Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS): ISSN 2523-6725 (online) November, 2020 Vol. 4, No. 11 Citation: Temu, E. L; Itule, V; Nyoni, F. P; Banzi, C & Ulimboka, R. (2020). The Cultural Heritage of the Great Chief Mkwawa in Msembe Area, . Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(11), 72 – 93.

The Cultural Heritage of the Great Chief Mkwawa in Msembe Area, Tanzania

By

Emanuel Lucas Temu, Victor Itule, Frowin Paul Nyoni, Celina Banzi and Rehema Ulimboka

Abstract Mkwawa’s cultural heritage in Msembe area entails all the material signs associated with Chief Mkwawa throughout his life history and therefore defines and enrich Hehe and Tanzanians cultural identities in general, It is these cultural heritages that have carried and stored Mkwawa’s history and experiences. The identification and documentation of Mkwawa’s heritage would be crucial in the preservation and transmission of Mkwawa’s past experiences to future generation. Such cultural heritage gives each particular place its recognizable features and it is the storehouse of human experience (UNESCO 1989). Notwitstanding, existing literature on Chief Mkwawa’s history discusses mainly the wars of the period between 1890 to1898 between Mkwawa and the Germans, however, less is known about the cultural heritages of Chief Mkwawa in Msembe area. This article addresses identification, description and analysing the significance and conservation status of Chief Mkwawa’s heritage in Msembe area. The study used documentary review, oral interviews, focus group discussions, field visits and observations to collect data. The major findings of this study established rich evidence of Chief Mkwawa’s heritage, including both tangible and intangible heritage. Furthermore, the conservation condition of heritage sites and materials vary accordingly, from those sites which are at extreme danger of disappearance, at fair condition and those which are in good condition. Generally, all sites require respective attention. The study recommends for immediate action to salvage the sites in collaboration with local communities and other stakeholders and utilize the same to promote historical and cultural tourism.

Key words: Cultural heritages, Chief Mkwawa, Heritage sites, conservation, and preservation

72 Copyright © 2020 Centre for Democracy, Research and Development (CEDRED), Nairobi, Kenya. http://cedred.org/jais/index.php/issues Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS): ISSN 2523-6725 (online) November, 2020 Vol. 4, No. 11 Citation: Temu, E. L; Itule, V; Nyoni, F. P; Banzi, C & Ulimboka, R. (2020). The Cultural Heritage of the Great Chief Mkwawa in Msembe Area, Tanzania. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(11), 72 – 93.

The Cultural Heritage of the Great Chief Mkwawa in Msembe Area, Tanzania

By

Emanuel Lucas Temu, Victor Itule, Frowin Paul Nyoni, Celina Banzi and Rehema Ulimboka

Background and Introduction Msembe area is an area which constitutes the current Ruaha National Park, Kalenga and neighboring villages. The area harboured the headquarters of Chief Mkwawa’sKingdom and it is where he spent most of his life time. This is the place where Mkwawa grew up, rose to chieftainship, built his headquarters, and it is in this area where he ended his life and his post cranial remains were buried. It is within this area where there is also a Mkwawa museum preserving the Hehe history and Mkwawa’s skull after it was returned from German in 1952. Mkwawa’s history in the Ruaha National Park is justified by a number of evidences; In the first place chief Mkwawa monopolized elephant hunting within the park using his Makua elephant hunters. These hunters made use of the gun that Mkwawa obtained from coastal traders. Secondly, the park was in close proximity with Kalenga, Mkwawa’s fort and therefore, provided him with recreational, ritual and hideouts. Thirdly, the area covering modern day Ruaha National Park was inhabited by the Vakosisamba who were led by Ngakamo having his capital at Igula. These were conquered by Mkwawa and Ngakamo was killed Hence the significance of the area to the cultural heritages and legacy of Chief Mkwawa. Given this interesting and rich evidence of Chief Mkwawa’s heritage, the current study aims at unfolding and documenting this heritage for current and future generation.

Statement of the Problem Tanzania is home to abundant cultural and natural heritage resources. The area of Msembe which constitute Kalenga and Ruaha National Park hosts rich natural, historical and cultural heritage of the Hehe under the Great Chief Mkwawa. Academic evidence indicates that most studies conducted in the area focuses on generating knowledge related to natural heritage resources. For example, issues like park expansion and its impacts to local communities (Sirima, 2016), Community involvement in park decision and fair distribution of resources by (Mtahiko, 2004), the decrease of elephants at Ruaha National Park and other related studies. Beyond, there is an evidence of the existence of Ruaha General Management Plan, which actually directs its efforts in the conservation and management of natural heritage resources, mainly the natural environment and the wildlife. However, little is known about the history of Mkwawa and his cultural legacy in Msembe area which was part of his former territory. This study therefore intends to fill the gap by identifying, documenting and examining the state of heritage conservation in msembe, and alert the heritage managers to take appropriate measures.

Objective of the Study The main objective of the study is to establish the heritages of Chief Mkwawa and the cultural richness of Msembe area.

73 Copyright © 2020 Centre for Democracy, Research and Development (CEDRED), Nairobi, Kenya. http://cedred.org/jais/index.php/issues Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS): ISSN 2523-6725 (online) November, 2020 Vol. 4, No. 11 Citation: Temu, E. L; Itule, V; Nyoni, F. P; Banzi, C & Ulimboka, R. (2020). The Cultural Heritage of the Great Chief Mkwawa in Msembe Area, Tanzania. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(11), 72 – 93.

Specific objectives i. To identify Chief Mkwawa’s heritages and evidence from Msembe area, Tanzania. ii. To document cultural heritage. iii. To examine the state of cultural heritage assets conservation

Review of Related Literature

The concept of Cultural Heritage The term cultural heritage is not friendly to most people. Some people have no any idea of what cultural heritage is. Harrison (2013) in (Marshall et.al. 2015) argues while researching for his study on cultural heritage, some books written “there is no such thing as cultural heritage”, the other one contend that “cultural heritage is anything you want”. Furthermore, many indigenous languages have no word for cultural heritage as such. Such a diversity of understanding is a challenge for any protected area manager where the cultural heritages exist including Ruaha National Park. Universal definition of cultural heritage emerged after the Second World War where people started to recognize the need to protect the monument as part of their national identity (Lennon, 2006) in (Marshall, et al. 2015). Since that period, defining a common terminology and scope of heritage has been guided by the United Nations Education, Science and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and International Council of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) which arose at the Venice Charter of the 1964 (Ahmad, 2006) in (Marshal et. al. 2015) In 1992 UNESCO’s definition was expanded to include cultural landscape, modification by humans and in 2003 it was again amended to include intangible heritage and practices (Marshall et al. 2015). Whereas, the modern scope of cultural heritage embraces all the signs that document human activities over time. It relates to the tangible built environment in an ecological context, and requires the reading of layers of evidence present in environment. Cultural heritage also encompasses the intangible heritage of culture such as language, dance, music, folk ways and craft skills. Intangible heritage is often associated with particular localities, giving meanings and significance to these places. The inclusion of cultural land scape and intangible heritage in the definition of cultural heritage has a significant impact on the way protected areas like Ruaha National Park are managed. Cultural heritage is no longer about a disconnected past instead it is linked to a contemporary society which wants to ensure its heritage is adequately managed and which also holds the information that gives values to that heritage. Meanings and values linked to cultural heritage are embedded in dynamic changing social context; it has been argued that cultural heritage is a process in itself (Marshal et. al. 2015). Cultural heritage is significant because it can help us understand the world and the means by which we shape it. It is rooted in our cultural identities. It also provides a sense of wisdom and knowledge to strengthen sustainable development policies (Marshall et. al. 2015).

Archaeology Archaeology is the study of material remains of human history, from the time of our earliest ancestors up to date. The earliest period, archaeology dealt with paleontology in the study of 74 Copyright © 2020 Centre for Democracy, Research and Development (CEDRED), Nairobi, Kenya. http://cedred.org/jais/index.php/issues Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS): ISSN 2523-6725 (online) November, 2020 Vol. 4, No. 11 Citation: Temu, E. L; Itule, V; Nyoni, F. P; Banzi, C & Ulimboka, R. (2020). The Cultural Heritage of the Great Chief Mkwawa in Msembe Area, Tanzania. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(11), 72 – 93. the fossil remains of early human. In recent time, archaeology blends with other fields like history, geography and anthropology. Archaeological investigation often involves systematic and controlled excavation of physical evidence that exists under the ground (Marshall et. al. 2015). Some archaeological methods of research are going to be employed in this study so as to find availability of archaeological heritage in the site. Example of archaeological heritage assets are such as; ancient hunter’s campsite, stone tools and food remains such as those found in Uluru-Kata Tjuta National park in Australia (Marshall et al.2015). The entire villages of building buried under the ground such as the 8000-years old early agriculture settlement of World Heritage Catal Huyuk in Turkey. Others are farming landscape, rock art sites on the World Heritage list such as those at Kondoa Irangi Singida- Tanzania, the earliest industrial sites, cultural; landscape such as the extensive prehistoric taro and yam garden in New Caledonia, the surviving remains of any craft, canoe, boat, ship and submarine that has ever sunk anywhere (Marshall et. al. 2015).

Reconstruction of Chief Mkwawa History from Ruaha National Park Rackel (1997) conducted a study on Caravan Porters of the Nyika, Labour, Culture and Society in the 19th Century. The study aimed at assessing the significance of porters in the Caravan trading routes of the 19th Century. The study explored various caravan routes which were used by the Swahili and Arabs traders in the 19th Century. These caravans involved routes extending from Mrina Coast that is Stretch of Coast opposite Zanzibar and another from Kilwa on Mwera Coast which lies further to South. From North to South there were Pangani Valley, Central was Ugogo, Ruaha and Kilwa routes. Later on Rackel divided the central network routes which should be divided into the Southerly roads passing up the Ruaha River into Ukimbu and Southern Unyamwezi and set of the routes crossing Ugogo in the Central Tanzania which became more favored by the second half of the 19th Century. Study revealed significant information about porters and early Caravan routes however, the study focused much on the routes and overlook about the participants in these routes. It mentions the routes passing through Ruaha which was part of Mkwawa chiefdom but forget about Mkwawa endeavor towards these trading routes. The current study focuses on reconstructing Mkwawa position in the caravan routes which passed through Ruaha. Pizzo (2007) conducted a study which focuses on the German Hehe war which passed across the Southern Highlands. The study collected data by using archival sources based on Berlin, Dar es Salaam and Iringa. The study revealed that Hehe under Mkwawa were highly effective killers and administrators. The study mentions Mkwawa as a Chief Commander during the war though he was defeated by Germany later, he managed to escape and committed suicide and he wanted the German not to touch him while alive. The study explored significant history about Mkwawa though this history is much based on political history but the history of Mkwawa as related to cultural heritage in Ruaha is less addressed.

Documentation of Cultural Heritage Richness of Msembe Mkwizu (2006) researched on the Domestic tourist visitation profile at Ruaha National Park, the study aims at assessing the domestic tourist visitation profile, and analyze the impact of social media as a source of information on domestic tourist. The study was conducted at . Quantitative approach, survey and Semi structured questionnaire was used to collect data from sample size of 105 domestic tourists. The findings revealed that social media as a source of information does not have significant impact on domestic tourist 75 Copyright © 2020 Centre for Democracy, Research and Development (CEDRED), Nairobi, Kenya. http://cedred.org/jais/index.php/issues Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS): ISSN 2523-6725 (online) November, 2020 Vol. 4, No. 11 Citation: Temu, E. L; Itule, V; Nyoni, F. P; Banzi, C & Ulimboka, R. (2020). The Cultural Heritage of the Great Chief Mkwawa in Msembe Area, Tanzania. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(11), 72 – 93. visitation to Ruaha National Park. The study put much emphasis on exploring the natural heritage of the park and their impact on visitor’s attention to the park, but forgetting about the cultural significant of the park. The current study aims at identifying and documenting the cultural richness of Msembe so as to add more package to the park, increase the number of tourists and tourist satisfaction at Msembe. The current study challenge the previously one because it does not show dimensions which influence domestic tourist to visit Ruaha National Park(Msembe) if social media cannot do so. From heritage perspective point of view, social media alone does not necessitate tourist to visit a certain destination but the uniqueness, attached story to the attraction and satisfaction released from them.

Conservation Status of Cultural Heritage Available at Ruaha National Park Ruaha National Park General Management of (2009-2019) has put down various rules and regulation to ensure proper usage of parks attraction and guide well the tourist. The rules are much concerned with natural heritages of the park, but strong rules to guide visitor on the cultural heritage have not been properly established. Also despite of establishing this management plan, still the cultural heritage of RUNAPA faces various problems especially conservation issues. One among the conservation measures is community awareness and information pertaining to cultural heritage.

Material and Methods This study was conducted in Iringa covering the areas with Mkwawa’s History including Kalenga, Ibangamoyo, Weru, Mlambalasi, Katenge villages and Ruaha National Park. . The methods employed include review of related literature in library and field survey, observation, key informants and focus group discussion. Visit to important site and identification of evidence of chief Mkwawa’s history.

76 Copyright © 2020 Centre for Democracy, Research and Development (CEDRED), Nairobi, Kenya. http://cedred.org/jais/index.php/issues Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS): ISSN 2523-6725 (online) November, 2020 Vol. 4, No. 11 Citation: Temu, E. L; Itule, V; Nyoni, F. P; Banzi, C & Ulimboka, R. (2020). The Cultural Heritage of the Great Chief Mkwawa in Msembe Area, Tanzania. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(11), 72 – 93.

Figure 1: Map of the study area (Source: Field Work)

Chief Mkwawa’s Heritages Chief Mkwawa’s cultural heritages described in this study are categorized into three groups: the heritage sites, myths and history, and Traditional medicines and healing.

4.1 The Heritage Sites and their State of Conservation Kalenga museum

Figure 2: Mkwawa museum Signpost at Kalenga in Iringa

77 Copyright © 2020 Centre for Democracy, Research and Development (CEDRED), Nairobi, Kenya. http://cedred.org/jais/index.php/issues Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS): ISSN 2523-6725 (online) November, 2020 Vol. 4, No. 11 Citation: Temu, E. L; Itule, V; Nyoni, F. P; Banzi, C & Ulimboka, R. (2020). The Cultural Heritage of the Great Chief Mkwawa in Msembe Area, Tanzania. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(11), 72 – 93.

Figure 3: Mkwawa Museum at Kalenga

Kalenga museum was established by the British colonial rule in 1954 to preserve the skull of Chief Mkwawa after it was returned from Germany. The move started when the British made initial request to the German government to bring back to Tanganyika the skull of chief Mkwawa (Bushozi 2019:27). However, it was not until 19th July 1954 when the skull was officially handed over to Tanganyika at the ceremonies held in Kalenga (Bushozi 2019:27), where a museum had been built for that purpose.The museum is currently managed by the Antiquity Division under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (Fisher 1972:282). Inside the museums there are other several historical Hehe items and military paraphernalia, including rifle casings that were reported to have been collected from Kalenga after its siege, capture and decline in 1894 (Bushozi 2019:29). Other items include for example, Hehe traditional chair used by Mkwawa, Hehe traditional weapons, an Arabic letter written by chief Mkwawa to his friend Abushiri bin Salim Suliama, a famous coastal trader, just to mention a few. Outside the museum, there are some ruins which were used by the later German and British administration including a court and cells for criminals. Graves of Mkwawa’s successors (children and grand children) and their wives are also located in the courtyard of the museum. The museum is in good condition and well taken care of by the Antiquities staff.

78 Copyright © 2020 Centre for Democracy, Research and Development (CEDRED), Nairobi, Kenya. http://cedred.org/jais/index.php/issues Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS): ISSN 2523-6725 (online) November, 2020 Vol. 4, No. 11 Citation: Temu, E. L; Itule, V; Nyoni, F. P; Banzi, C & Ulimboka, R. (2020). The Cultural Heritage of the Great Chief Mkwawa in Msembe Area, Tanzania. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(11), 72 – 93.

Figure 4: Mkwawa’s skull at Mkwawa Museum in Kalenga Iringa.

Figure 5: Shields and royal stool are some of the artfacts found inside the museum

Fort Kalenga The ruins of fort Kalenga are located at GPS point 36m 0786905 UTM 9137015 and elevation is 1461m. These are ruins of the fort which Mkwawa had built to protect his capital and its subjects from the war invasions by his warrior enemies. Redmayne make a case that Mkwawa got the idea of constructing a fort after seeing forts in other areas including Unyamwezi or Arab and European settlement near the coast.As a result, he began constructing a fort that he named Kalenga (little water), Ilinga (stockade) Lipuli (strong elephant)(Redmayne 1968:426) Initially he built a wall having 2 meters thick and 12 meters 79 Copyright © 2020 Centre for Democracy, Research and Development (CEDRED), Nairobi, Kenya. http://cedred.org/jais/index.php/issues Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS): ISSN 2523-6725 (online) November, 2020 Vol. 4, No. 11 Citation: Temu, E. L; Itule, V; Nyoni, F. P; Banzi, C & Ulimboka, R. (2020). The Cultural Heritage of the Great Chief Mkwawa in Msembe Area, Tanzania. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(11), 72 – 93. high to enclose his capital under the supervision of Mtaki (Pizzo 2007:164) In constructing this wall, each sub chiefdom had its own portion to build. As a result, each sub chief was then required to use his available labor including women and children in building assigned portions. It was in this way that Mkwawa was able to enclose the whole of his capital at Kalenga. After the Lugalo battle of 1891, Mkwawa took initiatives to further strengthen his capital being assisted by Arab traders. In this process he ordered an extension of the walls, the ramparts and palisades be further built up, and the construction of new defenses such as double rings of deep trenches dug all around Kalenga filled with thorn bushes(Pizzo 2007:164). By the late 1894, the Hehe had the strongest stone walled capital in the southern highlands and probably in all . The walls were five kilometers around and four meters thick with a bastion every 100 meters. The Kalenga Lipuli was certain formidable enough to withstand any attack by an African opponent and even difficult to take by any force armed with the latest weapon from Europe (Pizzo 2007:166). Following increased German military operations in Uhehe, on 30th October 1894 German forces led by Von Schelle invaded Kalenga, set it to to fire and completely destroyed the fort, making the German victorious. Redmayne maintains that the Hehe were unable to defend the fort mainly because the Germans had superior weapons with military experience, but beyond, the Hehe lacked experience in fighting defensive battles and non in defending the fort(Redmayne 1968:430). The foundation of Kalenga fortress is vivid to date though there is a possibility of its complete disappearance due to increased human activities and urbanization. Only in some few places you can trace the remains of the wall. The ruins are neither protected nor preserved.

Figure 6: Stone remains of Fort Kalenga are here seen covered by grass . Kidunda, or Earth Mound This site is located at GPS point 36m 0786823 UTM 9137012 and elevation of 1461. The kidunda or earth mound was located inside the Kalenga fort or Lipuli and was built by Mkwawa’s conquered subjects who were required to bring certain quantity of soil to make kidunda or earth mound as an indication of accepting Mkwawa’s authority. Whenever 80 Copyright © 2020 Centre for Democracy, Research and Development (CEDRED), Nairobi, Kenya. http://cedred.org/jais/index.php/issues Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS): ISSN 2523-6725 (online) November, 2020 Vol. 4, No. 11 Citation: Temu, E. L; Itule, V; Nyoni, F. P; Banzi, C & Ulimboka, R. (2020). The Cultural Heritage of the Great Chief Mkwawa in Msembe Area, Tanzania. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(11), 72 – 93.

Mkwawawanted to address his people or troops, he positioned himself at the top of this soil made podium. In addressing his people he was assisted by his spokesperson or Mutambule, named Mahanzala Mwakiyombe who amplified the words spoken by Mkwawaso that they can be heard by the people.The remains of thepodium can be vividly seen todate though the height has been greatly reduced following almost 100 years of its existence. The soil mound is in a threat to disappear if proper measures are not taken to preserve it.

Figure 7 Kidunda photo as taken by researchers in April 2019

Ipyulilo Located at GPS points 36m 0783279 UTM 9136316 with elevation of 1510. This is a stone used by Mkwawa’s worriors to sharpen their spears. The stone is found besides the Mufindi - Kalenga road in Katenga village, a few kilometers from fort Kalenga...

Figure 8: Ipyulilo spears sharpening stone Ipyulilo stone. The importance and value of spears in Mkwawa’s battles is well documented. Redmayne maintains that the Hehe had very few guns than their neighbors, and that Hehe military

81 Copyright © 2020 Centre for Democracy, Research and Development (CEDRED), Nairobi, Kenya. http://cedred.org/jais/index.php/issues Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS): ISSN 2523-6725 (online) November, 2020 Vol. 4, No. 11 Citation: Temu, E. L; Itule, V; Nyoni, F. P; Banzi, C & Ulimboka, R. (2020). The Cultural Heritage of the Great Chief Mkwawa in Msembe Area, Tanzania. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(11), 72 – 93. success could not be attributed to their possession of superior weapons (Redayne 1968: 426). The Hehe had very few guns in 1877 when Elton and Cotterril witnessed their battle with the Sangu, and the stories which the Hehe tells of the defeat of Mwambambe that his Nyamwezi forces had big guns while the Hehe had only spears (Redmayne 1968:426). Among the Hehe seen by Tottenborn at Image, a few had guns, but most had only spears and shields, and Zelewisk was killed by a spear (Redmayne 1968:426). The ipyulilo stone is likely to disappear if not preserved.

Eric Maas Grave This grave is located at GPS point 36 m 0786161 UTM 9136864 and elevation of 1462m. This is a grave of one of the German soldier under Von Schelle who was killed during Kalenga siege of 1894. Following increased Mkwawa’s military attacks against the Germans, then, the Germans were so determined to get rid of Mkwawa, capture and completely destroy fort Kalenga. This mission came true on 30th October 1894 when German forces under Von Schelle assisted by Lt. Jany, Von Prince and Elpons poured into Kalenga with their maxims(Pizzo 2007:172). This led to hours of intensive fighting in which Eric Maass was killed and by that evening the Germans had gained control over the walled city of Kalenga (Redmayne 1968:422). After the siege of Kalenga, Schelle telegraphed Berlin noting that “taking Kalenga had cost the Germans forces little: one German officer, Lt. Maass and eight , four European and forty Askaris injured (Pizzo 2007:178). Hehe local histories suggest that Maass was shot by Mkwawa using his personal gun that he acquired from his friend Abushiri bin Salim. This grave is within Kalenga coverage though it has been badly affected by weather elements and without any protection as a monument that carries Mkwawa’s history. It contains numerous cracks and surrounding area is not clean.

Mlambalasi Rock Shelter After the fall and capture of fort Kalenga in 1894, Mkwawa opted for guerilla war against the Germans for the next four years. On 14th April 1898 over 250 Mkwawa’s followers had either been shot or taken prisoners (Pizzo 2007:215). As a result, Mkwawa lost the necessary military support while the Germans increased their efforts to hunt him under corporal Merkl. As a result Mkwawa committed suicide with his rifle on 19th July 1898 in order to avoid capture (Pizzo 2007:216). Mlambalasi rock shelter was one of the most crucial Mkwawa’s security sites after the fall of fort Kalenga. The fact that Mkwawa made use of Mlambarasi rock shelter as his hideout is evidenced by his praise name Yilimwiganga meaning ‘he is in a stone,’ that is he cannot be got out (Redmayne 1968: 432). The rock shelter is still in its natural settings and has not been affected by natural or human factors.

Mlambalasi Grave Yard Following the death of Mkwawa, one of his servants informed German administration and German troops under corporal Merkl went to Mlambalasi and confirmed Mkwawa’s death(Bushozi 2019:26). When Mkwawa was found dead, there were a number of items with him; various medicines, a half-filled cartridge belt, a carbine rifle and 117 cartridges (Illife 1979:116). Corporal Merkl chopped off Mkwawa’s head while the rest of his body was buried beside the rock shelter. In 1998, President Nyerere dedicated an Uhuru (Freedom) monument at Mlambalasi to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the death of Chief Mkwawa and to officially acknowledge the role he played in resisting colonial rule; 82 Copyright © 2020 Centre for Democracy, Research and Development (CEDRED), Nairobi, Kenya. http://cedred.org/jais/index.php/issues Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS): ISSN 2523-6725 (online) November, 2020 Vol. 4, No. 11 Citation: Temu, E. L; Itule, V; Nyoni, F. P; Banzi, C & Ulimboka, R. (2020). The Cultural Heritage of the Great Chief Mkwawa in Msembe Area, Tanzania. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(11), 72 – 93. this memorial monument was placed between the rock shelter, in which Mkwawa died, and the cement tomb, which marks the burial location of his postcranial remains (Bushozi 2019: 27) At the site there is also a grave of Mkwawa’s close army general named Msigomba. This was among Mkwawa’s friends and generals who was killed by Mklwawa himself before he committed suicide (Redmayne 1968:434). The site is in good condition both the monument and tomb are still in good condition however the site is surrounded by grass and bushes which make it unfriendly for visitors. This site requires maintenance.

Figure 9: Mlambalasi grave yard

83 Copyright © 2020 Centre for Democracy, Research and Development (CEDRED), Nairobi, Kenya. http://cedred.org/jais/index.php/issues Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS): ISSN 2523-6725 (online) November, 2020 Vol. 4, No. 11 Citation: Temu, E. L; Itule, V; Nyoni, F. P; Banzi, C & Ulimboka, R. (2020). The Cultural Heritage of the Great Chief Mkwawa in Msembe Area, Tanzania. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(11), 72 – 93.

Kikongoma:

Figure 10 God’s bridge at Kikongoma

84 Copyright © 2020 Centre for Democracy, Research and Development (CEDRED), Nairobi, Kenya. http://cedred.org/jais/index.php/issues Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS): ISSN 2523-6725 (online) November, 2020 Vol. 4, No. 11 Citation: Temu, E. L; Itule, V; Nyoni, F. P; Banzi, C & Ulimboka, R. (2020). The Cultural Heritage of the Great Chief Mkwawa in Msembe Area, Tanzania. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(11), 72 – 93.

Figure 11: A ditch at Kikongoma Bridge where it is believed that Mkwawa’s mother threw herself This site is located at the gps point 36m 0785321 UTM is 9149469 and elevation is 1356. This is a place where Mkwawa’s mother committed suicide by throwing herself in to the fast moving water of the Ruaha river.To date, the Hehe crossing Kikongoma show respect by placing fresh grasses as a sign of respect and commemoration to Mkwawa’s mother. Hehe local histories suggest that failure to pay respect to the late Sengimba would result to misfortune and unsafe journey. This site is located near a place where an invester has aquired a huge piece of land for animal farm, this farm is very close to the site and makes the site to remain with very small area. This situation make it difficult to protect the vegetation and environment on the site including developing infrastructure for visitors. For well preservation of this site there is a need to adequate place demarcate and cared for in oder to ensure preservation of natural and cultural resources in the site.

85 Copyright © 2020 Centre for Democracy, Research and Development (CEDRED), Nairobi, Kenya. http://cedred.org/jais/index.php/issues Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS): ISSN 2523-6725 (online) November, 2020 Vol. 4, No. 11 Citation: Temu, E. L; Itule, V; Nyoni, F. P; Banzi, C & Ulimboka, R. (2020). The Cultural Heritage of the Great Chief Mkwawa in Msembe Area, Tanzania. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(11), 72 – 93.

Mkwawa’s Wells and Kimilamatonge These are two wells located in Welu Village, a few kilometers from the ruins of Fort Kalenga. The third well is found within Ruaha National Park. Local histories suggest that these wells were used by chief Mkwawa after the siege, capture and decline of Kalenga fortress in 1894. Welu well is located at GPS point 36 m 0773432 UTM 9130859 with elevation of 1639m. Hehe informants revealed that it was during this time that Mkwawa made use of these wells as his important water points apart from using water of the little Ruaha. The wells are still in their natural settings and are currently used by the inhabitants of Wellu Village. No efforts have been taken to conserve these wells apart from the usual ways used by indigenous in preserving water sources. If well conserved, they may be crucial in carrying and transmitting Mkwawa’s history to the next generation. The stiudy established that during this period Mkwawa made use of Kimilamatonge hill located in modern Ruaha National Park as a special place for him and his troops to take their meals while observing the movement of their enemies, the germans. This hill has a flat rocky top surface, a natural setting that enabled Mkwawa to be in a better position to watch around his enemies who were intensively hunting him. This site is located inside Ruaha Nationa Park therefore the site is under the care of Park Authority and it is still in its natural setting.

Chavilindi: This site is located within modern Ruaha National Park. The historical significance of this site is the fact that Mkwawa stopped at this point on his way back to Iringa from Ugogo where he sought exile after the rise of Mwambambe to power following the death of his father, Muyigumba. Redmayne argues that the Hehe were so disappointed by Mwambambe regime and as a result, they secretly prepared troops called Wanamvita, and sent Mumalavanu Mwamubalinga, Mwambambe’s subordinate ruler and opponent from Image area in north western Uhehe to travel to Ugogo and try to entice Mkwavinyika to come back home and take the throne(Redmayne 1968:413). With great honor, Mkwawa accepted the call and they started the journey back home via Wota, Image and modern RuahaNational Park. In the Modern Ruaha National Park, Mkwawa and his troops had an opportunity to rest and barb his beads at a point called Chivilindi. Then, from Chivilindi he went to Mafunyo area where rituals and offerings were made to make him stronger and undefeatable against Mwambambe and other enemies. This site is also located inside Ruaha Nationa Park and therefore it is managed by Park Authority. The site is still in its natural setting.

Itagautwa: This site is located at GPS location 36 m 0771398 UTM 9129392 and its elevation is 1767m. This is another historical site in Usungwa area related to Mkwawa, particularly after Kalenga siege. Following the siege of Kalenga fortress by German forces, Mkwawa was forcibly dragged out of the fortress by Munyananda Mwakisinda and run away into the bushes, and when he reached far enough from Kalenga, he sat down and cried. When he reached Usungwa, he throw away his fly switch, an item of royal regalia and the place came to be known as Itagautwa, meaning a place where throw away the chieftainship (Redmayne 1968:431).The throwing away of the fly switch marked the beginning of Mkwawa’s guerrilla war against the Germans that came to an end in 1898 when Mkwawa committed suicide at 86 Copyright © 2020 Centre for Democracy, Research and Development (CEDRED), Nairobi, Kenya. http://cedred.org/jais/index.php/issues Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS): ISSN 2523-6725 (online) November, 2020 Vol. 4, No. 11 Citation: Temu, E. L; Itule, V; Nyoni, F. P; Banzi, C & Ulimboka, R. (2020). The Cultural Heritage of the Great Chief Mkwawa in Msembe Area, Tanzania. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(11), 72 – 93.

Mlambarasi. Oral information from the area attested that, because Chief Mkwawa was strongly protected by traditional medicine it was not possible to kill himself or be killed by enemies. The throwing of the Fly Swich at Itagautwa was a ritual performed to reverse the medicinal powers in order to allow him commit suicide and avoid to be captured by Germans. This site is not demarcated or marked with any sinage it is still in natural setting. This calls for effort to mark the area with sinage and conserve the natural ecology.

Ibangamoyo: Local histories suggests that this was a large market that owes its name from coastal traders, mostly those coming from Bagamoyo to Kalenga during Mkwawa,s regime. It is located a few kilometers from Fort Kalenga ruins. These coastal traders are said to bring items such as cloth, fire arms and beads to Uhehe even before the rise of Mkwawa. Winans argues that the kind of economy that Mkwawa inherited from his father Muyigumba greatly depended on the coastal trade, and through this trade the Hehe could purchase commodities, charge tax to traders, and raided caravans (Winans 1969:195). However, Ibangamoyo does not appear in the literatures related to pre-colonial Uhehe, though Mkwawa’s involvement in coastal trade is well documented. The name Ibangamoyo owes its origin from the famous East African coastal city of Bagamoyo. The name of this market, its location, Mkwawa’s involvement in coastal trade and the available oral evidence, when meshed together proves the existence of this market and commercial relation between fort Kalenga and coastal tradersduring Mkwawa’s leadership, though it is difficult to establish the size and importance of this Ibangamoyo market. The dimensions of the area are hard to establish. Despite the unavailability of more precise information this area is still an important historical and heritage site which requires preservation. Moreover, the site calls for further achaeologial investigation to establish the dimensions of the market.

History and Myth This section presents the intangible heritage of Mkwawa’s legacy, which cosist of Mkwawa’s history, myth and tradional medicine knowledge.

Analysis of Mkwawa’s Biographical Details Mkwawa was a Great Chief of the Hehe people. He was born around 1855 at Luhota locality in Iringa region. Oral accounts suggest that his ancestors originated from Ethiopia and migrated southwards to Kenya and later to northern Tanzania where they initially settled at Ikombagulu hill in Usagara, Morogoro region and finally at Nghuluhe in the heart of Uhehe (Redmyne, 1968:411). This marked the beginning of a small Hehe chiefdom that was founded by Muyinga (Brayant 1934:203). Muyinga was succeeded by a number of chief, the most important being Munyigumba and later on his son Mkwavinyika famously known by his shortened name Mkwawa. After the death of his father in around 1879 (Kimambo and Temu 1969: 70), Mwambambe, Muyigumba’s subordinate ruler of Nyamwezi origin grabbed Hehe political leadership. The method Mwambambe used to ascend to political power denied him a direct access to Muyigumba’s war medicine Amahomelo, which were crucial for Hehe military success. By then, Amahomelo was now under the custodianship of Mkwawa’s mother named Sengimba. Having grabbed political power, Mwambambe now targeted to kill Mkwawa as one of the most important Munyigumba’s possible heir, but also Sengimba who was caring 87 Copyright © 2020 Centre for Democracy, Research and Development (CEDRED), Nairobi, Kenya. http://cedred.org/jais/index.php/issues Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS): ISSN 2523-6725 (online) November, 2020 Vol. 4, No. 11 Citation: Temu, E. L; Itule, V; Nyoni, F. P; Banzi, C & Ulimboka, R. (2020). The Cultural Heritage of the Great Chief Mkwawa in Msembe Area, Tanzania. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(11), 72 – 93.

Amahomelo. When Mkwawa discovered Mwambambe’s conspiracy, he took his troops, mother and began their trek to Ugogo to secure their lives. As they were crossing the little Ruaha river, Mkwawa’s mother drowned herself in the fast moving water at point called Kikongoma (Redmayne1968:413, Bushozi 2019: 30). Mwambambe’s autocratic leadership (Redmayne 1968:413) disappointed the Hehe so much to the extent of convincing Mkwawa to come back home, oust Mwambabe and took the throne. On his way back from Ugogo he passed at Chivilindi in the modern day Ruaha National Park where he had time to rest and shave his beads. From there he went to Mafunyo where rituals were performed to make him invincible against Mwambambe. From Mafunyo, Mkwawa went to Usawila where the war against Mwambambe began. Mwambambe was defeated at the battle of Ilundamate, and fled to Ukimbu, an area in Unyamwezi ruled by a war lord named Nyungu ya Mawe. By 1883, when Giraud visited Uhehe, Mkwawa was the unchallenged ruler of his father’s lands, and under him the Hehe, who had only recently acquired political unity, had extraordinary military success (Redmayne 1968: 414). The rise of Mkwawa to power was followed by massive expansion of his kingdom. This expansionist policy was aided by Mkwawa’s military techniques that he copied from the Ngoni (Kimambo and Temu 1969:114). Through these techniques Mkwawa was able to conquer and absorb a number of chiefdoms and by the time the Germans began encroaching Tanganyika Mkwawa had well consolidated his kingdom. Administratively Mkwawa had political, judicial and religious powers. He was closely assisted by sub chiefs called Wanzagila. The brave and most intelligent of Wanzagila ruled frontier areas of Wota, Mukondoa, Image, Uhenga in Ubena and Isoliwaya in Usangu borders (Redmayne 1968: 424). As a head of high court, Mkwawa was responsible to adjudicate in dispute and generally matters of his people (Brayant 1934:211). Mkwawa was the only competent person to try cases and appeals from lower courts. The most important punishment was death sentence famously known as Mkasipele simply meaning “give him to the vultures”. This punishment was given mainly to cases related to sorcery, army mutiny and specifically treason (Redmayne 1968:434). As a religious leader, Mkwawa was the in charge of all religious matters in his kingdom as it was elsewhere in pre-colonial Africa. He was believed to have a special relationship with the spirits (masoka) of the dead chiefs, and therefore made offerings on their graves, asking assistance both in personal matters and in matters which concerned the whole chiefdom, such as rain or success in war. For example, whenever the rains were unusually delayed and there was fear of famine the people went to Mkwawa for help and he would then lead them in prayer and sacrifice on the graves of his ancestors at Lungemba (Brayant 1934: 57). Mkwawa had over 62 wives. These wives were placed in different locations, some inside and some outside Kalenga. In peace time the chief slept with his favorite wife in an inner room of his house. In the adjoining entrance hall, through which there was the only entrance, slept numbers of young children so close that no one could pass over them without treading on one and giving the alarm. At each door there were selected guards and outside again were the wigendo (Brayant 1934: 212). For the wives who resided outside fort Kalenga, Mkwawa built them houses and gave them land, servants and guards. These places where Mkwawa’s wives resided were referred to as Kundagendwa, meaning a place where people were not allowed to visit. 88 Copyright © 2020 Centre for Democracy, Research and Development (CEDRED), Nairobi, Kenya. http://cedred.org/jais/index.php/issues Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS): ISSN 2523-6725 (online) November, 2020 Vol. 4, No. 11 Citation: Temu, E. L; Itule, V; Nyoni, F. P; Banzi, C & Ulimboka, R. (2020). The Cultural Heritage of the Great Chief Mkwawa in Msembe Area, Tanzania. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(11), 72 – 93.

Mkwawa located his capital a place called, about 15 kilometers southwest of Iringa region. He called this capital Lipuli meaning ‘fortress’ in Hehe language. The Kalenga Lipuli was certain formidable enough to withstand any attack by an African opponent and even difficult to take by any force armed with the latest weapon from Europe (Pizzo 2007: 166). Following increased German military operations in Uhehe, on 30th October 1894 German forces led by Von Schelle invaded Kalenga, set it to fire and completely destroyed the fort, making the German victorious. The Germans lost one German officer, Lt. Maass and eight Askaris, four European and forty Askaris injured (Pizzo 2007:178). The grave of Eric Maas is vivid in Kalenga village. Following the capture of fort Kalenga, Mkwawa was dragged out and run away into the bushes. As he reached Usungwa, he throw away his fly switch, an item of royal regalia and the place came to be known as Itagautwa, meaning a place where Mkwawa throw away the chieftainship (Redmayne 1968:431). This throwing away of the fly switch, marked the beginning of Mkwawa’s guerrilla war against the Germans. On the 6th November 1894, Mkwawa and his troops ambushed Germany troops under Von Schelle as they were heading back to the coast at Image. At this skirmish Hehe warriors were once again defeated and killed in large numbers (Redmayne 1968: 228). After the Image battle, Mkwawa opted completely for guerrilla warfare that came to an end in 1898 when chief Mkwawa committed suicide besides Mlambalasi rock shelter (Bushozi 2019:24).

The Hehe People and Dog Eating Myth Local histories collected in the study area link the Hehe with dog eating myth. The situation was attributed to a number of reasons as narrated by Hehe elders. The Hehe valued dogs because their great ancestor Mufwimiwas a great hunter (Brayant 1934:203). From the north, Mufwimi accompanied by his dogs crossed the and happened to reach Ng’uluhe, a small chiefdom in Uhehe led by Mduda(Redmayne 1968:411) Being assisted by his dogs, Mufwimi was able to hunt for wild animals and supplied sufficient meet to Mduda. Beyond, Mufwimi’s dogs greatly assisted Mduda to keep way wild pigs which were so destructive to crops. The tendency of using dogs to control termites in pre-colonial Africa was a common experience particulary among San of Southern Africa (Lance and Sandra 2003:142)As a result, Mduda loved him so much. Consequently, the Hehe began eating dogs in commemoration their great descendant Mufwimi. Furthermore, dog eating became more pronounced during Mkwawa’s regime for two major reasons. In the first place dog’s meat was secretly used for military purposes. It is said that during war times, dog meat was secretly mixed with traditional herbs to produce traditional medicine called mbisi. This mbisi was then mixed with food and consumed by Mkwawa warriors. The medicine is believed to have helped Mkwawa’s fighters to acquire dog’s behavior of detecting and locating the direction of enemies. The use dog for military purpose in pre-colonial Africa is also noted by Lance and Sandra who argue that dogs were so influential among the Zulu who copied dog’s hunting strategy and developed it into the cattle-horn formation utilized in combat, and which they were to use in their wars against European colonial settlement(Lance and Sandra 2003:142) In the second instance, during Mkwawa’s regime it was a rule that men must conquer and confiscate cattle from other communities in order to ensure constant supply of meat and milk. However, some members of Mkwawa’s community were coward and therefore not redy to go for wars that would end up in looting cattle of the conquered communities. When Mkwawa discovered the existence 89 Copyright © 2020 Centre for Democracy, Research and Development (CEDRED), Nairobi, Kenya. http://cedred.org/jais/index.php/issues Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS): ISSN 2523-6725 (online) November, 2020 Vol. 4, No. 11 Citation: Temu, E. L; Itule, V; Nyoni, F. P; Banzi, C & Ulimboka, R. (2020). The Cultural Heritage of the Great Chief Mkwawa in Msembe Area, Tanzania. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(11), 72 – 93. of cowardice people in his kingdom, he prohibited them to eat or drink milk. Because the Hehe are very fond of meat, these people could not abide to Mkwawa’s punishment and when Mkwawa got this news he ordered the execution of these people. As a result, these people escaped and settled far away from Mkwawa where they began domesticating and eating dogs. However, due to urbanization and modernization the habit of eating dog meat among the Hehe has declined and no longer exist.

Indigenous Medicine and Healing

Indigenous medicine and Healing Knowledge Africa as a cradle of mankind has rich biological and cultural diversity marked by regional differences in traditional healing practices(Adu-gyamfl 2013:73) Traditional medicine involves the collecting, conserving, utilizing and the application of medicinal plants for cures, prevention and promotion of physical and spiritual wellbeing of citizens. The sociological world and metaphysical forces of the universe are pillars which African traditional medicine is based(Isola 2013:320 Chief Mkwawa was an expert in traditional healing since healing was part and parcel of chief’s responsibility as it was with other pre- colonial African rulers. Local histories of the Hehe suggest that the soldiers who were badly injured in the battle field were attended by Mkwawa himself. For example, Mkwawa could chew the leaves of Msawasa tree and placed it on the wounded area first before removing the spear. This kind of treatment was important to be administered first in order to safely remove the spear and avoid further damage of the stubbed area. The existence of various medicinal plants among the Hehe is well described (Mathias 1982: 488-94) who has identified over fifty two species of medicinal plants traditionally used by the Hehe for healing various diseases. Mkwawa was in fact a medicine man and surrounded by supernatural power (Adam 1899: 43), and it is this supernatural power that apart from protecting him, granted him the ability and power to heal others. Furthermore, the Hehe also admits that after travelling for a distant, Mkwawa and his followers could stand on cooking stones for a while in order to relieve pains and avoid the occurrence of blisters which could limit further movements. As a military man, Mkwawa and his troops were in a constant movement, the most being his great trek to Ugogo in fear of his political rival, Mwambambe (Remayne 1968:413). In pre-colonial Africa, traditional healers occupied an important position in socio- political system, and in most cases they were attached to political heads and in rare cases, their power superseded that of political heads. Therefore, as it was with other rulers in pre- colonial Africa, in his royal palace, Mkwawa harbored a number of traditional healers called Vaganga or Vakofi. They dealt with social problems, including family problems related to children, spouses, or other relatives, spiritual or cultural problems; psychosexual problems, including those having to do with relationships, sexual potency, love, and infertility; chronic illness, epilepsy and madness(Okelo and Musis 2015:252)These healers set aside special places called Fibupa in order to nurse patients inflicted by pandemic diseases. The rich indigenous knowledge about healing is an important heritage asset which deserves to be preserved for posterity. Currently is only few people knows about this knowledge. This imply that it is in the danger of disappearance. To address this problem there is an urgent need to document the same. The current study is just a preliminary attempt it therefore calls for further comprehensive efforts. 90 Copyright © 2020 Centre for Democracy, Research and Development (CEDRED), Nairobi, Kenya. http://cedred.org/jais/index.php/issues Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS): ISSN 2523-6725 (online) November, 2020 Vol. 4, No. 11 Citation: Temu, E. L; Itule, V; Nyoni, F. P; Banzi, C & Ulimboka, R. (2020). The Cultural Heritage of the Great Chief Mkwawa in Msembe Area, Tanzania. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(11), 72 – 93.

Conclusion and Recommendations The study started with the objective of identifying Chief Mkwawa’s heritage sites in Msembe, documenting and examining the state of heritage conservation in the respective sites. The study identified and documented many sites which are very rich in term of historical heritage about chief Mkwawa. Some sites were found to be at fair condition while other sites are very vulnerable. Moreover, some sites have no specific persons or authority responsible for the care of sites. It was also observed that some sites are located close to human settlement which threaten their survival due to anthropogenic factors. Generally the study has revealed that all sites are not free from deterioration although the magnitude differ. Given the condition of these sites, they all require preventive measures of different kind to ensure their survival for posterity. The study recommends for community awareness and involvement in preservation strategies and taking measures of surveying the sites with heritage for with the aim of providing legal tittle deed and fixing permanent boundaries. The is urgent need to develop management plan for these sites to ensure there is responsible authority to take care and utilize the same to promote cultural tourism in the area which will in turn bring social economic development in the area.

91 Copyright © 2020 Centre for Democracy, Research and Development (CEDRED), Nairobi, Kenya. http://cedred.org/jais/index.php/issues Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS): ISSN 2523-6725 (online) November, 2020 Vol. 4, No. 11 Citation: Temu, E. L; Itule, V; Nyoni, F. P; Banzi, C & Ulimboka, R. (2020). The Cultural Heritage of the Great Chief Mkwawa in Msembe Area, Tanzania. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(11), 72 – 93.

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