southeastern Saskatchewan and southern Manitoba. Cypress Hills) of Saskatchewan (Fig. 2C, D).

166 Figure 3. Alllium schoenoprasum A: Habit B: Inflorescence C: Underground structure (r = rhizome) D: Shape of leaf in cross-section (vb = vascular bundles) E: Shape of scape in cross-section (dark area = fiber) F: Tepal and filament arrangement G: Perianth H: Pistil (dark area = hood-like appendage) I: Capsule (dark area = hood-like appendage) J: Seed.

Figure 4. Alllium geyeri A: var. geyeri (from Colorado, each number of individuals represents leaf count) B–F: var. tenerum B: Habit C: Inflorescence (b = bulblet, r = bract) D: Outer tunica of bulb E: Tepal and filament arrangement F: Pistil (dark area = crest-like appendage)

167 Figure 5. Alllium textile A: Habit B: Inflorescence C: Underground structure and outer tunica of bulb D: Shape of leaf in cross-section (vb = vascular bundles) E: Shape of scape in cross-section (dark area = fiber) F: Tepal and filament arrangement G: Perianth H: Pistil I: Capsule J: Seed

Figure 6. Alllium cernuum A: Habit B: Inflorescence C: Underground structure (r = rhizome) D: Shape of leaf in cross-section (vb = vascular bundles) E: Shape of scape in cross-section (dark area = fiber) F: Tepal and filament arrangement G: Perianth H: Pistil (dark area = crest-like appendage) I: Capsule (dark area = crest-like appendage) J: Seed

168

Figure 7. Alllium stellatum A: Habit B: Inflorescence C: Underground structure (r = rhizome) D: Shape of leaf in cross-section (vb = vascular bundles) E: Shape of scape in cross-section (dark area = fiber) F: Tepal and filament arrangement G: Perianth H: Pistil (dark area = crest-like appendage) I: Capsule (dark area = crest-like appendage) J: Seed

Acknowledgements We thank V. Harms and D. Litwiller for comments on lending material for study, and to SASK personnel for early drafts of the manuscript. C. Peters and D. Peters their assistance and for facilitating the loan of material. provided assistance in the mapping process. We also This research was partially supported by the Flora of thank E. Punter for helping us to track A. triccoccum Saskatchewan Association and the Korea Research in Manitoba, the curators of ALTA, DAO, and WIN for Foundation in 2006 (Project No. C00659).

Literature Cited Choi, H.J. and J.H. Cota-Sánchez. 2009. Nodding onion Marshall, H.H. 1989. Pembina Hills flora. Morden and District (Allium cernuum), a rare plant in Saskatchewan. Blue Jay Museum, Morden, MB. 67: 249-252. McNeal, D.W. 1992. Taxonomy of North American species Harms, V.L. 2003. Checklist of the vascular plants of of Allium. Pages 195-204 in P. Hanelt, K. Hammer, and Saskatchewan and the provincially and nationally rare H. Knupffer (eds.), The Genus Allium - Taxonomic Prob- native plants of Saskatchewan. University Extension lems and Genetic Resources. Proceedings of an Internation- Press, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK. al Symposium, Gatersleben, Germany, 11–13 June 1991. Kershaw, L., J. Gould, D. Johnson and J. Lancaster. 2001. McNeal, D.W. and T.D. Jacobsen. 2002. Allium L. Pages Rare vascular plants of Alberta. The University of Alberta 224-276 in Flora of North America Editorial Committee Press and the Canadian Forest Service, Edmonton, AB. (eds.), Flora of North America North of Mexico. Vol. 26. Kruse, J. 1988. Rasterelektronenmikroskopische Untersuch- NYBG Press, New York, NY. ungen an Samen der Gattung Allium L. III. Kulturpflanze Saskatchewan Conservation Data Centre (SCDC). 2009. Vasc- 36: 355-368. ular Plant Species List. Regina, SK. Lowe, C.W. 1943. List of the flowering plants, ferns, club http://www.biodiversity.sk.ca/Docs/vasc.pdf mosses, mosses and liverworts of Manitoba. Natural Accessed July 19 2009. History Society of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB. Scoggan, H.J. 1957. Pages 206-207 in Flora of Manitoba. National Museum of Canada, Ottawa, ON.

169 Influential Variables in Ferruginous Hawk Nest Site Selection

Brad Downey and Paul Jones Alberta Conservation Association

Abstract – The Ferruginous Hawk (Buteo regalis) is a bird of the open prairies that has experienced population declines over the last 20 years. Ferruginous Hawks are considered endangered in Alberta and listed as threatened by COSEWIC in Canada. Several factors may influence nest site selection and thus impact their population, such as disturbance, number of suitable nesting sites, competition, loss of native prairie, or abundance of prey. Surveys conducted in southern Alberta in 2004 and 2005 collected information on variables within seventy-two 6.4 by 6.4 km blocks in order to determine which were the most influential on nest site selection. Poisson regression was used to analyze eight priori candidate models. These models were selected based on limiting factors identified in the report, “Status of the Ferruginous Hawk (Buteo regalis) in Alberta: update 2006”. Forage models consisting of Richardson’s Ground Squirrels (Model 1) and Richardson’s Ground Squirrels and native prairie (Model 2) had positive impacts on nesting, and were found to be the most influential models in nest site selection. The identification of forage as the most limiting factor for nest site selection by Ferruginous Hawks highlights the need for continued maintenance of native grasslands with an abundant Richardson’s Ground Squirrel component.

The Prairie & Parkland Marsh Monitoring Program

Kiel Drake Bird Studies Canada

Abstract – Efforts to protect birds and their habitats are being carried out in each country of North America, but significant gaps still exist and many bird populations continue to decline. The Prairie Habitat Joint Venture (PHJV) Implementation Plan 2007-2012 affirms that we lack the ability to set habitat conservation objectives for waterbirds, landbirds and shorebirds because of a lack of information on species distribution and habitat associations. In prairie Canada, we currently lack the ability to establish population objectives that are explicitly linked to habitat. This project seeks to link the occurrence of wetland-associated migratory birds to habitat characteristics at varying levels of spatial scale (i.e., marsh-specific to landscape-level habitat attributes), with the overall goal being to enable the development of spatially-explicit Decision Support System (DSS) models that will serve efforts to conserve and manage habitats for wetland-associated birds within the PHJV delivery area. During summer 2009, bird and habitat data were collected at over 450 marshes located within 27 study sites (AB 19, MB 5, SK 3). To date, fieldwork has been delivered by employing seasonal technicians, but we aspire to deploy a delivery model that includes efforts from volunteers who will assist with data collection. The current phase of this project is planned to continue with field-based data collection in spring and summer 2010-2012. This habitat-based study also serves as the initial step in developing a sustainable long-term monitoring program for wetland-associated birds within the PHJV area.

170 Native versus Hay: Effects of Grassland Type on Survival of Juvenile Sprague’s Pipits

Ryan J. Fisher and Stephen K. Davis* Department of Biology, University of Regina *Canadian Wildlife Service

Abstract – There is little information concerning survival during the post-fledging period (i.e., the period between leaving the nest and migration) for many avian species. Consequently, this lack of information hinders management strategies for species recovery, especially for many declining grassland songbirds. Sprague’s Pipit (Anthus spragueii), a threatened grassland songbird, prefers to breed in grazed native grasslands, but will also nest in planted hay fields. Whether differences in habitat quality between native grasslands and hay fields could lead to different survival rates of juvenile pipits remains unknown. I initiated a radio-telemetry study in 2004 to document survival of Sprague’s Pipit juveniles (n=55) in the Last Mountain Lake National Wildlife Area and Nokomis PFRA in Saskatchewan. My objectives were to describe post-fledgling survival in relation to nesting habitat (native grassland and planted hay field), date of fledging, age of the juvenile, body mass, ambient temperature and daily precipitation. Survival was highest for pipits that fledged from late broods in native grassland and lowest for individuals reared in early broods from both native grasslands and hay fields. In general, daily survival probability (DSP) of pipits in native grasslands was higher than in hay fields (DSPnative = 0.971, DSP hay = 0.857). Age of the fledgling, body mass, ambient temperature and precipitation had marginal effects on survival. Low post-fledging survival coupled with low nesting success of this species raise concerns regarding the viability of pipits in North America. My study also raises concerns regarding the demographic consequences of pipits nesting in planted hay fields.

171 Crossing the Medicine Line Network

Steve Forrest World Wildlife Fund Pat Fargey Parks Canada Brian Martin The Nature Conservancy John Carlson Bureau of Land Management Sue Michalsky Crossing the Medicine Line

Abstract – Many agencies, conservation organizations, landowners and land managers recognize the ecological importance of the Northern Great Plains ecoregion and the unique suite of natural biodiversity it supports. Spanning some 250,000 square miles, the prairies of the northern United States and southern Canada represent North America’s most expansive tract of natural grassland habitat, and as such, is the last best hope for survival for many imperilled and endemic grassland species. In recent years there has been increasing recognition of the power of the international boundary between Canada and the U.S. to shape ecosystems and determine the fate of species and natural biological communities. Considerable cooperation now exists among government agencies and conservation groups in the U.S. and Canada, and an integrated international approach is needed if we are to restore and conserve the habitats, species and ecological processes of the North American prairie. In 2006, several of the partners involved in the Northern Mixed Grass Transboundary Conservation Initiative formed the Crossing the Medicine Line Network. The goals of the Crossing the Medicine Line Network are: • To build a broader awareness and forge a deeper commitment to conserve the region’s native biodiversity through the engagement of stakeholders, clarification of conservation priorities and stakeholder interests, development of trans-boundary partnerships, and coordinated program delivery; • To develop a collaborative environment that effectively balances conservation with the needs of human communities; and, • To ensure that important conservation advances occur through the action of staff and strategic investments made by the Crossing the Medicine Line Network partners. Cooperative transboundary initiatives being implemented by Crossing the Medicine Line Network partners include, but are not limited to, regional conservation planning, invasive species management, species at risk management and recovery, grassland bird management and Pronghorn migration.

172 Small White Lady’sslipper Stewardship Summary: Information for Landowners and Managers

Chris Friesen Manitoba Conservation Data Centre Nicole Firlotte and Jason Greenall Manitoba Conservation

Abstract – Small White Lady’s-slipper (Cypripedium candidum) is a nationally and provincially endangered plant. Threats include habitat loss, shrub and invasive species encroachment, thatch accumulation and changes in soil hydrology. At many sites, the disruption of natural ecological processes makes active management necessary to maintain suitable habitat. When applied at the appropriate time, management techniques such as mowing/haying and prescribed burning can assist in mitigating threats to this species. This poster highlights efforts that the Manitoba Conservation Data Centre is making to provide information to owners and managers of lands supporting Small White Lady’s- slippers to assist them in developing appropriate management and mitigation strategies.

Recent Successes in Maximizing Piping Plover Productivity in Manitoba

Alexandra Froese and Ken De Smet Manitoba Conservation

Abstract – Piping Plover populations in Manitoba have declined from more than 130 adults in the 1980s to under 15 adult detections in recent years. Breeding habitat conditions have deteriorated due to flooding (high water levels exacerbated by high winds) and vegetation encroachment at former nesting sites on Lake Manitoba and Lake Winnipeg. Other threats to nesting plovers in Manitoba include human disturbance (pedestrian and ATV traffic). The National Recovery plan has specific objectives for each province. Prairie population criteria requires each province to maintain a median chick fledging rate of greater than 1.25 chicks/pair/year to achieve minimum provincial population targets. In Manitoba, the targeted population level is 120 plovers, a level that equates to known populations from the mid-1980s. Due to sharp declines throughout Manitoba, a Piping Plover Recovery Implementation Group (PPRIG) and Piping Plover Stewardship Program (PPSP) were formed in 2002. These groups strive to protect the provincial adult Piping Plover population and maximize plover productivity in Manitoba. Specific tasks overseen by these groups include: a) monitoring and research; b) habitat management and protection; c) productivity enhancement; and d) increased communication and public/volunteer participation. In recent years, Manitoba’s Piping Plover productivity has increased substantially, with four of the last five years surpassing the national fledgling rate goal. Other highlights include increased chick survival rates and nesting activity at restored habitat sites, and increased volunteer involvement. Ongoing evaluation of project objectives by both PPRIG and PPSP has positively contributed to project improvements and increased success in meeting productivity targets for Piping Plovers in Manitoba.

173 Is Livestock Production for the Birds? Grassland Songbird Conservation through Grazing Management

Allison E. Henderson and Stephen K. Davis* School of Environment and Sustainability, University of Saskatchewan *Canadian Wildlife Service

Abstract – In Saskatchewan, remaining native prairie supports livestock production and provides important habitat for many grassland songbirds, including those listed under the Species at Risk Act, such as Sprague’s Pipit (Anthus spragueii) and McCown’s Longspur (Calcarius mccownii). Native prairie management, in particular grazing management, plays an important role in securing grassland songbird habitat and preventing its further loss and degradation. In our research, we examine how the grazing management decisions that livestock producers make influence grassland songbird habitat and abundance. Our goals are 1. to identify socioeconomic and ecological factors that influence grazing management decisions; 2. to examine ecological relationships between rangeland health and songbird abundance; and, 3. to identify options for engaging livestock producers in songbird recovery and conservation. We use vegetation measures to assign indices of range health, point count surveys to estimate grassland songbird abundance, and personal face-to-face interviews to gather information from livestock producers. Our research will provide insight into how livestock producers contribute to grassland songbird recovery in southwestern Saskatchewan through their grazing management decisions.

174 Annual Dispersal and Implications for Conservation of Burrowing Owls in Canada

Geoffrey L. Holroyd Environment Canada Jason Duxbury Stantec Consulting Helen Trefry Environment Canada

Abstract – In Canada, the western Burrowing Owl (Athene cunicularia hypugaea) is endangered and its numbers are reduced to fewer than 1000 pairs in Canada. The number of breeding pairs declined at about 22% per year through the 1990s even though over 700 landowners voluntarily protected over 37,000 hectares of grassland habitat. Burrowing Owl populations are also in decline in other parts of western North America. One of the factors implicated in the Burrowing Owl’s decline is its apparent low recruitment. Return rates for banded birds are about 6% for hatch-year owls and 30% for breeding owls. However, banding studies are limited by the ability of observers to detect bands away from study sites. Stable-isotope analysis provides a technique to investigate annual dispersal. We compared the stable-isotope signature of feathers collected from breeding adults to those collected from nestlings across western North America. Annual breeding dispersal distance for owls was approximately 400 km, indicating that many owls were dispersing beyond the boundaries of study areas where owls were banded. Our comparison of the origin of owls breeding in the Canadian Great Plains with those in adjacent northern states indicated that net emigration of owls from Canada approximates the decline of the Canadian population. High rates of dispersal may be an evolutionary response to dynamic prairie ecology, or to the advent of irrigated agriculture as postulated by U.S. researchers. The implications of these findings on Burrowing Owl conservation is discussed. We also recommend implementation of the Commission for Environmental Cooperation’s Conservation Action Plan for the Burrowing Owl through future of cooperation of agencies in Mexico, U.S. and Canada.

175 Winter Destinations and Ecology of ‘Canadian’ Burrowing Owls in a Changing Landscape

Geoffrey L. Holroyd and Helen Trefry Environment Canada Héctor E. Valdez-Gómez Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León Jason Duxbury Stantec Consulting

Abstract – The winter destination and ecology of Burrowing Owls (Athene cunicularia) that breed in Canada was unknown when this study was initiated. We identified the winter locations of owls using three methods: 1) aerial telemetry searches of south Texas and the Gulf Coast lowlands and central Mexico for signals from VHF transmitters that were attached to Burrowing Owls in Canada; 2) stable isotope analysis; and 3) light data loggers. We have combined these records with all band recoveries to provide an up-to-date picture of what is known about winter distribution of ‘Canadian’ Burrowing Owls. We studied the over-winter survival, diet and habitat of the owls in one study area in south Texas, and two in central Mexico. The winter daytime roosts used by the owls included vegetation, natural burrows, arroyos and wood piles. Winter habitats around roosts were also highly variable; they were much less open than breeding habitat in Canada, but always included at least 35% low vegetation within 1 km of roosts. In the winter, predators included Barn Owls and Short-Eared Owls; one owl died due to earth-moving equipment. The return rate of owls with attached data loggers was very low but the one that was recovered indicated that Alberta nesting owls may migrate further west than owls from Saskatchewan and Manitoba.

176 Habitat Loss and the Conservation of Burrowing Owls in Canada

Geoffrey L. Holroyd and Helen E. Trefry Environment Canada

Abstract – Early agricultural settlement policies in Canada resulted in the cultivation of about 80% of the uplands of the Canadian portion of the Great Plains. Burrowing Owl (Athene cunicularia) numbers in Canada have continued to decline despite the reduction in the rate of cultivation of upland prairie. In the 1990s the Burrowing Owl population in Canada declined at about 22% per year. Canadian wildlife conservation policies and legislation cover the classification of species at risk, formation of recovery teams, protection of critical habitat and a habitat stewardship program. A focus of these programs is to conserve habitat. Since Burrowing Owl populations have declined faster than habitat loss, habitat loss cannot be the sole cause of the decline. More collaboration is needed between Canada, U.S. and Mexico to determine the cause(s) of the decline and to implement appropriate conservation actions.

Introduction The recovery of endangered species is a high profile without habitat, populations decline and ultimately species subject in public policy. Specific national and provin- are at risk of extinction. However, habitat loss is only cial or state laws have been passed to protect and re- one cause, as many other factors can cause declines, such cover species at risk in Canada and the U.S. The U.S. as over-exploitation, toxic chemicals, exotic species, pre- Endangered Species Act (1973) contains very strong dation, etc. (see Erlich and Erlich 1981). penalties and has been very controversial (Smith and We will explore the history of public agricultural poli- Smith 1997). Canada did not have a national act to con- cies in Canada as they have affected Burrowing Owl serve endangered species until June 2003. Conservation habitat and, together with information on Burrowing of species at risk in Canada has evolved over the past 30 Owl declines, demonstrate that habitat loss is not the cur- years without formal direction from the Canadian parlia- rent cause of the decline. We will also review Canada’s ment. Canada’s species at risk program was developed Species at Risk Act to determine its possible effects on through agreements of wildlife directors under the Burrowing Owl conservation. Canada Wildlife Act (CWA). The CWA is enabling legislation with no mandatory actions to initiate, and no Agricultural Policies and Land Use direct funding for species at risk conservation. The conservation of species at risk in Canada has been based on Past agricultural policies had a major effect on land cooperative agreements. use in prairie Canada and, consequently, on Burrowing Owl habitat. In the late 1800s, Canada needed to assert The Burrowing Owl is a species at risk over much of its its sovereignty on the Canadian prairies north of the range in western North America (Holroyd et al. 2001). 49th parallel (Reimer 2003). Settlers were offered 160 The Burrowing Owl has been in decline in Canada for acres of deeded land free if they would cultivate the over 30 years (Wedgewood 1978), and likely since ag- land and build a residence. At about the same time, the riculture and European settlement began. Historically, Canadian National Railway was completed from coast Burrowing Owls nested in Canada on the northern Great to coast to appease western Canadians who felt isolated Plains and in the southern valleys of British Columbia from the political power in eastern Canada. Despite the (Wedgewood 1978). Both of these regions are intensively completion of the railway and the offer of free land, the used by agriculture, industry and urbanization, and habi- Canadian prairies did not have the expected influx of tat loss has been listed as a cause of this species’ decline settlers. The new railroad needed business to be finan- in Canada (Wellicome and Haug 1995). These regions cially viable, therefore the federal Crow’s Nest Pass Act are also at the northern edge of the Burrowing Owl range. was created in 1897 to subsidize the freight of grain from In Canada, the Burrowing Owl was classified as threat- the prairies to eastern markets. Settlers were attracted ened in 1978 (Wedgewood 1978) and then endangered by this subsidy, travelled to the prairies and began to in 1995 (Wellicome and Haug 1995). break the prairie land. For the next 100 years, farmers Habitat loss has been considered a primary cause of en- paid only a portion of freight costs to send grain east. dangerment of wildlife in Canada and elsewhere (Kerr Federal legislation stated that homestead rights were and Cihlar 2004, Ehrlich and Ehrlich 1981). The rationale revoked if land was allowed to go wild. Thus, cultiva- is simple: wildlife need habitat to survive and reproduce; tion of grassland was mandatory for the homesteader

177 to gain a deed to the land. “Grain production received in- Species At Risk (see below) have allowed the two org- creased government support until the early 1990s while anizations running these programs to hire additional the livestock sector was essentially unsubsidized” (Reimer staff, increase personal contacts with landowners, and 2003). Thus no incentives were given to landowners to recruit new members. New members are typically re- maintain native grassland for grazing. cruited only if they have owls. Consequently, the number of owls has increased slightly since 2001 (OBO and Due to these policies of initial settlement and agricultural OGC, unpubl. data). subsidies, the area of cultivated land in the Canadian prairies increased to over 10 million hectares by 1920, Researchers in Manitoba tracked the decline of Burrow- and 30 million hectares by 2001 (Reimer 2003). Addi- ing Owls in that province from 76 pairs in 1982 to none tional grasslands were cultivated as the area of forage in 2004 (De Smet 1997). As the species disappeared in crops increased to feed the growing population of cattle. the late 1990s, increased researcher effort failed to locate By 1989, less than 20% of the Canadian prairies were any additional pairs and releases of owls failed to reverse still uncultivated (WWFC 1989). With over 80% of the the trend. It was considered an apparently extirpated upland cultivated, many grassland species were in decline species in that province. Since 2005, Burrowing Owls across the prairies. The North American Waterfowl Man- have been found nesting in the southwestern corner of agement Plan was created due to concern over declin- Manitoba, giving some hope that the species will con- ing waterfowl populations in the 1980s, when 45% of tinue to nest there (K. De Smet, pers. commun.). wetlands had been drained and cultivated, but no plan or policy was in place to conserve the remaining 20% of In British Columbia, the species was declared extir- upland prairie. pated when the first national status report was completed (Wedgewood 1978). A reintroduction program in the Decline of Burrowing Owls in Canada Okanagan Valley of southern BC was discontinued after about 10 years with no success (Dyer 1991). A more Although no historical information on the distribution recent ongoing effort to captive-breed and reintroduce and abundance of Burrowing Owls prior to European Burrowing Owls near Kamloops has met with small suc- settlement is available, the grasslands north to Saskatoon cesses but the population is apparently not self-sustain- and Edmonton comprised the historic range of Burrowing ing (Leupin and Low 2001, unpubl. updates). Owls (Wedgewood 1978), and are at the northern limit of the Great Plains. The cultivation of 80% of the upland Burrowing Owls have been monitored and studied since would have resulted in a dramatic loss of native habitat 1987 in a large study area in the Regina Plain in Sask- for this prairie owl. atchewan by a series of researchers (James et al. 1991, Wellicome 2000, Todd et al. 2003). The number of owls Currently, Burrowing Owls occur in Canada at very low in the original study area declined from 78 pairs in 1987 densities. In Alberta, only two have been recorded ann- to none in 2001. The size of the study area was increased ually on 35 Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) routes, and in twice to increase the sample size for studies where a Saskatchewan, only one on 41 BBS routes between 1968 continued decline was observed. A few pairs have been and 2006. Thus BBS is not a valid technique to monitor recorded in this original study area since 2001 (R. Poulin, Burrowing Owl populations in Canada. pers. commun.). For almost two decades, Burrowing Owls have been Since the early 1990s in Alberta, Burrowing Owls have monitored through public activities and research projects been monitored in two regions using a standardized point in Canada. The two public extension programs, Nature count and playback technique (Shyry et al. 2001). In the Saskatachewan’s Operation Burrowing Owl and Oper- Hanna trend blocks, the number of owl pairs per 100 ation Grassland Community (OGC) of the Alberta Fish km2 declined from 32.6 in 1991 to a low of 2.8 in 1997, and Game Association, were started in 1987 and 1989, with 4.1 in 2000. In the more southerly Brooks trend respectively. In Saskatchewan, the number of owls esti- blocks, the number of owls varied initially between 1.9 mated by OBO members increased to 1100 pairs of owls and 13.5 per 100 km2 in 1993 and 1997, respectively, in the first two years of the program as the number of then declined to 8.7 nests per 100 km2 in 2000 (Shyry et member landowners increased. Then, despite a period al. 2001), and have continued to decline since (A. Todd, of growing membership followed by relatively stable unpubl. data). These standardized surveys reflected the membership at about 550, the number of reported owls same declining trend reported by studies of Burrowing declined dramatically to 53 pairs in 2001 (Skeel et al. Owls in the Hanna area by Schmutz (1997). 2001, unpubl. data). The OGC program showed the same trends in Alberta, with 240 pairs in 1991, declining to All of the above surveys have been in native grasslands 23 pairs in 2001 (unpubl. data). Recent increases in fund- where owls primarily use badger holes to nest. Canada’s ing from the federal Habitat Stewardship Program for only colonies of Black-tailed Prairie Dogs occur in and

178 adjacent to Grasslands National Park (GNP) in Sask- chewan that found rates of grassland loss of 5.7 and 6.2%. atchewan. Another monitoring program in Canada con- These declines were documented on private cultivated sists of complete counts of Burrowing Owls in most of lands that were on prime agricultural soils and suitable these prairie dog colonies. The number of pairs of owls Burrowing Owl habitat. The rate of habitat loss likely fluctuated between 11 and 30 during the period 1998- lies between the extremes of 0.6-0.8% and 5.7-6.2% 2000, then increased for 4 years to 58 pairs in 2005, but per year, but far less than the population decline of 22% have declined since then (unpubl. data). per year. Therefore, overall, the decline of Burrowing Owls is much greater than the rate of loss of native The average rate of decline of Burrowing Owls in Canada prairie, and the rate of habitat loss alone cannot explain in the 1990s was about 22% per year, not including the the severe decline of Burrowing Owls in Canada. Brooks trend blocks and GNP area (Holroyd et al. 2001). Consequently, the Burrowing Owl was classified as endangered in Canada in 1995 (Wellicome and Haug 1995). Legal Status of the Burrowing Owl in Canada But was this decline due to habitat loss? We will in- Canada’s Migratory Bird Convention Act (1917) was en- spect habitat changes in Canada for evidence that habitat acted to protect and conserve migratory birds in Canada. loss should not be used to explain current Burrowing However, the 1916 Canada-U.S. Migratory Bird Con- Owl declines. vention does not include raptors; consequently, neither does the 1917 Canadian federal act. Thus other wild- Habitat Loss as the Cause of Burrowing Owl life, including raptors, are managed and protected by provincial wildlife legislation. In Canada, Burrowing Decline Owl management is the responsibility of the provincial Habitat loss and fragmentation is often cited as the reason governments where they occur: British Columbia, Al- for the decline of endangered species, both globally berta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba. The Burrowing Owl and locally (Ehrlich and Ehrlich 1981, H.R.H. Prince is protected on federal lands such as National Parks and Philip 1988). Over 80% of Canada’s native grasslands National Wildlife Areas. However, most owls nest on are cultivated and, as burrows are rare in cultivated fields, private and provincial public lands where the birds and cropland is rarely used for nest sites by Burrowing Owls burrows are protected but their habitats are not. (Haug and Oliphant 1990). The absolute amount of na- The U.S. Migratory Bird Treaty Act was amended in 1972 tive habitat loss over the past 100 years must have had to conserve raptors after a treaty was signed with Mexico. a negative effect on the Burrowing Owl population. But Consequently, raptors are under federal jurisdiction in can the loss of grassland explain population declines of those two countries. Canada and Mexico do not have a 22% per year in Canada in the 1990s? formal convention to jointly protect migratory birds. Land cultivation did not expand at 22% per year through Prior to 2003, endangered species conservation had its the 1990s (Reimer 2003). Most of the cultivation was history in federal-provincial cooperation. The federal gov- initiated prior to the recent rapid decline of Burrowing ernment is responsible for international wildlife issues, Owls. Wellicome and Haug (1995) summarized informa- wildlife toxicology, and “order and good government”. tion on the loss of pastureland in the Canadian prairies. Under these mandates, Canada created the Canada Wild- Between 1966 and 1991, Agriculture Canada statistics life Act (CWA). This act did not directly change the status show pastureland declined a total of 8% in Alberta and of Burrowing Owl management. It did allow the federal 6% in Saskatchewan. The rate of pasture conversion as Canadian Wildlife Service to enter into joint wildlife a portion of the pasture that existed in 1966 was 0.6% management agreements, but the act was not funded for per year in Alberta and 0.8% in Saskatchewan. Most of such agreements and no agreements were made that this conversion occurred between 1976 and 1986 when directly affected the Burrowing Owl. Under the CWA, wheat prices were high. the federal, provincial and territorial governments did This rate of land conversion may not reflect loss of agree to list species at risk through COSEWIC, the Com- Burrowing Owl habitat as pastureland includes large mittee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada, blocks of land unsuitable both for agriculture and owls. formed in 1977 with a mandate to designate species at Some areas are rocky, hilly, riparian or wetland, and are risk. COSEWIC is comprised of representatives from used less by burrowing mammals and Burrowing Owls governments, universities and non-government organ- than their preferred habitats on lacustrine and solonetzic izations and is supported by taxonomic/species-group sub- soils (Harris and Lamont 1985). These soils are also committees. However, COSEWIC has no responsibility more intensively used for agriculture. Warnock and Skeel for recovery efforts. (2004) found that habitat loss from 1986 to 1993 was In the 1980s, discussions focused on recovery. GLH about 6% per year, quoting two similar studies in Saskat- was part of a task force in the mid-1980s to consider a

179 national recovery program. The first recovery teams to coordinate recovery efforts, but it has not met since its meet formally were for Whooping Cranes and Peregrine formation in 1996. Falcons, as these species already had active recovery The 2003 Species at Risk Act is the federal component efforts underway. The first meeting of Burrowing Owl of the third commitment under the Accord. The Habitat conservationists was in Edmonton in 1986 at the Prairie Stewardship Program for Species at Risk (HSPSAR) is Endangered Species Workshop (Holroyd et al. 1987). the federal program to encourage landowners to be wild- The Canadian Burrowing Owl recovery team was formed life stewards of their land. in 1989 after the second Endangered Species and Prairie Conservation Workshop in Regina (Holroyd et al. 1991). Canada’s Species at Risk Act (SARA) Ultimately, a RENEW (REcovery of National Endan- gered Wildlife) committee was created to coordinate The Species at Risk Act (SARA) exists for three purposes recovery efforts in Canada. However, the Burrowing (SARA 2003, section 6): Owl team, like other teams, was not directly funded. 1. “to prevent wildlife from becoming extinct” in Recovery efforts were strictly up to the partners in the Canada; teams, with no core funding. Typically, team chairs 2. “to provide for the recovery of wildlife species and members take ideas from team meetings and find that are extirpated, endangered or threatened”; partners to implement them. For example, Operation 3. “to manage special concern species to prevent Burrowing Owl (OBO) was initiated by the Burrowing them from becoming” further at risk. Owl recovery team, and a World Wildlife Fund Canada The Act applies to wildlife species that are nationally (WWFC) program called Wild West was created after at risk and their critical habitats over all lands and waters team chair Dale Hjertaas conceived of the need for a in Canada. However, it applies broadly only to species landowner stewardship program. Operation Grassland that are listed in the Migratory Bird Convention Act Community (OGC) was started in Alberta two years and conditionally to non-federal species (i.e., provincial later through the follow-up WWFC program called species) and species on non-federal lands; i.e., SARA Prairie for Tomorrow. The OBO and OGC programs, does not apply to Burrowing Owls off federal lands both delivered by non-government agencies, became except for the ‘safety net’ (see below). the precursors of other stewardship programs, such as the Habitat Stewardship Program for Species at Risk SARA provides prohibitions for listed species at risk. (HSPSAR) that is part of the federal government’s Aquatic species and migratory birds are protected on species at risk strategy. all lands, but other species such as listed mammals, invertebrates, plants and birds that are not listed in the Migratory Bird Convention Act are only protected on Canada’s Species at Risk Strategy federal lands. For listed extirpated, endangered, and The federal species at risk initiative has three prongs: a threatened species, no one can kill, harm, harass, cap- National Accord, the Species At Risk Act (SARA) and ture or take an individual; no one can possess, collect, the Habitat Stewardship Program for Species At Risk buy, sell or trade an individual or its parts; and no one (HSPSAR). We will review the effect of each of these can damage or destroy the residence of one or more programs on Burrowing Owl conservation in Canada. individuals. Provincial wildlife acts protect both the nest site and the individual owl on all lands. In this The Accord for the Protection of Species at Risk was respect, SARA duplicates the provincial protection in signed in 1996 and updated in 1999 by the federal, prov- many situations. incial and territorial wildlife ministers. Three federal departments signed the Accord: Environment Canada, The relative effectiveness of SARA enforcement re- Fisheries and Ocean Canada, and Canadian Heritage mains to be seen. Since there are far more provincial (National Parks). The two-page Accord reaffirmed than federal enforcement officers, it may appear that participation in COSEWIC, and committed the govern- the provincial legislation would more likely be en- ments to “complementary legislation and programs that forced than the federal legislation. For example, in April provide for effective protection of species of risk 2005, Alberta had 127 enforcement officers compared throughout Canada”. The Accord also formed the to three in the federal wildlife agency in Alberta. How- Canadian Endangered Species Conservation Council, ever, two incidents of wilful destruction of Burrowing which is made up of the elected ministers of the above Owl nests in the past ten years, one in Alberta and one agencies. The Council is to coordinate conservation in Saskatchewan, did not result in any charges under activities, provide general direction for assessment, and provincial legislation.

180 Critical Habitat cooperate with stewards of the habitat, i.e., landowners and land managers, in order to maintain the suitability A key provision in SARA provides for the protection of the habitat for each species. of “critical habitat”, defined in Section 2(1) as “habitat that is necessary for the survival or recovery of a listed A major new federal initiative to conserve Species at wildlife species…”. The process of protection starts Risk that has benefited Burrowing Owls is the Habitat with identification of critical habitat in the recovery Stewardship Program for Species at Risk (HSPSAR). strategy. The recovery strategy for a species such as The intent is to support and encourage stewardship; Burrowing Owl identifies critical habitat, or the studies that is, landowners take voluntary conservation actions to that need to be conducted to identify critical habitat in prevent species from becoming further at risk. Public a subsequent document called an action plan. literature from the federal government states “We all share the challenge of protecting Canada’s wildlife species at Under Section 58(1) “…no person shall destroy any part risk”. Cooperation is the key to the effective implementa- of the critical habitat of any listed endangered species…if tion of the HSPSAR. The federal government agencies (a) the critical habitat is on federal land… stated their desire to partner through agreements with (b) the listed species is an aquatic species landowners, local governments or non-profit organiza- (c) the listed species is a species of migratory tions in order to protect species at risk and their habitats, birds protected by the Migratory Birds and to implement recovery strategies and actions. The Convention Act, 1994.” focus is on cooperation, but the program can include fin- Thus, this provision only applies to the Burrowing Owl ancial incentives through an annual budget of $10 million under (a), on federal land. allocated to grants and contributions. The preferred protection approach in the federal pro- A summary of the HSPSAR for 2001/02 Prairie and gram is through stewardship. Protection is required on Northern Region (unpubl. 2002) includes: federal lands and for aquatic species, and must occur • 19,067 acres of habitat secured through within 180 days after identification in the recovery strat- conservation easements; egy or action plan. As stated above, this does not apply to Burrowing Owl habitat except on federal land, unless • 26,478 acres of habitat secured through new the ‘safety net’ is invoked. voluntary stewardship agreements • 70,000 acres of habitat secured through previous Under section 61, the ‘safety net’ provides authority for agreements prohibitions that protect critical habitat for Burrowing Owls on private and provincial lands. However, a federal • 29,558 acres of habitat improvement projects Cabinet order is required before SARA prohibitions • education and conservation programs presented can apply. The Cabinet order will be initiated only after to 18,435 prairie residents the appropriate provincial and territorial ministers have • 1406 landowners informed. had an opportunity to act and provide input, on the recommendation of the provincial minister or the Canadian While most of the securement projects do not overlap Endangered Species Conservation Council, or if there is with the Burrowing Owl’s range, many voluntary agree- no other legal protection under federal or provincial ments and education projects are for stewards of nesting statutes. Thus a somewhat bureaucratic process needs to habitat. OBO and OGC have about 700 members that be followed to provide protection for Burrowing Owl voluntarily agree not to cultivate, for five years, native habitat that is not on federal lands. On the positive side, habitat where Burrowing Owls have nested. Some land- the above options provide several ways that critical owners have been members for 15 years or more since habitat can be protected. It remains to be seen if such a the programs began. high level Cabinet order would ever be issued for Warnock and Skeel (2004) reviewed the effectiveness Burrowing Owl habitat, especially if it cannot be proven of the voluntary habitat stewardship program in Sask- that habitat is critical to the recovery of the species. atchewan. They determined that OBO program members Since habitat loss does not appear to be causing the had retained 66% of sites in native vegetation compared species’ decline, critical habitat may not be implicated to 49% of random non-member sites. While the OBO in its recovery. program had not totally prevented cultivation of native Stewardship prairie, the program had slowed the rate of conversion to cultivated crops. Most OBO members own small One objective of the Canadian federal strategy is to patches of native habitat. The rate of loss of native ensure the protection of endangered species’ habitats vegetation is lower than the rate of loss of Burrowing on federal, provincial and private land. The intent is to Owls across the prairies.

181 City of Moose Jaw ly, some sectors of society were not enamoured with the proposed legislation. An excellent example of a stewardship plan was prepared and approved for the city of Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan “SAVE HABITAT” is a rallying cry for conservation (Anonymous 2002). The plan was initiated due to con- groups concerned about the decline of wildlife, espec- flicts between Burrowing Owl nesting sites and urban ially endangered species. “An insult” says Tim, a Sask- development plans within the city, i.e., risk of habitat atchewan ranch owner who is proud of his native prairie loss. The plan proposed habitat modification of two tracts that is home to many species of wildlife, but tired of of city land to improve their suitability for nesting owls being painted as the bad guy in discussions of conserva- by maintaining short grass (<10 cm) through mowing or tion issues. Environmental groups typically talk about grazing, maintaining a captive prairie dog colony as “protecting” and “saving” endangered species habitat. potential nesting habitat, removing trees from areas ad- If the habitat is on private land, who or what are they jacent to potential nesting habitat, and supporting a cap- protecting or saving the habitat from, asks Tim? What tive breeding and release program. In addition, the city message are we delivering to the land owner? Who is would encourage the restricting of construction near the enemy? Why is this an insult? Think about it – many nest sites to the non-breeding season, avoid the use of landowners take great pride and enjoyment in the wild- insecticides and rodenticides within 250 m of active life on their land. Wildlife are on their land because of nests, facilitate the installation of artificial nest bur- the way that they manage their land. If wildlife is on rows, erect road signs to decrease traffic speed near nest their land, the manager of that land is doing something sites, and expand local education of Burrowing Owl con- right. The rallying cry should be “SUPPORT LAND- servation programs. The agreement was stimulated by OWNERS’ MANAGEMENT OF HABITAT”. The land- the Saskatchewan Environmental Assessment Act, and owners who are doing the right thing are threatened by predates SARA. Although the document does not appear our conservation messages. We need to support land- to have saved Burrowing Owls nesting in the city, it did owners who have endangered species. Their land man- encourage the maintenance of their nesting habitat. agement practices have created habitat for Burrowing Owls, yet their reward is to appear the villain in some Landowner Reaction to SARA conservation messages. While the intent of the federal program is to cooperate Despite these and other negative comments, the OBO with landowners, not all landowners seemed to appre- and OGC programs have grown slightly with help from ciate this government involvement in the management of the HSPSAR program. At least some landowners have their land. Some landowners interpreted the program not seen SARA as a threat. as giving notice that those who are doing the right thing and had Burrowing Owls on their land could be Conclusions penalized if any changes in their land-use actions were While native habitat has been lost over the past 20 years, detrimental to species at risk. However, for many species, the rate of decline of Burrowing Owl populations in we do not know the critical land-use actions that are Canada was much greater than habitat loss. The 95% needed to maintain or create critical habitat. decline of Burrowing Owls cannot be explained solely Is it then any surprise that many landowners and their by the loss of habitat. Thus habitat protection should industry representatives publicly opposed SARA before not be the sole method used to save the species. it was enacted into law? The cover of Alberta Report A major focus of the federal species at risk strategy is magazine (February 24, 1997 issue) stated “Endangered to protect the habitats of endangered species. But such Species – Ranchers decry Ottawa’s new wildlife pro- protection has alienated some landowners and may not tection law as an assault on property rights”. Inside was benefit some species such as Burrowing Owl that are not the quote “Rancher Norm Ward sees big trouble on the limited solely by habitat availability. The North Amer- environmental horizon”. Other articles in this issue ican Waterfowl Management Plan was implemented to began “Endangered species overkill – Ottawa’s proposed conserve waterfowl and wetlands, but no equivalent plan wildlife grab threatens property owners with huge fines, or policy has been implemented to conserve uplands. years in jail, and loss of land” and “Who’s endanger- ing whom? Ottawa’s Species at Risk Act shows dis- The operative question here is: Is legislation an effect- turbing parallels to its draconian U.S. equivalent”. The ive mechanism to conserve a declining and endangered Western Stock Growers issued a release that began species, and what issues should be addressed in leg- “Urgent Action Needed!! We need your help to stop islation? Before we can answer the question, we should Ottawa from shutting down agriculture. Without you know the causes of the species decline, and then deter- Endangered Species Legislation endangers us all!” Clear- mine the most effective means to correct these causes.

182 We must determine the ultimate causes of the decline, research is needed to find ways to support landowners not just the proximate causes (Mayr 1961). Proximate who are doing the right thing. Conservation action then causes are typically those aspects of the species’ life must be implemented to resolve the ultimate causes of history that are problematic, as shown by the species the decline. population dynamics. The life history parameters that An international agreement may be required for the three are cause for concern must then be studied to deter- national wildlife agencies to commit to the conservation mine the ultimate causes. For example, the proximate of this species. Holroyd (1993, 1995) suggested that an cause of Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) declines international agreement was needed to conserve raptors; was lack of productivity. The ultimate cause was found such an agreement would also conserve Burrowing Owls. to be DDT accumulation that interfered with calcium However, the conservation of Peregrine Falcons was acc- deposition at egg formation, causing the eggs to break omplished by parallel action in Canada and the U.S. with- under the weight of incubating adults. The conserva- out any formal agreement, showing that appropriate tion action that resolved the ultimate cause was to ban action in the two countries does not require an interna- DDT in North America. tional agreement. One conclusion from the conservation of Peregrine “Governments sign international agreements to gain Falcons and Burrowing Owls is that legislation will prestige, be part of the international community and not prevent the decline of a species or provide for its avoid criticism” (Sutherland 2000: 162). However, an recovery. Legislation may be needed to enact a conser- international agreement may not be possible for Burrow- vation issue, such as banning DDT. Although Burrow- ing Owls. The Commission for Environmental Coopera- ing Owls need habitat, their decline does not appear to tion (involving Canada, U.S. and Mexico) did complete a be caused by the direct loss of nesting habitat, and leg- multi-year tri-national planning process for the Burrow- islation to protect habitat will not recover the species. ing Owl and five other species in 2005. The North Am- The decline of the Burrowing Owl appears to be com- erican Conservation Action Plan for Burrowing Owls plex. A detailed understanding of the owl’s life history (Holroyd 2005) is an attempt to bring the three countries throughout the year, and dispersal from year to year, is closer to conservation action. Only through collaborative required in order to determine the proximate and ultimate research and action will this species become common factors that are driving the decline. again throughout its range. Conservation of western Burrowing Owl populations “A failure to diagnose what is wrong is at the heart of will require action in all three countries where the species much unsuccessful conservation” (Sutherland 2000: 111). occurs: Canada, U.S. and Mexico. The future of the Habitat loss is not likely the sole factor causing declines species will be determined by local actions, but only in Burrowing Owl populations, nor the ultimate cause. those that address the ultimate causes of decline. Since Research is needed to determine the ultimate causes of the Burrowing Owl is not part of the Migratory Bird Con- Burrowing Owl decline and how to mitigate them. vention between Canada and the U.S., another mechanism is needed to address tri-national conservation. Bur- rowing Owls require implementation of North Amer- Acknowledgements ican conservation initiatives. This species has been the We thank the Canadian Burrowing Recovery Team focus of much research, and much has been learned. and all the people who have cooperated in the conserva- The ultimate causes of the Burrowing Owl’s decline in tion of the Burrowing Owl. We thank the landowners and Canada appear complex and partially reliant on factors land managers of native grasslands where Burrowing outside of our borders. This is not surprising, as both Owls nest in Canada. We appreciate the comments of the Great Plains and the wintering grounds are under Richard Knapton, Dave Duncan and Dave Ingstrup ever-increasing pressures, reflected in the increasing list who reviewed earlier drafts of this manuscript. of species at risk on the prairies. More socio-economic

Literature Cited Anonymous. 2002. Burrowing Owl Conservation Plan. City posium. USDA General Technical Report NC-190, St. of Moose Jaw, SK. Paul, MN. De Smet, K.D. 1997. Burrowing Owl (Speotyto cunicularia) Dyer, O.N. 1991. Reintroductions of Burrowing Owls (Athene monitoring and management activities in Manitoba, cunicularia) to the south Okanagan Valley, British Col- 1987-1996. Pages 123-130 in J.R. Duncan, D.H. Johnson, umbia (1983 to 1988). Pages 231-235 in G.L. Holroyd, and T.H. Nicholls (eds.), Biology and conservation of G. Burns and H.C. Smith (eds.), Proceedings of the Second owls of the northern hemisphere: 2nd International Sym- Endangered Species and Prairie Conservation Workshop,

183 Natural History Occasional Paper No. 15. Provincial Mus- Leupin, E.E. and D.J. Low. 2001. Burrowing Owl reintro- eum of Alberta, Edmonton, AB. duction efforts in the Thompson-Nicola region of British Ehrlich, P.R. and A.H. Ehrlich. 1981. Extinction: the causes Columbia. Journal of Raptor Research 35: 392-398. and consequences of the disappearance of species. Ball- Mayr, E. 1961. Cause and effect in biology. Science 134: intine Books, New York. 1501-1506. Harris, W.C. and S.M. Lamont. 1985. Saskatchewan Burrowing Reimer, G. 2003. The effects of land use policies on the land- Owls: Breeding Distribution and Habitat Utilization. Re- scape in Saskatchewan and the ramifications on steward- port by Prairie Environmental Services Inc, Raymore, SK ship and waterfowl conservation. In C.D.A. Rubec (ed.), Pro- for Saskatchewan Natural History Society and Saska- ceedings of Wetland Stewardship in Canada. North Am- tchewan Parks and Renewable Resources, Regina, SK. erican Wetland Conservation Council Canada, Ottawa, ON. Haug, E.A. and L.W. Oliphant. 1990. Movements, activity Schmutz, J.K. 1997. Selected microhabitat variables near patterns, and habitat use of Burrowing Owls in Sask- nests of Burrowing Owls compared to unoccupied sites atchewan. Journal of Wildlife Management 54: 27-35. in Alberta. Journal of Raptor Research 9: 80-83. Holroyd, G.L. 1993. A Raptor Conservation Strategy for Shyry, D.T., T.I. Wellicome, J.K. Schmutz, G.L. Erickson, Canada. Page 384 in G.L. Holroyd, H.L. Dickson, M. D.I. Scobie, R.F. Russell and R.G. Martin. 2001. Burrowing Regnier, and H. Smith (eds.), Proceedings of the Third Owl Population-Trend Surveys in southern Alberta: Prairie Conservation and Endangered Species Workshop, 1991-2000. Journal of Raptor Research 35: 310-315. Natural History Occasional Paper No. 19. Provincial Mus- Skeel, M.A., J. Keith and C.S. Palaschuk. 2001. A popula- eum of Alberta, Edmonton, AB. tion decline recorded by Operation Burrowing Owl in Holroyd, G.L. 1995. Conservation of Prairie Raptors. Pages Saskatchewan. Journal of Raptor Research 35: 371-377. 173-180 in Proceedings of the 60th North American Smith, R.J. and M.D. Smith. 1997. Endangered Species Pro- Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference. Wildlife tection: Lesson Canada should learn from the United States Management Institute, Washington, DC. Endangered Species Act. Property Rights Journal 1: 1-36. Holroyd, G.L. (ed.). 2005. North American Conservation Act- Species at Risk Act (SARA). 2003. An Act respecting the pro- ion Plan for Burrowing Owl. Commission for Environ- tection of wildlife species at risk in Canada. Ottawa, ON. mental Cooperation, Montreal, QC. Sutherland, W.J. 2000. The Conservation Handbook – Res- Holroyd, G.L. W.B. McGillivray, P.H.R. Stepney, D.M. earch, Management and Policy. Blackwell Sciences Ltd., Ealey, G.C. Trottier, and K.E. Eberhart. 1987. Proc- Oxford, UK. eedings of the Workshop on Endangered Species in the Todd, L.D., R.G. Poulin, T.I. Wellicome and R.M. Brigham. Prairie Provinces, Natural History Occasional Paper No. 2003. Post-fledging survival of Burrowing Owls in Sask- 9. Provincial Museum of Alberta, Edmonton, AB. atchewan. Journal of Wildlife Management 67: 512-519. Holroyd, G.L., G. Burns, and H.C. Smith. 1991. Proceed- Warnock, R.G. and M.A. Skeel. 2004. Effectiveness of vol- ings of the Second Endangered Species and Prairie Con- untary habitat stewardship in conserving grassland: case servation Workshop, Natural History Occasional Paper of Operation Burrowing Owl in Saskatchewan. Environ- No. 15. Provincial Museum of Alberta, Edmonton, AB. mental Management 33: 306-317. Holroyd, G.L., R. Rodriquez-Estrella, and S.R. Sheffield. Wedgewood, J.A. 1978. The status of the Burrowing Owl in 2001. Conservation of the Burrowing Owl in Western North Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wild- America: Issues, Challenges, and Recommendations. life in Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa, ON. Journal of Raptor Research 35: 399-407. Wellicome, T.I. 2000. Effects of food on reproduction in H.R.H. Prince Philip. 1988. Down to Earth. W. Collins Sons Burrowing Owls (Athene cunicularia) during three stages & Co. Ltd, Glasgow. of the breeding season. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of James, P.C., T.J. Ethier, G.A. Fox and M. Todd. 1991. New Alberta, Edmonton, AB. Aspects of Burrowing Owl Biology. Pages 226-227 in Wellicome, T.I. and E.A. Haug. 1995. Second update of status G.L. Holroyd, G. Burns and H.C. Smith (eds.), Proc- report on the Burrowing Owl Speotyto cunicularia. Com- eedings of the Second Endangered Species and Prairie mittee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada, Conservation Workshop, Natural History Occasional Paper Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa, ON. No. 15. Provincial Museum of Alberta, Edmonton, AB. World Wildlife Fund Canada (WWFC). 1988. Prairie Con- Kerr, J.T. and J. Cihlar. 2004. Patterns and Causes of Species En- servation Action Plan. WWFC, Toronto, ON. dangerment in Canada. Ecological Applications 14: 743-753.

184 Habitat Suitability Model for the Hognose Snake in Manitoba

Chelsea Jaeger and Pamela Rutherford Department of Biology, Brandon University Dion Wiseman Department of Geography, Brandon University

Abstract – The distribution of the Western Hognose Snake (Heterodon nasicus nasicus) in Manitoba is not well defined. Manitoba is the most northern and eastern portion of its range, yet due to its secretive nature the overall distribution is unknown. It is known that this species shows a preference for sandy soils where native grasslands remain, which allow them to burrow and find prey, and is found close to water. Conversion of these habitats to cultivation and the expansion of aspen parkland (as a consequence of fire suppression) has contributed to a significant decline in available habitat for this species. The purpose of this project is to use a GIS model to determine the distribution of suitable habitat for the Western Hognose Snake in Manitoba. The suitability model is based on the known habitat requirements of this species from other areas of its range. The model considered two habitat features: soil type and land use. GPS locations of captured snakes were gathered from field captures (2006 to 2009) and historic records from the Manitoba Conservation Data Centre. The model was validated by comparing observed and expected number of captures using a chi-square test. The model indicates that Western Hognose Snakes select grassland, mixed-wood forest and wildfire areas, with sandy or loamy soils. There is no preference for proximity to water. This model will assist in the determination of conservation status and future protection of the Western Hognose Snake.

Introduction Western Hognose Snakes (Heterodon nasicus nasicus) are 1969, Leavesley 1987, COSEWIC 2007). The model was a medium-bodied secretive snake with a poorly defined validated by comparing the observed number of cap- distribution in Manitoba (Platt 1969, Leavesley 1987). tures in suitable habitat to the expected number of cap- Manitoba is the most northern and eastern portion of their tures (based on availability) using a chi-square test. range (COSEWIC 2007). They show a preference for open prairies with sandy or loose soils where they can Methods burrow (Platt 1969; Leavesley 1987), although know- Study Area ledge about their habitat preferences is limited due to their secretive behaviour. They prey mainly upon amphi- The north, east, south and west boundaries of the study bians (Platt 1969). area are: Hwy 16, Hwy 13, the U.S. border and the Sask- atchewan border, respectively (Fig. 1). The boundaries A major hurdle facing conservation efforts of secretive are located in the extremes of the known species range species is defining areas of suitable habitat (Dayton and to ensure that all potential suitable habitat is considered in Fitzgerald 2006, Santos et al. 2006). GIS (geographic the analysis. information system) technology is a powerful tool for predicting suitable habitat areas because it allows the Data complex spatial distribution of multiple criteria to be Habitat requirements were determined through literature analyzed and combined in a single model (Roth 2005). review and knowledge of the species based on field The advantage of a GIS is that it is capable of analyzing a observations. The model considered two habitat features: large amount of geospatial data efficiently and produces soil texture and land use. Geospatial data for these cri- accurate, replicable results. teria were obtained from the Manitoba Land Initiative The objective of this project was to build a habitat suit- (MLI) website and were in vector data format. Land ability model for the Western Hognose Snake using a GIS. use data were downloaded for five regions: Birtle, The model was developed for the southwestern portion Brandon, Minnedosa, Virden and Winnipeg. Soil tex- of Manitoba but, in the future can be applied to other ture data were obtained for the 55 rural municipalities locations. The model was built using habitat criteria based (RMs) within the study area using the Agricultural Inter- on expert knowledge of their habitat requirements (Platt pretation Database (SoilAID) files. The data obtained

185

Figure 1. Predicted areas of suitable habitat in southwestern Manitoba. The smaller area in the rectangle is shown in Figure 3. from the MLI were all projected in UTM NAD 83, zone 3) use the raster calculator to produce a discrete raster 14N. The hognose snake locations were created using that represents the areas of suitable habitat (Fig. 2). GPS data supplied by P. Rutherford and historical cap- The data layers representing each criteria were reclass- tures from the Manitoba Conservation Data Centre. The ified using a scheme of unsuitable (0), somewhat suit- recent GPS points were collected using Garmin GPS- able (1), suitable (2), and highly suitable (3) (Table 1). 60® hand-held receivers. Four assumptions were made The hydrology layer was reclassified such that areas regarding the data and subsequent analysis: 1) the data located within 350 m of water were considered to be layers are accurate and the most recent available were somewhat suitable (1) and distances beyond that were used, 2) the sample size of known hognose snake loca- unsuitable (0). tions is large enough to draw adequate conclusions, 3) juvenile and adult snakes use the same habitats, and 4) The model was validated by comparing the observed snakes show equal preference for north- and south- number of captures in areas determined to be of suit- facing slopes. able habitat to the expected number of captures (based on availability) using a chi-square test. Expected numbers of captures was calculated by the following equation:

Analysis (area of suitability value/total area) * total GPS points. A spatial model of habitat suitability was created using A chi-square test was performed for each data layer ArcGIS 9.3. Briefly, the steps were: 1) convert the land- and the overall output to determine the accuracy to which use and soil vector data layers to rasters with a 30 m the model predicts areas of suitable habitat. Signifi- resolution, 2) reclassify the raster grid cells, and then cance and accuracy is determined for values of p<0.05.

Table 1. The suitability classifications of data layers used in the model.

Layer Unsuitable (0) Somewhat suitable (1) Suitable (2) Highly Suitable (3) “Treed rock”, “coniferous “Ag. Cropland”, “Deciduous forest”, “Grassland/rangeland”, Land use forest”, “cultural features”, “water bodies”, “marsh”, “open deciduous “mixed-wood forest”, “roads/trails” “bogs”, “forage crops” forest/shrub” “wildfire areas” “Coarse sands”, “Rock”, “organic”, Soil Texture “Clayey”, “marsh” “coarse loamy”, “Sands”, “loamy” “unclassified”, “water” “eroded slopes” Water > 350 m to water Within 350 m of water

186

Figure 2. Annotated flowchart of the steps involved in the data analysis and creation of the model.

Results and Discussion There were two main areas in southwestern Manitoba are two separate populations in Manitoba. Leavesley identified as suitable habitat for the hognose snake: the (1987) identified a population in the Carberry Sandhills, Carberry Sandhills east of Brandon, and the Lauder however, she did not do research in the Oak Lake region. Sandhills southwest of Oak Lake (Fig. 1). Both areas contain open sand dunes with access to water and some The model produced very accurate results; only one cap- mixed-wood forests, and are where the vast majority of tured individual was located in unsuitable habitat and it hognose snakes have been captured. The largest number was a historical record. The two highest suitability levels of hognose snakes have been captured in the Carberry (6 and 7) contained 68.97% of all known captures. Sandhills (Fig. 3), partly attributed to greater search effort Snakes were found significantly more often in grass- in this area as part of field research on Northern Prairie land/rangeland, mixed-wood forest and wildfire areas, 2 Skinks (Plestiodon septentrionalis). The occurrence of compared to other land-use types (X = 155.43, df = 3, these two disjunct sites of suitable habitat, in addition p < 0.001). Snakes were found significantly more often to field captures in those areas, may indicate that there in sands and loamy soils, compared to other soil textures

Figure 3. A closer look (inset from Fig. 1) at the areas of suitable habitat in the Carberry Sandhills.

187 (X2 = 8.72, df = 3, p < 0.05). A large number of snakes orating a DEM (digital elevation model) that allows for (60) were found at distances greater than 350 m from discrimination of slope or aspect. water compared to only 27 snakes that were located within 350 m of water. The chi-square value shows signifi- Conclusions cance (X2 = 268.39, df = 1, p < 0.001), which indicates that the snakes are selecting areas that are greater than The secretive nature of Western Hognose Snakes makes 350 m from water. This does not match what is known conservation efforts very difficult. One of the major prob- about the habitat requirements of this species (Platt lems facing the conservation of a secretive species is 1969, Leavesley 1987). It is possible to correct this by the ability to define suitable habitat (Dayton and performing a chi-square test with a larger number of Fitzgerald 2006, Santos et al. 2006). The use of a GIS known GPS locations, or by applying the model to small- model is helpful in overcoming this hurdle because of er water bodies instead of only major rivers. This also its ability to combine and analyze multiple habitat cri- may be evidence that water itself does not play a role in teria. The model created here indicates that Western Hog- habitat selection for this species as it is not considered nose Snakes select grassland, mixed-wood forest and aquatic or semi-aquatic (Roth 2005). The combined mod- wildfire areas, with sandy or loamy soils, although there el (X2 = 1244.24, df = 7, p < 0.001) was significant and is no preference for proximity to water. This model can therefore can be considered as an accurate prediction of be used to define the habitat usage of this species in any suitable habitat. area of its range and to help direct conservation and research efforts. Based on existing capture locations the model accurately identifies areas of suitable habitat. Future improve- Acknowledgements ments could consider the habitat requirements of adults and juveniles separately, as these are known to differ. Thanks to N. Cairns, A. Dransfield, N. Gushulak, J. Juveniles are born in mixed-wood forests and then move Larkin, J. Frykas, A. Krause Danielsen, and W. McFadden into open prairie while adults remain in prairie habitats for field data. N. Cairns and A. Dransfield provided sug- where burrows are available (Leavesley 1987). In addi- gestions for the GIS model. Funding was provided by tion, the model could explore whether Western Hognose World Wildlife Fund Canada, Manitoba Conservation, Snakes prefer south- or north-facing slopes by incorp- Chambers-Colomb, and Brandon University.

Literature Cited COSEWIC. 2007. COSEWIC assessment and update status Platt, D. 1969. Natural history of the hognose snakes, Hetero- report on the Eastern Hog-nosed Snake Heterodon plati- don platyrhinos and Heterodon nasicus. University of Kan- rhinos in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endan- sas Publications, Museum of Natural History 18: 253-420. gered Wildlife in Canada, Ottawa, ON. Roth, E.D. 2005. Buffer zone applications in snake ecology: Dayton, G.H. and L.A. Fitzgerald. 2006. Habitat suitability a case study using cottonmouths. Copeia 2005: 399-402. models for desert amphibians. Biological Conservation Santos, X., J.C. Brito, N. Sillero, J.M. Pleguzuelos, G.A. 132: 40-49. Llorente, S. Fahd and X. Parellada. 2006. Inferring habitat- Leavesley, L.K. 1987. Natural history and thermal relations suitability areas with ecological modelling techniques of the Western Hognose snake (Heterodon nasicus nasicus) and GIS: a contribution to assess the conservation status in Southwestern Manitoba. Unpublished M.Sc. thesis, of Vipera latastei. Biological Conservation 130: 416-425. University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB.

188 Operation Burrowing Owl and Shrubs For Shrikes: Habitat Conservation through Landowner Stewardship in Saskatchewan

Carolyn A. Gaudet, Andrea L. Kotylak and Margaret A. Skeel Nature Saskatchewan

Abstract – The stewardship program Operation Burrowing Owl (OBO) was launched in 1987 in response to declining grasslands and Burrowing Owl numbers in southern Saskatchewan. A study of OBO from 1987-1994 demonstrated that voluntary stewardship was effective in conserving habitat and retaining participants. Thus, the longevity and success of OBO in engaging rural landowners in stewardship prompted the initiation of Shrubs For Shrikes (SFS) in 2003 for the Prairie Loggerhead Shrike. Working closely with landowners, these programs conserve grassland and shrub habitat and monitor these species’ populations on lands of participants who had owls/shrikes at the time of joining. Landowners sign a voluntary agreement to maintain habitat by not cultivating land or destroying shrubs or shelterbelts, and they annually report owl/shrike numbers on their land. Since 1988, OBO has documented an owl population decline of 92% based on landowner reports, with an average annual decline rate of 12%. Participants receive an annual newsletter, an attractive gate sign in recognition of their commitment, and a toolbox of information. While visiting landowners, best management practices for species at risk are discussed, and site-specific management plans are developed with interested landowners to suggest practices that would benefit both the species at risk and the producers’ operations. Funding assistance is available to qualifying landowners to enhance and restore grasslands to improve habitat for Burrowing Owls and Loggerhead Shrikes by enlarging pastures to increase grassland patch size and reduce fragmentation. Since 2000, 121 enhancement projects have resulted in 15,254 acres of cropland seeded to grassland, 55.08 miles of strategic fencing, and 12 watering sites established. Land- owners who undertake a project join OBO/SFS and participate in owl/shrike monitoring. A pilot evaluation of the habitat enhancement program and its value to owls and grassland birds occurred in 2007 with encouraging results. Currently, 503 landowners participate in OBO and SFS, conserving 159,000 acres of prairie.

Introduction The prairie region, as well as its biological diversity, is The objectives of Operation Burrowing Owl and Shrubs one of our most endangered landscapes. It is estimated For Shrikes are to: that only 24% of grasslands of the Prairies Ecozone in (1) conserve prairie habitat, focusing on areas Saskatchewan remain intact (Gauthier and Wiken 2003). inhabited by Burrowing Owls and/or As most arable land in the Canadian prairies is priv- Loggerhead Shrikes, through voluntary habitat ately owned, landowner interest and cooperation are vital stewardship actions and agreements and to species at risk conservation. Nature Saskatchewan’s informed private land stewardship; Operation Burrowing Owl (OBO) is a prairie steward- (2) identify the locations of Burrowing Owls and ship program launched in 1987 to preserve Burrowing Loggerhead Shrikes, and monitor their popu- Owl habitat in Saskatchewan from cultivation. The lation numbers and distribution changes through Burrowing Owl (Athene cunicularia), a small raptor an annual census at Operation Burrowing Owl that nests in underground burrows, was classified as or Shrubs For Shrikes sites in order to evaluate endangered in 1995 by the Committee on the Status of the success of conservation actions in Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) (Wellicome maintaining and increasing population numbers; and Haug 1995). Following the success of Operation Burrowing Owl, it was recognized that a similar pro- (3) provide information to producers and urban and gram directed at landowners could serve to raise aware- rural residents about Burrowing Owls, Logger- ness about the Loggerhead Shrike and conserve its habi- head Shrikes and other prairie species, in order tat. Shrubs For Shrikes (SFS) was launched in 2003 to to increase awareness about their natural history conserve disappearing prairie and shrub habitat for the and habitat needs, and the importance of threatened Prairie Loggerhead Shrike (Lanius ludovi- conserving prairie habitat and species diversity cianus), whose population has declined more than 80% (both species have been widely promoted using over the last few decades. a variety of media, including newsletters,

189 brochures, advertisements in rural newspapers Some participants often failed to respond to our annual and presentations to schools and landowners); mail-outs requesting information on the number of owl pairs per enrolled site. To estimate the total number of (4) assist landowners with grassland habitat pairs per year on all OBO sites combined, we assumed enhancement and restoration through seeding that participants from whom we did not obtain owl cropland to grassland in order to enlarge counts (“Unknowns”) had the same mean number of pastures and reduce habitat fragmentation. owls per site as participants from whom we obtained Strategic fencing and water developments for counts (“Knowns”). Skeel et al. (2001) tested this assump- livestock are also supported in order to preserve tion through follow-ups and concluded that attributing newly planted and existing prairie. the same number of pairs per site to non-responding “Unknowns” as to “Knowns” seemed reasonable. Methods As there are fewer participants in SFS and the percentage of participants reporting is generally much higher Voluntary Agreements and Stewardship than OBO participants, it is unnecessary to estimate the Operation Burrowing Owl and Shrubs For Shrikes en- total number of shrike pairs at this time. list rural landowners in conserving habitat around active Habitat Enhancement and former Burrowing Owl or Loggerhead Shrike nest sites by signing a voluntary handshake agreement with Nature Saskatchewan delivers a habitat enhancement them to maintain the nesting area (or former nesting area) program initiated in 2000. The goal of the program is to by not cultivating the land, removing the shrubs or alter- increase and improve habitat for the Burrowing Owl and ing the nest site. This voluntary agreement is not legally Loggerhead Shrike and reduce grassland fragmentation binding and is indefinite, and can be cancelled by the par- by enlarging pastures and grassland patches. Nature Sask- ticipant at any time. Participating landowners report the atchewan provides funding assistance to landowners to number of Burrowing Owls or Loggerhead Shrikes on seed cultivated land adjacent to grassland back to perm- their site(s) annually. All landowners are encouraged to anent cover, erect strategic fencing and develop alter- continue to participate in OBO or SFS by reporting the nate water sites for livestock. presence or absence of owls or shrikes and by conserv- Project sites had to meet the following criteria: 1) within ing habitat, even if owls or shrikes do not return to breed 5 km of pastures that currently or previously supported on their land. In recognition of their participation, land- Burrowing Owls in the past 22 years or Loggerhead owners receive either a certificate or an OBO/SFS gate Shrikes in the past 7 years, with priority given to those sign with their name. Also, participants are sent educa- that supported owls or shrikes in the last 3 years; and tional information, including a newsletter, brochures, 2) adjacent or close to existing tame or native pasture. fact sheets and booklets each year. After every 5 years of The agreement for seeding, fencing and water develop- participation, landowners receive a certificate of recog- ments was a 50% cost share of materials and labour, nition for the number of years they have been enrolled. with landowners contributing labour and equipment costs A number of landowners are visited each year, including up to a predetermined maximum. Fencing and water dev- most new participants. A toolkit of information, focus- elopment could be included where these maintained the ing on species at risk and conservation practices and integrity and health of newly seeded and planted areas. options, is discussed and left with the landowner for Until 2008, to protect and encourage native prairie plant future reference. A brief site-specific management plan species, landowners agreed not to sow seven invasive is often developed with the landowner, outlining bene- tame species including Smooth Brome (Bromus iner- ficial management practices that are currently being used, mis), and to limit alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) to less than or could be adopted, to benefit species at risk and the 10% of the sowing mix; starting in 2009, approved seed landowner’s operation. mixtures are 100% native mixes of at least two grass species. These restrictions also benefited owls, as an Annual Census earlier habitat survey indicated that Burrowing Owls preferred to nest in grassland other than stands of alfalfa To determine the number of owls or shrikes on each and brome grass (Hjertaas 1989). Landowners approved site, census cards are mailed to all OBO and SFS parti- for a habitat enhancement project signed a 10-year agree- cipants every June. If the participant does not reply using ment to maintain their land as pasture and were enrolled the census card, they are contacted by phone for the in the OBO program to participate in monitoring for information. owls and to receive educational materials.

190 Results and Discussion Voluntary Stewardship Protects Habitat Voluntary habitat stewardship through a program that (control sample), revealed that the amount of grassland provides recognition and information is an effective and remaining in 1994 compared to 1986 was significantly cost-efficient means of conserving wildlife lands. An higher (66%) on sites enrolled in OBO than at random evaluation in 2000 of the effectiveness of the Operation sites (48%) (Table 1, adapted from Warnock and Skeel Burrowing Owl program during its initial period (1987- 2004). Approximately 12.6% of landowners across south- 1994) demonstrated that OBO had a significant impact ern Saskatchewan invited to enrol in OBO in 1986 de- on conservation (retention) of grassland habitat at en- clined for various reasons (calculated from Hjertaas and rolled sites, even during an era of accelerated habitat Lyons 1987). This may introduce a bias towards more loss (Warnock and Skeel 2004). In 1986 (just prior to the conservation-minded landowners joining OBO in 1986, formal launch of the program in 1987), a comparison of although it is not likely to explain entirely the highly 108 grassland sites on the Regina Plain enrolled in significant difference. The study strongly suggested that OBO because they supported owls (treatment sample), voluntary habitat stewardship, where no legally binding to 98 randomly selected sites in nearby grassland that agreement is signed, can be a highly effective strategy to were not enrolled because they did not support owls conserve habitat.

Table 1. Grassland retention (1986-1994) compared between grassland sites with Burrowing Owls and enrolled in Operation Burrowing Owl (OBO), and random grassland sites without Burrowing Owls and not enrolled in OBO. Significant comparisons are in bold (P<0.001) or underlined (P<0.1), Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Sites in grassland with Randomly-selected sites in Burrowing Owls in 1986 grassland in 1986 and not and enrolled in OBO* enrolled in OBO Grassland Number of Grassland Number of Retention Sites Retention Sites Overall 66% 108 49% 98 Parcel Size <2 ha 69% 25 23% 29 2 – 12 ha 62% 36 38% 36 > 12 ha 68% 47 82% 33 Agricultural Soil Suitability Excellent 54% 34 25% 33 Average 76% 52 49% 41 Poorest 63% 22 80% 24 * Approx. 12.6% of sites did not enroll in OBO for various reasons (calculated from Hjertaas and Lyon 1987).

Voluntary Stewardship Retains Participants The OBO program began with 293 landowners in 1987 Landowners leaving the OBO program usually did so and continued to grow (Skeel et al. 2001). The number because they decided to cultivate formerly protected of participants in OBO has gradually declined since a areas or they no longer owned the land. Although not high of 501 in 1991, dropping to a low of 421 in 2009 having owls for several years caused some landowners (including participants in habitat enhancement programs to leave the program, most continued to participate. Of but who are not included in our annual owl population the 675 individuals who joined the OBO program in the 8 monitoring, up to approximately 40 participants). As of years between 1987 and 1994, 504 (75%) were still en- 2009, most participants were private landowners (96% rolled 5 years after joining, even though about 70% of in 2009), and the remainder were stewards of public them no longer had owls (Skeel et al. 2001). This was lands. Each year, new participants join the program while also examined for the next 10-year period: of the 79 others leave, resulting in a relatively stable member- participants that joined the program between 1995 and ship from year to year. New participants are gained from 2004, all 79 were still enrolled 5 years later, even though publicity efforts that encourage individuals to report 89% of them no longer had owls. In addition, partici- owl sightings to OBO’s advertised toll-free number. pants that remained in the program for 5 years tended to

191 remain in the program to at least 1999 for the first time by 42 participants at 52 sites), considerably fewer than interval, and to at least 2009 for the latter time interval the 681 pairs reported by 352 participants in 1988. The (<2% dropped out after 5 years). The proportion of parti- total estimated number of pairs declined a dramatic cipants that remained in the program was notably greater 92.1% from 1988 (1032 pairs) to 2009 (82 pairs), a mean in recent years. This likely reflects differences in gov- population decline of 11.3% per year (Fig. 1). When the ernment policies and farming economics, with a climate population trend was first published in 2001, the mean that was more favourable to cultivating land in the earlier population decline from 1988 to 2000 was 21.5% per years and to retaining pastures in recent years. year (Skeel et al. 2001). The population declined steeply from 1988 to 1994 at 26.9% per year, was less severe

Population Trend from 1995 to 2000 at 19% per year, and has shown a Although the number of OBO participants grew during small upward trend of 5.8% from 2001 to 2009. When the initial four years of the program and declined slightly the percent annual decline estimated from OBO data thereafter, the known number of Burrowing Owls on (2001-08) was compared with the percent annual decline OBO sites declined at an alarming rate. In 2009, 421 measured by biologists on the Regina Plain, no differ- OBO participants reported a total of 82 pairs (corrected ence was found, supporting the reliability of the data sets for non-reporting participants; 79 actual pairs reported (paired t-test, P = 0.47; R. Poulin, unpubl. data).

Figure 1. Operation Burrowing Owl population trend from 1988-2009.

The Shrubs For Shrikes census monitors Loggerhead than the OBO program. More participants are needed Shrikes at SFS sites annually (Table 2). The number of for meaningful population monitoring. SFS also monitors SFS participants has been steadily increasing since the shrike ecology, including habitat preferences and the re- program was initiated in 2003, albeit at a slower pace use of nest locations by returning pairs.

Table 2. Shrubs For Shrikes annual census results. No. of SFS % of Participants No. of No. of Sites Year Participants Reporting Reported Pairs with Shrikes 2004 4 100% 6 4 2005 14 100% 7 4 2006 26 96% 13 11 2007 39 100% 19 23 2008 47 87% 20 28 2009 58 86% 28 38

192 Trends in Pairs per Site 2009, three pairs and one single Burrowing Owl were reported on habitat enhancement sites. These results Before 1993, sites with ≥5 pairs of Burrowing Owls provide encouragement that enhanced sites will more were fairly common (6-16% of OBO sites); however, likely be used by owls as they become established. almost all sites since 1993 supported <5 pairs of owls. Further study of enhancement projects may reveal No sites had ≥11 pairs after 1993 whereas at least 1% their importance in the recovery of Burrowing Owls had that many before 1993. In 1988, the year after in Saskatchewan. OBO was initiated, only 19% of sites had no owls, but 43% of sites had >1 pair of owls. By comparison, Sources of Error in 2009 there were no owls at 89% of sites and only 25% of sites had >1 pair of owls. The decline rates calculated from OBO data are approx- imate, as miscounting of owls, annual movement of owls, and changes in number of sites being monitored Habitat Enhancement from year to year could lead to inaccuracies. The de- Since 2000, Nature Saskatchewan has funded 121 habi- cline documented by Operation Burrowing Owl may tat enhancement projects resulting in 15,254 acres of result from other factors, such as year-to-year move- cropland seeded back to grassland, 55 miles of strat- ments of owls from OBO sites to previously unoccu- egic fence installed and 12 watering sites established. pied sites (Rich 1984, Hjertaas 1997). This bias is at least partially offset by enrollment of landowners who In 2007, a study to determine if Burrowing Owls were report owls for the first time (Wellicome and Haug using habitat enhancement project sites was conducted 1995). (Kotylak and Skeel 2009). Burrowing Owls were found on 6 of the 28 sites surveyed (3 habitat enhancement sites and 3 adjacent sites); sites surveyed included 10 Conclusion habitat enhancement sites and 18 adjacent quarter sec- As habitat loss and fragmentation are major causes of tions that were in pasture. In 2008, 14 pairs of Burrow- population decline for Burrowing Owls and Logger- ing Owls were reported on habitat enhancement sites head Shrikes, voluntary land stewardship is a highly or adjacent to these sites on the same quarter section. In effective strategy to conserve habitat.

Literature Cited Gauthier, D.A. and E.B. Wiken. 2003. Monitoring the con- Rich, T. 1984. Monitoring Burrowing Owl populations: im- servation of grassland habitats, Prairie Ecozone, Canada. plications of burrow re-use. Wildife Society Bulletin 12: Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 88: 343-364. 178-180. Hjertaas, D.G. 1989. Operation Burrowing Owl (1987 and Skeel, M.A., J. Keith and C.S. Palaschuk. 2001. Population 1988) completion report. Unpublished Report. Sask- decline recorded by Operation Burrowing Owl in Sask- atchewan Parks and Renewable Resources, Regina, SK. atchewan. Journal of Raptor Research 35: 371-377. Hjertaas, D.G. 1997. Operation Burrowing Owl in Saskatche- Warnock, R. and M.A. Skeel. 2004. The Effectiveness of wan. Pages 112-116 in J.L. Lincer and K. Steenhof (eds.), Voluntary Habitat Stewardship in Conserving Grassland: The Burrowing Owl, its biology and management, in- Case of Operation Burrowing Owl in Saskatchewan. En- cluding the proceedings of the first international Burrow- vironmental Management 33: 306-317. ing Owl symposium. Journal of Raptor Research. Report 9. Wellicome, T.I. and E.A. Haug. 1995. Second update of Hjertaas, D.G. and W. Lyon. 1987. A stratified random status report on the Burrowing Owl Speotyto cunicularia survey for Burrowing Owls on the Weyburn (62E) and in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Regina (72I) Map areas. Saskatchewan Parks, Recreation Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC), Ottawa, ON. and Culture, Wildlife Technical Report 87-2, Regina, SK. http://www.cosewic.gc.ca Kotylak, A. and M.A. Skeel. 2009. Are Burrowing Owls Using Enhanced Habitat? Blue Jay 67: 231-234.

193 Skink Watch: Involving Landowners in Skink Monitoring on Private Land in Southwestern Manitoba

Allison Krause Danielsen Natural Resources Institute, University of Manitoba Pamela Rutherford Department of Biology, University of Brandon Nicola Koper Natural Resources Institute, University of Manitoba

Abstract – Southwestern Manitoba is home to six squamate reptile species (Red-bellied Snake, Smooth Green Snake, Red-sided Garter Snake, Plains Garter Snake, Western Hognose Snake and Northern Prairie Skink). The northern prairie skink is of conservation concern and was listed as endangered by COSEWIC in 2004. There is limited data in Manitoba for the skink, and for several of the other snake species. Northern Prairie Skinks and Western Hognose Snakes are limited to sandy habitats, much of which is in Spruce Woods Provincial Park and on the Canadian Forces military base at Shilo. There is potential, however, for all squamate reptile species to occur in extensive habitat on lands outside the park and the military base, such as privately owned land, land purchased by NGOs such as Nature Conservancy of Canada, and First Nations land. Valuable information on the distribution of these species can be gained through the monitoring of reptiles by landowners on their own properties, particularly as landowners and other groups have shown great interest in skinks and often take the lead in stewardship. Protocols were developed that are appropriate for different target audiences [e.g. general public, field biologists, website material (SOS website and Herp Atlas), Centre for Indigenous Environmental Resources (CIER), Nature Conservancy of Canada (NCC)]. The monitoring protocol will enable groups to take ownership of monitoring reptiles on their own land and, in turn, will provide more information to researchers for recovery of species at risk. During the summer of 2009, researchers worked with private landowners and NGOs to test and refine the protocol and gain some idea of its usefulness in a practical setting. The protocol project is a preliminary step in research on reptile distribution on private land and landowner stewardship of reptile species at risk.

194 Managing Transmission Lines for Prairie Plants and Animals

Lionel Leston and Nicola Koper Natural Resources Institute, University of Manitoba

Abstract – Transmission lines could be managed to provide habitat for native prairie species (plants, butterflies, grassland birds, etc.) whose original habitat has been severely reduced. From 2007 to 2009, we conducted abundance surveys of prairie plants, arthropods and birds along 51 half-km sections of transmission lines within 200 km of Winnipeg, as well as at three urban remnant prairies of similar area. These study sites varied in their annual management (mowing and spraying frequency 0 to 2 times per year) and in surrounding land uses, all of which are hypothesized to influence the abundance and richness of species that colonize and persist in a given site. For example, in 2007-2008, butterfly species richness was most strongly and positively correlated with the amount of wooded land within 400 m of transects, whereas prairie birds like Savannah Sparrows and Western Meadowlarks were most strongly and negatively correlated with that landscape feature. Other prairie birds (Bobolink, Le Conte’s Sparrow, Sedge Wren, Wilson’s Snipe) were found at fewer sites with more grassland and little-to-no urban land within 400 m. Savannah sparrows were also more abundant at hayed sites, which had more grasshoppers, suggesting that some grassland birds may settle in grassland fragments with more arthropod prey. Native plant species richness was most strongly and negatively correlated to urban land within 400 m, whereas native plant cover was most strongly and negatively correlated to agricultural land within 400 m. Management and land use appear to influence prairie plants and animals in different ways. Thus, multiple transmission line sections with more grassland and less urban land nearby should be managed for prairie species, each varying in management to benefit different species. With these data, I will identify the urban transmission line sections with the highest priority for active restoration and management for prairie wildlife.

195 An Assessment of Recovery Efforts and Outcomes for the Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) in Manitoba

Isabel Martinez-Welgan and Richard Baydack Clayton H. Riddell Faculty of Environment, Earth, and Resources, University of Manitoba

Abstract – The Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) is a migratory raptor considered to be endangered in Manitoba and threatened nationally. Low productivity due to eggshell thinning linked to chlori- nated hydrocarbons caused a precipitous decline in Peregrine Falcon populations beginning in the 1950s. By the 1970s, the anatum subspecies of the Peregrine Falcon had been extirpated from most areas south of 60°N and east of the Rocky Mountains. Provincial conservation efforts initiated in 1981 were focused primarily on hack-and-release programs from various urban sites in Manitoba. These programs were successful in releasing Peregrine Falcons; more than 170 as of 2007/08. Data from 2007 confirm that three breeding pairs were identified in Manitoba that year, two in Winnipeg and one in Brandon. In 2000, a captive breeding facility was constructed, with the first release taking place in 2005. Approximately 15 Peregrine Falcons have been released to date from the Parkland Mews facility, located south of Winnipeg. The monitoring of dispersed Peregrine Falcons is dependent on actual physical evidence through leg- band identifications. Consequently, it is impossible to know the exact number of dispersed falcons which survive to return to potential nesting areas the next year. Although researchers in other regions have determined that falcons will return to the same type of area (urban or rural) from which they were released, they may be located a significant distance from the original dispersal site. Future research needs include satellite tracking to enable detailed assessments of dispersal and first- year survival of Peregrine Falcons produced in Manitoba, and the acquisition of data related to migration and locations of wintering grounds. Long-term monitoring is necessary to assess the success of current conservation efforts, to achieve a change in status from endangered under the Endangered Species Act to protected under the Wildlife Act.

Introduction Manitoba’s Peregrine Falcon recovery effort began in itional nesting pairs of Peregrine Falcons in Manitoba 1981 with provincial support for a federal program in- in order to achieve a change in status from Endangered volving the intentional placement of captive-bred chicks under the Endangered Species Act to Protected under on high-rise buildings in various locations throughout the Wildlife Act. southern Manitoba. The national recovery plan (Western Raptor Technical Committee 1988) produced for the Background Anatum Peregrine Falcon in 1988 formalized the regional objective to establish ten nesting pairs in Manitoba, Data for the provincial Peregrine Falcon recovery effort Saskatchewan, and Alberta. were obtained for 1981-2009 from the Peregrine Falcon Recovery Project, Manitoba (Manitoba Project Coord- In 1992, the Province of Manitoba listed the Peregrine inator, T. Maconachie). Parkland Mews Falconry and Falcon as endangered by regulation under Manitoba’s Bird of Prey Education Centre provided additional data Endangered Species Act. In compliance with the legis- regarding Peregrine Falcons released from that facility lation, the Province put forward a plan and strategy in (Director, R. Wheeldon). The data were compiled and 2003 (Wheeldon 2003) designed to follow up and com- summarized to assess the outcomes of the recovery plement the national recovery plan. The objective of effort in Manitoba. the plan was to develop a solution for establishing add-

196 Recovery Outcomes

35 Wild-produced 30 Hacked Fostered 25 Total 20

Total 15 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Year

Figure 1. Peregrine Falcons in Manitoba, 1981-2009.

2% 2%2% collision 2% 2% exposure 2% electrocuted 5% nestbox injury

5% undefined injury fall 51% 5% illness shot smokestack

submersed in oil 20%

Figure 2. Mortality factors encountered in Manitoba (n=41).

80 70 60

50 laid hatched 40 Total fostered 30 fledged

0 Radisson Hotel Other Sites McKenzie Seeds Building (Winnipeg) (Winnipeg) (Brandon) Location

Figure 3. Breeding summary for Peregrine Falcons wild-reared in Manitoba.

197 40 35 30 25 laid hatched 20

Total fostered 15 fledged

0 Alberta Saskatchewan Nebraska North Dakota Location

Figure 4. Breeding summary for Peregrine Falcons wild-reared outside of Manitoba (incomplete data).

Summary • Manitoba’s recovery effort has succeeded in intro- western U.S. Peregrine Falcons from Manitoba have ducing a large number of Peregrine Falcons into Man- also been found in Brazil, Cuba, Dominican Republic itoba. Since 1981, a total of 226 falcons have been and Mexico during the non-breeding season. hacked, fostered, or wild-produced (Fig. 1). • Thirty-one nesting attempts were recorded for 12 • Mortality was confirmed for 49 Peregrine Falcons. Peregrine Falcons that dispersed outside of Mani- Cause of death was determined for 41, including both toba. At least 73 eggs were laid, and a minimum of juveniles and adults. Collisions with artificial struc- 51 young fledged (Fig. 4). tures accounted for approximately half of all deaths • Wild production of Peregrine Falcons in Manitoba (Fig. 2). is currently limited to a small number of fertile and • Fifteen Peregrine Falcons returned to breed in Mani- experienced nesting pairs. Successful new nesting toba, beginning in 1989. Of 44 nesting attempts, territories are not being established, suggesting that 150 eggs were produced. A total of 111 young were the limiting factor for the urban Peregrine Falcon fledged (including 11 fostered chicks), primarily from population in Manitoba is the availability of suitable the Radisson Hotel (formerly Delta Hotel) in Win- nesting sites. nipeg and the McKenzie Seeds Building in Brandon • Future research needs include satellite tracking to (Fig. 3). address data gaps regarding migration, survivorship • Although Peregrine Falcons have returned to natal and mortality, wintering grounds, and the possible areas in Manitoba, dispersal to other regions is con- existence of additional nesting territories. firmed. Manitoba Peregrines have emigrated to other Prairie Provinces and to several cities in the mid-

Acknowledgments Dr. J. Duncan (Manitoba Conservation, Wildlife & Ecosystem Protection Branch) T. Maconachie (Peregrine Falcon Recovery Project, Manitoba Project Coordinator) R. Wheeldon (Founding Director, Parkland Mews Falconry & Bird of Prey Education Centre)

Literature Cited

Western Raptor Technical Committee. 1988. Anatum Peregrine Wheeldon, R. 2003. A Recovery Plan and Strategy for the Falcon Recovery Plan. Catalogue No. CW-66-97/1988E. Peregrine Falcon in Manitoba. A Parkland Mews-Manitoba Canadian Wildlife Service, Edmonton, AB. Conservation Partnership Project, Winnipeg, MB.

198 A New Technology to Determine Burrowing Owl Critical Foraging Habitat

Alan Marsh, Erin M. Bayne and Troy I. Wellicome* Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta *Canadian Wildlife Service

Abstract – The Burrowing Owl has been listed as endangered in Canada since 1995. Efforts to increase the population focus, in part, on creating habitats with tall grass because these habitats support high abundances of the small mammal species consistently eaten by Burrowing Owls. However, high prey abundance does not necessarily translate into optimal foraging habitat if the vegetative structure precludes prey detection or capture. Previous research focused on identifying the habitats in which owls forage. However, data acquisition was via the use of radio telemetry or data loggers, both of which acquired single locations at largely-spaced intervals. Conclusions about the owls’ use of, and behaviour at, these points (e.g., flying, perching, roosting, foraging, etc.) are assumed, as conclusions about behaviour cannot be inferred from a single location. Thus, links between behaviour and habitat, or habitat conditions, are ambiguous. My research focuses on identifying precisely where Burrowing Owls capture their prey. I use new data loggers that acquire a location, accurate to <5 m, every second, allowing me to follow a foraging owl’s precise paths. Used in conjunction with Digital Video Recorders (DVRs), which film prey deliveries at the nests, I can pinpoint where the owl captured the species being delivered. I can then determine the habitat type and conditions at the capture site. To date, 41 small mammal capture sites have been located. Preliminary analysis indicates owls are capturing prey in a variety of vegetation types, but consistently in areas of low vegetative height/density, which contradicts the reasoning behind current vegetation enhancement strategies. Further analysis is needed to understand the relationship between height of grass and the effect this has on prey sources, as well as on prey capture.

Yellow Rail Habitat Selection in Southeastern Manitoba

Kristen Martin and Nicola Koper Natural Resources Institute, University of Manitoba

Abstract – Yellow Rail (Coturnicops noveboracensis) populations continue to be threatened by extensive wetland loss on both their breeding and wintering grounds. Yellow Rails are often found in wetlands dominated by sedges and with low water levels, but the influence of other structural habitat factors, such as wetland size, amount of cattails or woody vegetation, and surrounding land use, is not well understood. In 2010-2011, I will conduct a multi-scale habitat analysis to evaluate Yellow Rail habitat at the local and landscape levels in southeastern Manitoba. I will conduct call-playback surveys for Yellow Rails at 200 wetlands. In 2010, study wetlands will consist of randomly selected wetlands in addition to all known sites within the study area at which Yellow Rails have been previously detected. Local wetland habitat characteristics will be evaluated through measurements of water depth, maximum vegetation height, canopy density, overall wetland size, and vegetation species community. Landscape level habitat will be evaluated through measurements of land cover types (e.g., amount of wetlands, trees) and land-use types (e.g., grazed, cropland) within 3 km2 of each study wetland, using GIS. Data will be analyzed using generalized linear mixed models, and the best-fitting model will be selected using Akaike’s Information Criterion. In the second year, we will test the efficiency and accuracy of our model by selecting wetlands in the same study area based on suitable and non-suitable wetland habitat according to the best-fitting model. The habitat suitability model developed in this study will be useful for identifying new Yellow Rail habitat and predicting critical Yellow Rail habitat on which conservation efforts should be focused in southeastern Manitoba.

199 Habitat Selection of the Eastern Yellowbellied Racer (Coluber constrictor) and Bullsnake (Pituophis catenifer) in Southern Saskatchewan

Jessica Martino Department of Biology, University of Regina Ray G. Poulin Royal Saskatchewan Museum Christopher M. Somers Department of Biology, University of Regina

Abstract – Understanding the habitat requirements of a species is vital for developing an effective recovery or management strategy. The Eastern Yellow-bellied Racer (Coluber constrictor) is a threatened species in Canada, primarily because its range is restricted to a small area around Grasslands National Park in southern Saskatchewan. There have been no studies published on the ecology of this species in the Canadian prairies, and thus there is little detailed information from which to draft a recovery strategy. The Bullsnake (Pituophis catenifer) shares habitat and hibernacula with the racer. The geographic range of the Bullsnake is larger than that of the racer, but again, no ecological studies have been published on this species in Canada and as a consequence, its conservation status is designated as “data deficient”. We used radio-telemetry to begin identifying important ecological parameters of these two snake species, including habitat selection, movement patterns and den locations. Over two years we tracked 20 racers and 16 Bullsnakes from 5 den sites in the Grasslands National Park area. We measured a wide range of habitat features selected by snakes (percent vegetation, maximum vegetation height, distance to nearest burrow, etc.) and these measures will be incorporated into a multi-variate habitat selection model. There appears to be a general trend of racers spending their summer in proximity to the French- man River as opposed to inhabiting the upland pasture areas. Bullsnakes showed a similar trend, spending time along waterways, but also seemed to prefer habitat in roadside ditches. All snakes avoided Black-tailed Prairie Dog colonies. When completed, the results of this project will be used to inform recovery strategies and help identify critical habitat for these species.

200 Understanding Urban Whitetailed Deer Movement within the Greater Winnipeg Area

Erin McCance, Richard Baydack and David Walker Department of Environment and Geography, University of Manitoba Rick Riewe Department of Biological Sciences, University of Manitoba Michael Campbell Faculty of Kinesiology and Recreation Management, University of Manitoba

Abstract – The urban white-tailed deer (WTD) population in the Greater Winnipeg Area (GWA) has grown substantially over the last three decades. Increasing WTD populations in heavily human- populated areas have led to human-deer conflict and represent a significant human health and safety concern. There has been a substantial increase in the number of deer-vehicle collisions within the GWA; WTD host a number of diseases transmittable to humans and other wildlife; and WTD cause significant property damage. Despite these problems, residents of the GWA view the urban WTD population as a valuable resource. This poster presents research using GPS and reflector collars to track WTD population movement within the GWA. Gaining a better understanding of urban WTD movement patterns, corridor use and habitat choices will provide community leaders with information that will provide an understanding of the importance of urban wildlife corridors to conserving the deer population and the biodiversity required to support urban wildlife species. GIA analysis of land use by deer promises to have a major impact on how we manage the population, design roadways, and proactively plan for urban development and infrastructure. Throughout the 20th century, urbanization and capital expansion have progressively engulfed undev- eloped land, and yet, today, there is recognition of the implications of this development and a growing concern for the environment, habitat loss and reduction of global biodiversity. The importance of ac- knowledging ecosystem integrity is becoming increasingly apparent in what Jennifer Wolch (in Animal Geographies) calls the “zoopolis” – the contemporary metropolis that is populated by both humans and animals, and that must be designed for their co-existence. Since human responsibility to non-human animals can no longer be avoided, it is necessary to develop co-existence principles that recognize this responsibility, and that translate into feasible, future-oriented practices in contemporary urban settings.

201 Effects of Grazing Intensity and Years Grazed on Songbird Nesting Success in Northern Mixed Grass Prairies

Emily Pipher and Nicola Koper Natural Resources Institute, University of Manitoba

Abstract – Prairie songbirds are declining due to loss of habitat and the removal of natural grassland processes such as historical grazing by bison. Nesting success of songbirds is influenced by vegetation, which can be affected by grazing. Cattle were introduced into Grasslands National Park of Canada using an adaptive management experiment. We used hand-dragging to find nests in 26 plots (each 300m²) in pastures with grazing intensities ranging from 0-70% biomass removal, and which were grazed for 0, 2 or >15 years. We monitored nests of seven songbird species, and present analysis for three. Modified logistic regression indicated a nonlinear effect of grazing intensity on nesting success of Sprague’s Pipits, which had lowest success at low grazing intensities, but highest success at moderate intensities. There was a negative correlation between years grazed and nesting success for Chestnut-collared Longspurs, but a positive correlation with grazing intensity. Nesting success of Vesper Sparrows, and all species combined, was not influenced by grazing. If the management objective is to maintain songbird diversity, grazing does not influence the quality of nesting habitat. However, if management is aimed toward increasing threatened Sprague’s Pipit populations, certain grazing regimes may reduce nesting success, while others may increase it.

Sprague’s Pipit and Vesper Sparrow Breeding Success during Pipeline Construction and Cleanup Activity

Lois Pittaway and Janice Skiffington Tera Environmental Consultants Glenn Sutter Royal Saskatchewan Museum Stephen K. Davis Canadian Wildlife Service

Abstract – Understanding the effects of industrial activity on grassland birds is necessary to ensure that effective protection measures are implemented. Currently, federal and provincial guidelines are in place that recommend restricted activity periods and setback distances for species at risk, including the threatened Sprague’s Pipit. In spring and summer 2009, we studied the appropriateness of the recommended setback distance for Sprague’s Pipit, which recommends that industrial activity not occur within 200-250 m of an active nest. Nesting success of Vesper Sparrow was also monitored for comparative purposes, as these birds occupy similar types of habitat. Fieldwork focused on construction and clean-up activities associated with an Enbridge pipeline that crosses Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba and traverses the northern edge of the Sprague’s Pipit breeding range. Treatment and control plots were established at locations where pipits were detected during pre-construction surveys, with treatment plots being adjacent to the pipeline right-of-way and control plots being 600 m away in similar habitat. In both types of plots, Sprague’s Pipit and Vesper Sparrow nests were located using rope drags and monitored to estimate survivorship. The locations of singing Sprague’s Pipit males were mapped to document changes in the size and location of breeding territories. Ambient noise levels were also recorded before, during and after pipeline activities and compared to the frequency spectra of Sprague’s Pipit and Vesper Sparrow breeding calls. A summary of the results is presented and discussed.

202 The Effects of Twiceover Rotation Grazing on the Abundances of Grassland Birds

Cristina Ranellucci and Nicola Koper Natural Resources Institute, University of Manitoba

Abstract – The mixed grass prairie region of southwestern Manitoba is a hotspot for many endangered grassland birds. Once covering approximately 6,000,000 ha, this region has been degraded to less than a quarter of the historical amounts. Presently, the remaining prairie is primarily used for livestock grazing. We evaluated the potential role of sustainable land management practices, such as rotational grazing, for aiding in conservation of the regional avian community. We surveyed a total of 45 sites to compare the effects of land management regimes on the abundances of grassland birds (22 twice- over rotation grazed pastures, 15 continuously grazed pastures, and 8 ungrazed fields). Bird surveys were conducted using 100 m fixed-radius point count plots. In 2008, twice-over rotation grazed pastures had higher species richness per plot than continuously grazed pastures, while ungrazed fields had the lowest species richness. An ANOVA indicated a significant difference among treatments (p=0.08). However, a Fisher’s post-hoc test did not indicate a significant difference between the two grazing regimes, but did indicate a significant difference between grazed and ungrazed sites (α=0.1). Future analysis will include evaluating the effects of vegetation structure on the occurrences of grassland bird species, and the use of generalized linear mixed-models to accommodate for non-normal and clustered distributions of species within pastures.

Does Buffalograss Need Buffalo?

Diana Bizecki Robson The Manitoba Museum Vernon Harms Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan Darcy C. Henderson and Candace Neufeld Canadian Wildlife Service Chris Friesen Manitoba Conservation Data Centre

Abstract – Buffalograss (Buchloë dactyloides) was designated a threatened species in 2001 by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC). This species is rare, and is found only along the Souris River Valley in southeastern Saskatchewan, and the Souris and Blind River Valleys in southwestern Manitoba. Buffalograss occurs on relatively infertile, clayey, somewhat sodic soils in shallow coulees and valley floors. As Buffalograss is a poor competitor with tall grasses, it is generally restricted to areas being grazed. Recent survey work suggests that there are between 1 and 4.2 million Buffalograss clones occupying approximately 0.032 km2 in Saskatchewan and 4.07 km2 in Manitoba. Threats to this species include coal strip mining, invasive exotic species, lack of grazing and/or fire, flooding, cultivation, road construction or upgrades, urban expansion and clay pit mining.

203 Ecology of the Rare Western Silvery Aster

Diana Bizecki Robson The Manitoba Museum

Abstract – Western Silvery Aster (Symphyotrichum sericeum) is a nationally threatened plant found in southern Manitoba and Ontario. Preliminary research indicated that low seed production might be negatively affecting this species. Research was conducted in 2008 and 2009 to (a) determine the frequency and constancy of insect visitors, (b) determine if pollen is limiting seed production, and (c) determine if clipping and/or fertilizing can be used to stimulate flower production. Insect visitation rates to Western Silvery Aster and the more common co-flowering plant Showy Goldenrod (Solidago nemoralis) were similar but the constancy of the visitors was lower to the former species. In a pollina- tion experiment, seed production was significantly higher when flowers were pollinated by hand. None of the treatments applied (e.g. clipping, fertilizing with nitrogen and both), significantly increased height, the number of capitula per stem, or seed production over the control; clipping actually decreased height and capitula production. In summary, pollen limitation and possibly low overall soil nutrient levels, but not light, are hampering seed production.

Population Connectivity as a Critical Factor in PrairieChicken Sustainability

Jen Ruch University of Manitoba John Toepfer Society Tympanuchus Cupido Pinnatus Ltd.

Abstract – The purpose of this poster is to encourage new and insightful discussion around the biggest threat to prairie-chicken conservation – the loss of grassland habitat, which disconnects local populations, threatening the species as a whole. Connective corridors that enable the birds to move meaningful distances and distribute their genes are of critical demographic importance in the long-term viability of this species; by long-term, we mean over the course of centuries. It follows that the preservation of strategically located habitat is the primary challenge in prairie-chicken conservation. Research indicates that local populations tend toward extirpation when habitat quality is reduced and predation increases. Although these and other limiting factors contribute to overall species decline, the critical limiting factor for species extinction – the ultimate extirpation – appears to be loss of usable space, or habitat quantity. This is further illustrated in geologic time where random and unpredictable natural events have extirpated a species locally, and yet it continues to persist by way of recolonization. It should follow that effectual concern for a local population is only reasonable if that population has the opportunity to ultimately sustain itself via the natural movement of birds and their genes. Which leads us to ask: how can we assist – or at the very least, not inhibit – the chickens in their movement? The answer is likely by maintaining functional habitat corridors that offer, and lead to, usable space. The Greater Prairie-Chicken is capable of choosing usable space, and its distribution is only limited by our grassland management strategies. At what point will we begin to use our foresight, predictions and logic to prevent dangerous declines in numbers so that a species might be able to “save itself”?

204 Largescale Abiotic Influences on Burrowing Owl Homerange Habitat Selection in the Canadian Prairies

A.F. Joy Manalo Stevens, Erin M. Bayne and Troy I. Wellicome* Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta *Canadian Wildlife Service

Abstract – Understanding species-environment relationships through the use of statistical habitat models is important for developing wildlife conservation strategies. Such studies are typically conducted on a small geographic scale (hundreds of square kilometres) resulting in a relatively small range in environmental variation. Models from local studies are often used to predict the suitability of other unsampled regions. However, without considering the large-scale processes that structure spatial patterns in the species distribution, the value of these models can be questionable. We examined home-range habitat selection by Burrowing Owls across the entire mixed prairie grassland region of western Canada to determine whether selection for biotic factors changes across abiotic gradients. Specifically, we classified 37 explanatory variables into five categories (geography, land use, grassland fragmentation, soil and climate), created models for each set of variables, and evaluated the predictive ability of each model. We then examined interaction effects to determine if the relationship between vegetation variables and the probability of owl home-range selection varied within large- scale abiotic criteria. Our results show that soil and climate produce the most predictive models of Burrowing Owl home-range selection at this scale, and create unique habitat conditions for owls that are independent of vegetation. This study provides new insight into Burrowing Owl habitat requirements, and strengthens the case for consideration of large-scale geographic gradients when prioritizing areas for conservation.

205 Pronghorn Habitat Selection and Movement in the Northern Sagebrush Steppe

Mike Suitor University of Calgary Mike Grue Alberta Conservation Association Cormack Gates University of Calgary Dale Eslinger and Kim Morton Alberta Fish and Wildlife Darren Bender University of Calgary

Abstract – Among the diversity of prairie wildlife, Pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) are the most specialized and representative large mammal in the grasslands of North America. They are not typically found in any other natural regions of Alberta and are considered to be an obligate grassland species. In 2000, the Alberta Conservation Association (ACA) sought to bring issues surrounding Pronghorn conservation to the forefront, which resulted in the formation of a Pronghorn working group and the initiation of a collaborative research program between ACA, University of Calgary, and Alberta Fish and Wildlife. Seventy-four female Pronghorn were captured between December 2003 and March 2006 and fitted with a Lotek GPS collar. Using habitat associations in the fawning period we classified Pronghorn into one of three groups: Native Prairie, Agriculture or Mixed. Approximately 41% of our animals used native landscapes year round, 11% used cultivated landscapes year round, while the remainder used a mixture of native and cultivation. Approximately 38% of our collared animals were migratory; on average, moving 450 km (round trip) annually. One collared female moved 830 km in a 6-month period, the longest recorded migration for the species. Our research also documented the negative impacts of barbed-wire fences on Pronghorn, such as barrier effects, hair removal and tissue scaring. The above research and management actions have catalyzed further research in Saskatchewan and Montana to describe movement corridors, barriers, and the effect of various land uses on seasonal requirements of Pronghorn throughout the Northern Sagebrush Steppe.

206 Rare Plant Rescue: Identifying and Conserving Habitat for Rare Plants in Saskatchewan

Sarah Vinge Nature Saskatchewan

Abstract – Rare Plant Rescue (RPR) is a land stewardship program that works with landowners for the conservation of plant species at risk and their habitat. Most of the rarest Saskatchewan plants are found on the province’s remaining natural grasslands, a great deal of which is privately owned and managed. RPR contacts private landowners with suitable habitat for permission to conduct targeted searches for rare plants. Searches are generally focused in areas having historical records of species occurrences, but other areas with suitable habitat are also searched. Landowners with suitable habitat are invited to join RPR, and when a new occurrence is found, RPR maintains a working relationship with the landowner to monitor the population. Both searches and monitoring are conducted following standardized methodology refined in 2008. Participating landowners sign a voluntary agreement to conserve the habitat; this is a first step toward legal protection, and landowners are encouraged to consider a conservation easement. RPR landowners are educated about species at risk, beneficial management practices, and threats to the land, and receive recognition for their stewardship through an annual Stewards of Saskatchewan newsletter and person- alized gate sign (those with species occurrences) or certificate (those with habitat but no occurrences). In 2008 and 2009, RPR staff visited over 40 landowners (15 have joined the program so far) and located 22 previously unknown sites having plant species at risk: 7 with Small-flowered Sand-verbena (Trip- terocalyx micranthus), 3 with Western Spiderwort (Tradescantia occidentalis), 4 with Hairy Prairie- clover (Dalea villosa), and 8 with Buffalograss (Buchloë dactyloides). Monitoring was conducted on 14 sites (of a possible 39) in 2009. Other species on RPR sites include Slender Mouse-ear-cress (Halimolo- bos virgata), Small Lupine (Lupinus pusillus), Prairie Dunewort (Botrychium campestre), Beaked Annual Skeletonweed (Shinnersoseris rostrata), Smooth Goosefoot (Chenopodium salinum) and Bur Ragweed (Ambrosia acanthicarpa). Since it began in 2002, RPR has gained 59 participating landowners that are conserving over 27,000 acres of rare plant habitat.

207 The Saskatchewan Prairie Conservation Action Plan: Embracing a New Approach for 20092013

Michelle Yaskowich Prairie Conservation Action Plan

Abstract – Since 1998, the Saskatchewan Prairie Conservation Action Plan (SK PCAP) has brought together diverse organizations representing producers, industry, provincial and federal governments, environmental non-government organizations, and research and educational institutions, all working toward a common vision of conservation of native prairie and species at risk in Saskatchewan. The PCAP Partnership, which has grown from 16 to 27 partners, has proven to be an important forum for guiding conservation and management efforts within Saskatchewan’s Prairie Ecozone. It reduces duplication, increases communication and coordination amongst partners, addresses gaps in native prairie research, activities and programming, guides the development of programs and policies that reward sustainable use and promote ecological health and integrity including species at risk recovery, and improves public understanding of native prairie and species at risk. After ten years of collaborative prairie conservation experience through the implementation of two five- year action plans (1998-2003 and 2003-2008), the Partnership decided to embrace a new approach over its next five years. Rather than a five-year action plan, the Partnership developed a five-year Frame- work for Action upon which annual work plans are built. The Framework sets out a renewed Vision, Mission and Guiding Principles for the Partnership including three goals and five priority focus areas. Focus groups, including other stakeholders, are formed each year around these focus areas and are responsible for developing, reporting on, and revising the annual work plans. The deliverables outlined in the annual work plans are realistic and can be achieved within each given year, allowing PCAP to take small attainable steps towards its overall goal. Over the next five years, the PCAP Partnership will deliver innovative and critical prairie conservation activities that grow out of the unique capacity provided by a partnership such as this. These activities will benefit the social, cultural, economic and ecological fabric of Saskatchewan.

208 CHANGING RELATIONSHIPS

Changing Ethics: Developing Ecological Conscience through Faithbased Conservation

Larry Danielson A Rocha Prairie Canada

Abstract – Aldo Leopold, in his famous essay “The Land Ethic” (A Sand County Almanac), called for “a change in ethics accompanied by an internal change in intellectual emphasis, loyalties, affections, and convictions” Now, some 60 years later, faith-based organizations are helping to realize Leopold’s vision of extending social conscience from people to the land. A Rocha Prairie Canada is part of a Christian conservation network helping to develop what Leopold called an “ecological conscience.” Based in 19 countries around the world, A Rocha provides environmental education and outreach to schools, youth groups, churches and communities and engages in a variety of conservation work; e.g., mapping and studying ecosystems, surveying and monitoring species, managing and protecting habitats, and restoring wetlands and forests. A Rocha carries the message of land stewardship to a significant audience and taps a new pool of committed volunteers for conservation projects.

The Changing Value of Citizen Science: A Manitoba Example

J. Paul Goossen A Rocha Prairie Canada

Abstract – The role of citizen scientists in conservation is of increasing importance as government and non-government agencies struggle to keep pace with the growth of environmental stressors. Base- line data collected over broad geographical areas are often gathered by citizen scientists who make valuable contributions to scientific and conservation research. Key areas where citizen scientists are making a contribution are through fauna, flora or environmental monitoring programs or projects such as NatureWatch, Breeding Bird Surveys and Christmas Bird Counts. An example of citizen science is A Rocha Prairie Canada’s raptor migration monitoring project in the Pembina Valley of Manitoba. Opportunistic counts over 20 years by interested birdwatchers at this valley, located 125 km southwest of Winnipeg, resulted in the recognition of this major Manitoba raptor migration site. These historical counts, along with the more recent standardized counts initiated by A Rocha, a non-profit conservation organization, confirm the Pembina Valley as Manitoba’s premiere spring raptor migration corridor. Count data are collected by A Rocha project personnel who are aided by interested birdwatchers and the general public. In 2009, the annual spring raptor count of 14 species peaked at over 10,000. Information gathered by citizen scientists and the interested public can play an increasing role in monitoring the status of various species and documenting areas in need of conservation. Raptor migration information gathered locally in Manitoba not only serves regional interests but also contributes to continental monitoring efforts which endeavour to assess the status of species and population trends.

209 Manitoba Provincial Prairie Grass Campaign Marilena Kowalchuk, Cary Hamel and Julie Sveinson Pelc

Abstract – In 2009, a grassroots citizen-led campaign invited all Manitobans to select the native prairie grass species that best symbolizes Manitoba as a Canadian Prairie Province. By engaging the public in a vote for an official provincial grass emblem, the campaign raised awareness of the variety and value of Manitoba’s prairie ecosystems. The candidates were Big Bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), Sideoats Grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), Blue Grama (Bouteloua gracilis) and Little Bluestem (Schiz- achyrium scoparium). Over 1500 votes were cast at www.manitobagrass.ca or at booths displayed at several rural and urban community events. Voting results were revealed officially at the 9th Prairie Conservation and Endangered Species Conference.

How it began Public engagement Inspired by their prairie neighbours to the west and Voters were from all regions of the province and included driven by a passion for Manitoba's native prairie grass- seniors, children, new Canadians, and Aboriginals. Voter lands, a small group of enthusiasts initiated a campaign awareness ranged widely; many voters expressed sur- to have Manitoba declare an official Provincial Grass prise upon learning of Manitoba’s variety of grass species Emblem. and native grassland types. Numerous voters expressed the personal meaning that the prairies hold for them – Objectives childhood memories of playing in the pasture, family The campaign objective was to celebrate and increase camping trips at local parks, or admiring the plants grow- awareness of Manitoba’s native grasslands by engaging ing along the roadside on long drives. Manitobans in the selection of a provincial prairie grass emblem. The formal goal was: “By 2010, in time for Voting results the 9th Prairie Conservation and Endangered Species The total number of votes cast was 1602. The results Conference being held in Manitoba, Manitobans will are: 747 people voted for Big Bluestem; 427 people declare a provincial grass for Manitoba”. voted for Little Bluestem; 229 people voted for Blue Grama; and 199 people voted for Sideoats Grama. Voting process Big Bluestem garnered nearly half of the votes (47%) Manitobans were invited to cast their votes online at the and therefore was declared the winning candidate. Sev- campaign website www.manitobagrass.ca, or in person eral voters expressed a similar view to Robert Parsons, at booths displayed at various community events. The a voter from Winnipeg, who stated “as this was the centre campaign website included information on the candi- of abundance for Big Bluestem in Canada, it seems appro- dates, Manitoba’s grasslands, threats to native prairie, priate for it to be our provincial grass emblem.” where to see native prairie and how to engage in prairie conservation. Voting was open from April 15 to Decem- Next steps ber 15, 2009. To be official, provincial emblems must be adopted as an amendment to The Coat of Arms, Emblems and Man- Selection and criteria itoba Tartan Act. The committee will ask a member of Manitoba supports at least 117 native grass species. The the provincial legislature to introduce this as a bill. campaign committee narrowed this list down to 9 prairie grassland species that were both recognizable and charis- Acknowledgements matic. Over 50 prairie experts and enthusiasts were asked The campaign committee (Marilena Kowalchuk, Cary to rank these 9 species based on several criteria, including Hamel and Julie Sveinson Pelc) thank the people, pro- representativeness, ease of identification, beauty and grams and events that invited us to display in their charisma. The top four species were presented to the communities, waived or covered display fees, provided public as candidates for the provincial prairie grass em- meeting space, contributed photos, promoted the cam- blem. They were: Big Bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), paign and provided advice. We especially thank all the Sideoats Grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), Blue Grama people who took time to vote for Manitoba's official (Bouteloua gracilis) and Little Bluestem (Schizachyrium prairie grass. scoparium).

210 Do the Germination Temperature Characteristics of the Species at Risk Hairy Prairie Clover (Dalea villosa) Differ from the More Common Prairie Clovers (D. purpurea and candida) Found in the Canadian Prairies?

Michael P. Schellenberg Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Darcy C. Henderson Canadian Wildlife Service Jacqueline Bolton and Richard St. Pierre Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada

Abstract – On the Canadian Prairies, the northern portion of the Northern Great Plains, three species of Dalea can be found. Their ranges overlap, but their occurrence is commonly weighted to D. purpurea followed by D. candida and D. villosa, considered a species at risk (endangered). D. purpurea and candida have been found to be a valuable species to include in seeding mixtures as they improve forage nutritive value late in the season, when protein can be lacking, as well as nitrogen fixation and neutra- cine potential. A germination study was done, consisting of seed lots of the three species at four temperatures (5, 10, 20 and 30°C). The experiment consisted of Petri dishes with two layers of Whatman’s No. 2 ashless paper (two papers on bottom, one paper on the top), four replicates, and 100 seeds per species per Petri dish per temperature. All of the parameters reported here (total germinants, days to reach largest number of germinants, and days to first germination) were significantly different (P<0.05) for each species. They all had the most germinants at 20°C, with D. purpurea having the most. Both D. purpurea and candida had fewer germinants at 30°C while D. villosa had no decline. All species required more days to germinate at lower temperatures, but D. candida and villosa required fewer days. At 30°C D. purpurea and candida required one day to reach peak number of germinants and one day to first germinant, but reached only 65% and 34% of total germinants for 20°C. D. purpurea responds most rapidly to temperature change while D. candida will germinate at lower temperatures but with fewer germinants. D. villosa demonstrates a preference for warmer temperatures. These differences explain in part the relative numbers of the species occurrence, and also indicate the need for longer periods of vegetation control necessary for establishment of D. candida and villosa seedlings.

211 AUTHOR INDEX

Acheson, Peggy Bainard...... 158 Gates, Cormack ...... 206 Preston, William...... 127 Ahlering, Marissa...... 116 Gaudet, Carolyn...... 189 Proulx, Gilbert...... 128 Ames, Doris ...... 158 Gerla, Phil...... 116 Ranellucci, Cristina ...... 203 Apatagon, Rob ...... 109 Goldsborough, Gordon ...... 62 Reeves, Laura...... 156 Armbruster, Ray...... 66 Goossen, Paul ...... 209 Reisz, Russ ...... 116 Artuso, Christian ...... 158 Greenall, Jason...... 173 Rever, Susan...... 120 Gregoire, Paul...... 117 Banack, Shawn...... 142 Rezansoff, Amanda ...... 154 Grue, Mike...... 206 Baydack, Richard...... 196, 201 Riewe, Rick ...... 201 Bayne, Erin ...... 141, 199, 205 Hamel, Cary...... 116, 156, 210 Robson, Diana Bizecki.....203, 204 Bender, Darren...... 206 Hamilton, Katrina ...... 156 Rogasky, Laura...... 135 Blouin, Dana ...... 148 Harms, Vernon...... 203 Ruch, Jen...... 204 Blouin, François...... 76 Hayes, Trish...... 75 Rutherford, Pamela...... Bogard, Holly Kalyn...... 153 Heming, Cheryl ...... 156 ...... 99, 140, 185, 194 Bolton, Jacqueline...... 211 Henderson, Allison ...... 174 Ruzicka, Don...... 27 Borkowsky, Christie...... 159 Henderson, Darcy ...... Sather, Nancy ...... 2, 100 Bowman, Tracy...... 152 ...... 45, 86, 203, 211 Sauchyn, Dave...... 55 Bristol, Bill...... 99 Hennin, Holly ...... 139 Schellenberg, Michael...... 211 Brook, Ryan ...... 114 Holroyd, Geoffrey...... Schmutz, Josef...... 91 ...... 17, 39, 137, 175, 176, 177 Campbell, Michael...... 201 Scobie, Corey ...... 141 Hvenegaard, Glen ...... 142 Carlson, John...... 172 Scott, Krista...... 152 Choi, Hyeok Jae ...... 162 Jaeger, Chelsea ...... 185 Sheffield, Ryan...... 136 Cornett, Meredith...... 116 Jones, Paul ...... 170 Skeel, Margaret ...... 189 Cota-Sánchez, Hugo...... 162 Kazina, Deanna...... 109 Skiffington, Janice...... 202 Koper, Nicola...... 45, 126, 136, Sliwinski, Maggi ...... 136 Dale, Brenda ...... 83 ...... 194, 195, 199, 202, 203 Somers, Christopher ...... 139, 200 Danielsen, Allison Krause...... 194 Kotylak, Andrea...... 189 St. Pierre, Richard ...... 211 Danielson, Larry...... 209 Kowalchuk, Marilena ...... 210 Stelfox, Brad...... 26 Davis, Stephen ...... Stevens, Joy Manalo...... 205 ...... 52, 153, 171, 174, 202 La Porte, Nicholas ...... 126 Strankman, Peggy...... 73, 121 De Smet, Ken...... 173 Lapp, Suzan ...... 55 Sturch, Adrian ...... 155 Davar, Celes...... 38 Latta, Marilyn ...... 105 Suitor, Mike...... 206 Didiuk, Andrew...... 53 Leston, Lionel...... 195 Sutter, Glen...... 202 Downey, Brad ...... 170 Markham, John ...... 136 Svendsen, Erl...... 122 Drake, Kiel...... 170 Marsh, Alan ...... 141, 199 Swayze, Natalie...... 109 Dubois, Melanie...... 75 Martin, Brian ...... 172 Duncan, James ...... 140 Thomson, Sharon ...... 157 Martin, Kristen...... 199 Duxbury, Jason ...... 175, 176 Thorpe, Jeff ...... 116 Martinez-Welgan, Isabel...... 196 Toepfer, John...... 204 Edwards, Cynthia Kallio...... 71 Martino, Jessica ...... 200 Trefry, Helen ....137, 175, 176, 177 Eerkes, Jon ...... 116 McCance, Erin...... 201 Trowsdale-Mutafov, Deanna....138 Elsinger, Mae ...... 123 McCandless, Matthew ...... 73 Tuckwell, Joanne...... 99 Emery, Robert...... 135 McFadden, William ...... 140 Engley, Lance ...... 154 McFadyen, Wanda...... 69 Unterschultz, Jim...... 65 Eslinger, Dale...... 206 McLachlan, Stéphane ...... 104 Valdez-Gómez, Héctor...... 176 Michalsky, Sue ...... 172 Fargey, Pat ...... 172 Venema, Henry...... 63 Morton, Kim ...... 206 Firlotte, Nicole ...... 140, 173 Vinge, Sarah...... 207 Mozel, Kristin...... 45 Fisher, Ryan ...... 171 Murray, Kathy ...... 149 Walker, David ...... 201 Fitzsimmons, Michael...... 155 Wellicome, Troy...... 141, 199, 205 Flaten, Don...... 62 Naeth, Anne...... 123 Westhorpe, Peggy...... 149 Ford, Bruce ...... 96 Neufeld, Candace...... 203 Westwood, Richard ...... 52 Forrest, Steve ...... 172 Nugent, Sherry...... 83 Wiseman, Dion...... 185 Fortney, Gene...... 105 Otfinowski, Rafael... 152, 155, 157 Wiseman, Grant...... 84 Fox, Paulette ...... 37 Worley, Anne ...... 96 Friesen, Chris ...... 173, 203 Pelc, Julie Sveinson ...... 156, 210 Froese, Alex ...... 173 Pipher, Emily...... 202 Yaskowich, Michelle...... 208 Pittaway, Lois ...... 202 Young, David ...... 11

Poulin, Ray ...... 139, 200

212

Celebrating the Journey Home: the Reintroduction of Black­Footed Ferrets in Canada

Celebrating the Journey Home: the Reintroduction of BlackFooted Ferrets in Canada