Though to Justify It Rather Than Critique It. See, for Examp

Notes

Introduction 1. Even nonfeminist readers have concurred with this assessment— though to justify it rather than critique it. See, for example, Joel Schwartz, The Sexual Politics of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), and Allan Bloom’s introduction to Emile (New York: Basic Books, 1979). 2. Paul de Man, “Rhetoric of Blindness: Jacques Derrida’s Reading of Rousseau,” in Blindness and Insight: Essays in the Rhetoric of Contemporary Criticism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983), 102–41. 3. Kaja Silverman, Male Subjectivity at the Margins (New York and London: Routledge, 1992), 1. 4. Cited in Maurice Cranston, The Solitary Self: Jean- Jacques Rousseau in Exile and Adversity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 33–34. 5. See Rousseau, Letter to d’Alembert, and Writings for the Theater , ed. and trans. Allan Bloom, Charles Butterworth, and Christopher Kelly (2004), vol. 10 of The Collected Writings of Jean- Jacques Rousseau , 12 vols., ed. Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly (Hanover, NH, and London: University Press of New England, 1990–2007) [hereafter Letter ], 325–26; Oeuvres complètes de Jean- Jacques Rousseau , 5 vols. (Paris: Gallimard Pléiade, 1959–95) [hereafter OC ], 5:92–93. 6. Rousseau, The Confessions and Correspondence, Including the Letters to Malesherbes , trans. Christopher Kelly (1996), vol. 5 of Collected Writings [hereafter Confessions ], 369 (OC , 1:439). Translation modified. 7. I am certainly not the first to read gender in Rousseau as performative. Several recent feminist readers also make this claim. See Elizabeth Rose Wingrove, Rousseau’s Republican Romance (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 6–12. A similar reading is also put forward by Nicole Fermon in Domesticating Passions: Rousseau, Woman, and Nation (Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press, 1997) and by Linda Zerilli, Signifying 146 NOTES

Woman: Culture and Chaos in Rousseau, Burke, and Mill (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994)— which I discuss briefly further on. But in the earlier readings, Rousseau’s awareness of gender as performative leads to a political and cultural enforcement and justification of norms and roles rather than their subversion. 8. See, for example, Judith Butler’s “Preface (1999)” in Gender Trouble (New York: Routledge, 2006), vii–xxvi. 9. Butler, Gender Trouble , 187. Butler’s emphasis. 10. Confessions , 10–11 ( OC , 1:12). 11. Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology , trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 158. Derrida is of course making a greater critique against the meta- physics of presence (and mistakenly, I would argue, a critique of Rousseau as exemplary of the desire for pure presence). Derrida’s point is that it is impossible to have access to a reality before, beyond, or outside of language/writing. 12. Thomas M. Kavanagh, Writing the Truth: Authority and Desire in Rousseau (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1987), x. Kavanagh’s emphasis. 13. For a review of such works, see Jean Starobinski, Jean- Jacques Rousseau: Transparency and Obstruction , trans. Arthur Goldhammer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 201–67. A notable exception is Christopher Kelly, Rousseau’s Exemplary Life: The “Confessions” as Political Philosophy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987). Kelly argues that the Confessions can be read as a political work similar to Emile — only Rousseau has substituted his own life for the fictional one of Emile. 14. Paul Thomas, “Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Sexist?” Feminist Studies 17, no. 2 (Summer 1991): 195. 15. Susan Okin, Women in Western Political Thought (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979), 99. 16. Sarah Kofman, “Rousseau’s Phallocratic Ends,” in Feminist Interpretations of Jean- Jacques Rousseau , ed. Lynda Lange (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002), 231. 17. Thomas Laqueur, Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to the Present (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), 149–50, 198–200. 18. Joan Landes, Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of the French Revolution (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988), 11–12. 19. Ibid., 66–89. 20. Confessions , 7 ( OC , 1:8). 21. Jean Bethke Elshtain, Public Man, Private Woman: Women in Social and Political Thought (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University NOTES 147

Press, 1981); Lynda Lange, “Rousseau and Modern Feminism,” in Lange, Feminist Interpretations of Jean- Jacques Rousseau , 24–42; Penny A. Weiss, Gendered Community: Rousseau, Sex, and Politics (New York: New York University Press, 1993); Mira Morgenstern, Rousseau and the Politics of Ambiguity: Self, Culture and Society (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1996). 22. Morgenstern, Rousseau and the Politics of Ambiguity , 245. 23. Zerilli, Signifying Woman , 18. My emphasis. The reference to Felman is “Rereading Femininity,” Yale French Studies 62 (1981): 42. 24. Lori Jo Marso, (Un)manly Citizens: Jean- Jacques Rousseau’s and Germaine de Staël’s Subversive Women (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), 76–77. Marso’s emphasis. 25. Ibid., 7. 26. See Juliet Flower MacCannell, The Regime of the Brother: After the Patriarchy (London and New York: Routledge, 1991). 27. Cited in John D. Caputo, “Dreaming of the Innumerable,” in Derrida and Feminism: Recasting the Question of Woman , ed. Ellen K. Feder, Mary C. Rawlinson, and Emily Zakin (New York and London: Routledge, 1997), 154. 28. Judith Butler, Undoing Gender (New York: Routledge, 2004), 196–97. 29. See Derrida and Christie McDonald, “Interview: Choreographies,” in Diacritics 12, no. 2 (Summer 1982), 76. 30. Caputo, “Dreaming of the Innumerable,” 156. The title of Caputo’s essay refers to and is an extended meditation on Derrida’s comments in the previously cited interview, “Choreographies.” 31. My reading of the ménage à trois in Rousseau— particularly what I have termed a “positive” formulation— is indebted to MacCannell’s reading in Regime of the Brother , 87–89. 32. This term is Judith Butler’s. See Undoing Gender , 134. Recent feminist thinkers have sought to rethink the oedipal drama that invariably (or ideally) unfolds with the aim of achieving gender com- plementarity and heterosexual love. For example, Jessica Benjamin adds an addendum to the oedipal drama, calling for another stage of development she calls “postoedipal.” The postoedipal, as the term suggests, comes after the oedipal and incorporates the preo- edipal (imaginary) stage prior to gender differentiation, thus allow- ing for more fluid gender identifications and nonheterosexual love relations. See Jessica Benjamin, Like Subjects, Love Objects: Essays on Recognition and Sexual Difference (New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 1995) and Shadow of the Other: 148 NOTES

Intersubjectivity and Gender in Psychoanalysis (New York and London: Routledge, 1998). For Butler’s critique of Benjamin, and her attempt to rethink a triadic notion of desire that does away with the oedipal altogether, see Undoing Gender , 134–51. 33. Rousseau also literally refuses the role of the father, admitting to having placed his five children in the foundling home. 34. Rousseau, Discourse on the Origins of Inequality (Second Discourse), Polemics, and Political Economy , trans. Judith R. Bush, Roger D. Masters, Christopher Kelly, and Terence Marshall (1993) vol. 3 of Collected Writings [hereafter Second Discourse ], 77 ( OC , 3:205). 35. In a sense, my argument is thus in agreement with Landes’s earlier: Rousseau does advocate a move away from the “spectacu- lar” pleasures of the theatre of absolutist France toward textual, literary pleasures. However, the main difference is that I do not consider the former to be “feminine” and the latter “masculine” (nor, I contend, did Rousseau). For a comprehensive reading of Rousseau’s reasons for privileging literature (though without a consideration of the role of gender), see Christopher Kelly, Rousseau as Author: Consecrating One’s Life to Truth (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003). 36. The ambiguity of the Social Contract is apparent in the multiple and contradictory interpretations it has generated. Furthermore, although the Social Contract is seemingly Rousseau’s most political work, even this has been called into question. De Man posits, for example, that the Social Contract can be considered a novel, whereas Julie is a political work; Allegories of Reading: Figural Language in Rousseau, Nietzsche, Rilke, and Proust (New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 1979). But in regard specifically to the question of women and Rousseau’s political philosophy, the Social Contract is obviously the least relevant text: women and the family are barely mentioned. And I am not entirely convinced that this is, as feminist readings of Rousseau argue, because women are implicitly excluded from the social contract and from the political. 37. I mean “anecdotal” in the sense that Jane Gallop describes in Anecdotal Theory (Durham, NC, and London: Duke University Press, 2002), 1–12.

1 Sexual/Political Inequality 1. “Letter from Voltaire to Rousseau,” in Discourse on the Origins of Inequality (Second Discourse), Polemics, and Political Economy , trans. Judith R. Bush, Roger D. Masters, Christopher Kelly, and Terence Marshall (1993), vol. 3 of The Collected Writings , NOTES 149

ed. Roger Masters and Christopher Kelly (Hanover, NH, and London: University Press of New England, 1990–2007) [hereafter Second Discourse ], 102. 2. Jean Starobinski, Jean- Jacques Rousseau: Transparency and Obstruction , trans. Arthur Goldhammer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 14–15. 3. Second Discourse , 19, 13; Oeuvres complètes de Jean- Jacques Rousseau , 5 vols. (Paris: Gallimard Pléiade, 1959–95), 3:132, 123. De Man makes this point in his critique of Derrida’s reading of Rousseau. See Paul de Man, “The Rhetoric of Blindness: Jacques Derrida’s Reading of Rousseau,” in Blindness and Insight: Essays in the Rhetoric of Contemporary Criticism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983), 132. 4. Interestingly, as Tracy Strong points out in his study of Rousseau, Jean- Jacques Rousseau: The Politics of the Ordinary (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2002), Rousseau himself understood the Second Discourse to be a genealogy of morals (41–42). See also Lettres à Beaumont , in OC 4:936. 5. Wingrove also remarks on the “circular movement from ani- mality to humanity and back again.” Elizabeth Rose Wingrove, Rousseau’s Republican Romance (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 29. 6. Second Discourse , 65 (OC , 3:91). 7. Ibid., 40 (3:160). 8. Strong, Politics of the Ordinary , 44. 9. Second Discourse , 30 ( OC , 3:147). 10. Ibid. 11. As Wingrove remarks, “Rousseau imagines a natural feminine indifference—toward babies and men.” Rousseau’s Republican Romance , 157. 12. Second Discourse , 37 ( OC , 3:156). 13. Ibid., 26 (3:142). 14. Pau l de Ma n, Allegories of Reading: Figural Language in Rousseau, Nietzsche, Rilke, and Proust (New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 1979), 140. 15. Second Discourse , 46 ( OC , 3:168). 16. Ibid, 57 (3:182). 17. Juliet Flower MacCannell, The Regime of the Brother: After the Patriarchy (London and New York: Routledge, 1991), 52. Though Rousseau does not explicitly state this in the Second Discourse , he does so in the Essay on Origins of Language : “They became hus- band and wife without having ceased being brother and sister.” Essai sur l’origine des langues , in OC 5:406. My translation. 150 NOTES

18. Gayle Rubin, “The Traffic in Women: Notes on the ‘Political Economy’ of Sex,” in Toward an Anthropology of Women , ed. Rayna R. Reiter (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1975), 180. 19. Second Discourse , 47 ( OC , 3:169). 20. Ibid, 48 (3:171). 21. Of course amour- propre can also be directed toward the good. For example, one can develop pride in doing good, in honoring oneself and others. For commentary on good amour- propre , see Christopher Kelly, Rousseau’s Exemplary Life: The “Confessions” as Political Philosophy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987), 191–97. 22. Second Discourse , 37 ( OC , 3:156). Translation modified. 23. Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology , trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 175–76. Derrida’s emphasis. 24. Ibid., 173. 25. Second Discourse , 36 ( OC , 3:154). My emphasis. 26. Ibid., 36 (3:154–55). My emphasis. 27. Ibid., 37 (3:155). 28. Ibid., 36 (3:156). Translation modified. 29. Wingrove describes this as the “failure of pitié.” See Wingrove, Rousseau’s Republican Romance , 175. 30. Second Discourse , 91 ( OC , 3:219). Translation modified. 31. Ibid., 47 (3:169–70). Translation modified. 32. MacCannell, Regime of the Brother , 49. 33. Second Discourse , 38–39 ( OC , 3:157–58). 34. Derrida, Of Grammatology , 177. 35. Judith Still, “Rousseau’s Lévite d’Ephraïm : The Imposition of Meaning (on Women),” French Studies 43 (1989): 17. 36. Rousseau, “The Levite of Ephraïm,” trans. and ed. John T. Scott, in Rousseau on Women, Love, and Family , ed. Christopher Kelly and Eve Grace (Hanover, NH, and London: University Press of New England, 2009), 180n (OC , 2:1209n). 37. Second Discourse , 53 ( OC , 3:176). 38. Wingrove, Rousseau’s Republican Romance , 226. Wingrove’s emphasis. 39. Wingrove uses the term republic to describe the political community formed at the end of the Levite . However, as she notes, it is not a republic at all but a monarchy. See Wingrove, Rousseau’s Republican Romance , 209. Furthermore, it is a monarchy estab- lished by (some of) the fathers to guarantee brides for the brothers (the Benjamites) and thus exemplifies the triumph and excesses of both paternal and fraternal power. NOTES 151

40. Second Discourse , 53 ( OC , 3:177). 41. Carol Pateman, The Sexual Contract (Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 1997), 102. 42. Levite , 182 ( OC , 2:1210). 43. For Kavanagh’s discussion of original versions, see Thomas M. Kavanagh, Writing the Truth: Authority and Desire in Rousseau (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1987), 113, 202n6. 44. Still, “Rousseau’s Lévite d’Ephraïm ,” 18. 45. Kavanagh, Writing the Truth , 113. 46. As such, one can read the sisterly relationship as possibly more than just sisterly. 47. Interestingly, as Judith Still notes in her reading of the Levite , Rousseau describes the Levite as a bad mother in addition to being a bad father. See Still, “Rousseau’s Lévite d’Ephraïm ,” 21. In the passage she describes, Rousseau writes, “The young Levite followed his route with his wife, his servant, and his baggage, trans- ported with joy in bringing back his heart’s friend, and uneasy about the sun and the dust, like a mother who brings back her son from the nurse’s and fears for him the air’s ravages.” Levite , 183 (OC , 2:1212). 48. Levite , 181 ( OC , 2:1210). 49. Still, “Rousseau’s Lévite d’Ephraïm ,” 18. 50. Levite , 182–83 ( OC , 2:1210–13). 51. Ibid., 185 (2:1214). My emphasis. 52. Ibid., 186 (2:1215). 53. But she is not a sufficient sign, contrary to what Rousseau states in On the Origin of Languages (OC , 5:377). In this later ver- sion, the Levite travels to Mizpah to appear before the Elders to “explain” beforehand what the parcels they are about to receive actually mean. The (mutilated) body of the girl has no meaning in and of itself— its meaning has to be explained/interpreted by the Levite. Furthermore, the Levite’s misrepresentation of events (his exculpatory account) signifies not only that the body must be interpreted but that often the meaning imposed upon the biologi- cal evidence is one of willful misinterpretation (or at least in the service of self-interest). 54. Levite , 189 ( OC , 2:1217). 55. Ibid., 191 (2:1221). See Wingrove, Rousseau’s Republican Romance , 227. 56. Ibid. 57. Ibid, 192 (2:1223). My emphasis. 58. Ibid, 193 (2:1223). 152 NOTES

59. Ibid, 191 (2:1222). 60. Pateman, Sexual Contract , 208. 61. Rousseau, The Confessions and Correspondence, Including the Letters to Malesherbes , trans. Christopher Kelly and ed. Christopher Kelly, Roger D. Masters, and Peter G. Stillman (1996), vol. 5 of Collected Writings , 265 ( OC , 1:316). 62. See Starobinski’s interpretation in Transparency and Obstruction , 158–59. Readings influenced by Starobinski’s can be found in, for example, Joel Schwartz, The Sexual Politics of Jean- Jacques Rousseau (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), 103–4, and Wingrove, Rousseau’s Republican Romance , 26–27. 63. A notable exception is Christopher Kelly. Kelly reads in-depth all three and reads them as a whole. However, he reads them pri- marily in terms of the problem of the imagination. What brief reference that is made to the (obvious) sexual politics is further downplayed by Kelly’s interpretation that Rousseau’s critique is implied rather than explicit. See Kelly, Rousseau’s Exemplary Life , 176–83. 64. Confessions , 266 ( OC , 1:317). 65. Ibid., 266–67 (1:317). 66. Ibid., 269 (1:320). 67. Ibid. 68. In an early passage from the Confessions , Rousseau writes, “If my aroused blood demands women, my tender heart also demands love even more. Women who can be bought with money would lose all their charms for me. I doubt whether I would even have it in me to take advantage of them.” Ibid., 31 (1:36). 69. Ibid., 269 (1:321). 70. Starobinski, Transparency and Obstruction , 158. 71. Ibid., 159. Starobinski’s emphasis. 72. Confessions , 270 ( OC , 1:322). 73. Ibid., 271 (1:323). Although Rousseau finds “incestuous” relations between equals— “brothers” and “sisters”— undisturbing, those between “parents” and “children” he finds intolerable because of their unequal relations. Of course, it goes without saying (I hope!) that Rousseau is not literally advocating incestuous relations among siblings. For Rousseau’s metaphoric incestuous relation and its changing relation from brother/sister love to mother/son with Mme de Warens, see chapter 3 . 74. Ibid., 3 (1:111). 75. James Miller, for example, argues that for Rousseau, Geneva was a sort of willful fantasy, a deliberate and conscious idealization of his birthplace. See Miller, Rousseau: Dreamer of Democracy NOTES 153

(New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 1984), 14–25. Helena Rosenblatt, on the other hand, has contended that Rousseau was well informed on the current politics of his homeland and the “Dedication” was meant as an explicit critique of the direction of Genevan politics. See Rosenblatt, Rousseau and Geneva: From the First Discourse to the Social Contract, 1749– 1762 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 84–88, 159–63. I do not find these two views to be necessarily incom- patible. Throughout his writings, Rousseau willfully mixes facts and fiction, truth and fable, fantasy and reality. 76. Confessions , 327 ( OC , 1:389). 77. Rousseau would not regain his rights of citizenship until after he arrived in Geneva and converted back to Protestantism. 78. On the specific political critique Rousseau puts forth in the “Dedication,” see Rosenblatt, Rousseau and Geneva , 159–63. 79. Second Discourse , 8–9 ( OC , 3:117–18). 80. Ibid., 10 (3:119–20). 81. Joan Landes, Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of the French Revolution (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988), 69. 82. See Rosenblatt, Rousseau and Geneva , 155, 84n. 83. Rousseau, “Essay on the Important Events in Which Women Have Been the Secret Cause,” in Rousseau on Women, Love, and Family , ed. Christopher Kelly and Eve Grace (Hanover, NH, and London: University Press of New England, 2009), 175 ( OC , 2:1257). It is also significant that Rousseau started working on the play Death of Lucretia during his summer in Geneva. 84. Julia Kristeva interprets “La Reine Fantasque” (and Emile ) as exemplary of the eighteenth century’s fictional portrayal of gender confusion. She writes, “If we peruse the novels of this era, we see that the eighteenth century explicitly formulates the notion of sexual difference as an unresolved, if not impenetrable, concept.” And in explicit reference to “La Reine Fantasque,” she states, “Rousseau’s short story seems to enjoy exploring the pos- sibilities of sexual confusion— confusion, that is, and not infantile asexuality. This philosophical tale covers sexual hybridization, the double, and twins.” Kristeva, New Maladies of the Soul , trans. Ross Guberman (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 144–45. 85. Rousseau, “Queen Whimsical,” in Women, Love, and Family , 50. 86. Sarah Kofman, “Rousseau’s Phallocratic Ends,” in Feminist Interpretations of Jean–Jacques Rousseau , ed. Lynda Lange (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002), 231. 154 NOTES

However, Kofman considers this writing to be exceptional and aberrational among Rousseau’s writings. 87. Confessions , 330 ( OC , 1:393). 88. Ibid., 153 (1:182). My emphasis. 89. Ibid., 154 (1:183). 90. Ibid., 127–28 (1:152). My emphasis. 91. “Of all [the] amusements the one that pleased me the most was an excursion around the Lake that I made in a boat with Deluc the father, his daughter- in- law, his two sons, and my Therese. We put seven days into this tour in the most beautiful weather in the world. I kept the lively remembrance of the sites that had struck me at the other extremity of the lake, and whose description I made several years later in the Nouvelle Héloïse .” Ibid., 330 (1:393). 92. Ibid., 327–28 (1:390–91). 93. Ibid., 328 (1:391).

2 The Arts: From the L ETTER TO D’A LEMBERT to THE REVERIES OF THE SOLITARY WALKER 1. D’Alembert, “Geneva,” in Rousseau, Letter to d’Alembert, and Writings for the Theater , ed. and trans. Allan Bloom, Charles Butterworth, and Christopher Kelly (2004), vol. 10 of The Collected Writings of Jean- Jacques Rousseau , 12 vols., edited by Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly (Hanover, NH, and London: University Press of New England, 1990–2007), 244. 2. Rousseau, Discourse of the Sciences and Arts (First Discourse) and Polemics , vol. 2 of Collected Writings (1992), 5; Oeuvres com- plètes de Jean-Jacques Rousseau , 5 vols. (Paris: Gallimard Pléiade, 1959–95), 3:6–7. 3. “Preface to Narcissus,” in First Discourse , 191–92 ( OC , 2:965). 4. “Letter of d’Alembert,” in Letter , 369. However, d’Alembert also remarked that the extremity of Rousseau’s position indicated a certain ambiguity, that perhaps it was Rousseau who suffered from an obsessive and excessive interest and susceptibility to love rather than women. “Through your reproaches is seen to pierce the very pardonable taste that you have preserved for them, perhaps even something more lively.” And furthermore, d’Alembert thought that this would endear him rather than estrange him from women. “[T]his mixture of severity and weakness— excuse me for this last word— will get you pardoned easily; they will feel at least, and they will be grateful to you for it, that it cost you less to declaim against them with warmth, than to see and judge them with a philosophic indifference.” Ibid. NOTES 155

5. Joel Schwartz, The Sexual Politics of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), 56. 6. Ibid., 68. 7. Nicole Fermon, Domesticating Passions: Rousseau, Woman, and Nation (Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press, 1997), 75. 8. Sarah Kofman, “Rousseau’s Phallocratic Ends,” in Feminist Interpretations of Jean- Jacques Rousseau , ed. Lynda Lange (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002), 238. 9. Linda Zerilli, Signifying Woman: Culture and Chaos in Rousseau, Burke, and Mill (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), 35. 10. This term is coined by Abigail Solomon- Godeau in reference to the construction of femininity as “spectacle” in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. See “The Other Side of Venus: The Visual Economy of Feminine Desire,” in The Sex of Things: Gender and Consumption in Historical Perspective , ed. Victoria de Graza and Ellen Furlough (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 114. 11. See Discourse on the Origins of Inequality (Second Discourse), Polemics , and Political Economy , trans. Judith R. Bush, Roger D. Masters, Christopher Kelly, and Terence Marshall (1993), vol. 3 of Collected Writings , 65 (OC , 3:191). 12. Letter , 319 ( OC , 5:84). 13. D’Alembert, in his response to Rousseau, mocks him for portraying Geneva in such an idealized and romantic fashion. Instead of portraying Geneva, d’Alembert argues, Rousseau is actually depicting the rural mountain villages of the Valais. Geneva, d’Alembert sarcastically adds, is no longer in the “Golden Age” as Rousseau suggests, but closer to a “Silver Age.” “First you trans- port yourself into the mountains of the Valais, into the center of a little country of which you write a charming description; you show us what is perhaps found only in this corner of the Universe alone, people who are quiet and satisfied in the bosom of their family and their labor; and you prove that Drama would not be fit for anything but disturbing the happiness they enjoy. No one, sir, will claim the contrary. . . . What will you conclude from this for Geneva? Is the present state of this Republic susceptible to the application of these rules? I want to believe that there is nothing exaggerated or romantic in the description of this fortunate can- ton of the Valais, where there is neither hatred, nor jealousy, nor quarrels, and where nevertheless there are men. But if the golden age has taken refuge in the rocks near Geneva, your Citizens are at least in the silver age.” “Letter of d’Alembert,” in Letter , 374. 156 NOTES

14. For example, Rousseau writes, “Never in a Monarchy can the opulence of an individual put him above the Prince; but, in a Republic, it can easily put him above the laws. Then the government no longer has force, and the rich are always the true sov- ereign. On the basis of these incontestable maxims, it remains to be considered whether inequality has not reached among us the last limit to which it can go without shaking the Republic. I refer myself on this point to those who know our constitution and the division of our riches better than I do.” Letter , 336 ( OC , 5:105–6). Rousseau in essence admits that Geneva has already strayed far from the egalitarian ideal that elsewhere in the text it supposedly exemplifies. But he can only plead ignorance. 15. Ibid., 262 (5:16). 16. Rousseau, The Confessions and Correspondence, Including the Letters to Malesherbes , trans. Christopher Kelly, vol. 5 of Collected Writings (1996), 357 (OC , 1:424). 17. Ibid., 357 (1:425). 18. Ibid. 19. Ibid., 348, 353–54 (1:414, 421–22). 20. Ibid., 350 (1:416). 21. Ibid., 358–59 (1:427). My emphasis. 22. Ibid., 359 (1:427). 23. Ibid., 365 (1:434). My emphasis. 24. Ibid., 365 (1:435). 25. Ibid., 415 (1:495–96). 26. Juliet Flower MacCannell, The Regime of the Brother: After the Patriarchy (London and New York: Routledge, 1991), 73. My reading owes much to MacCannell’s observation that the Letter is really about love (or its absence) and led me to (re)consider the context of Rousseau’s text. 27. Letter , 264 ( OC , 5:18). 28. Ibid., 266 (5:21). 29. Ibid., 269 (5:23–24). 30. Ibid., 275 (5:31). 31. Ibid., 275–76 (5:31–32). 32. Ibid., 284 (5:42). 33. Ibid., 285 (5:43). 34. Ibid. 35. Ibid., 285 (5:43–44). 36. MacCannell, Regime of the Brother , 73. 37. In fact, Rousseau states clearly that if love relations actually existed in French society, this would be an improvement in “morals.” He writes, “The most wicked of men is he who isolates himself the NOTES 157

most, who most concentrates his heart in himself; the best is he who share his affections equally with all his kind. It is much better to love a mistress than to love oneself alone in all the world. . . . On this principle, I say that there are countries where the morals are so bad they would be only too happy to be able to raise themselves back up to the level of love.” Letter , 337–38 ( OC , 5:107). 38. Ibid., 327–28 (5:93–95). This passage and Rousseau’s insistence that gallantry/romance has usurped love anticipates Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno’s argument in “The Culture Industry,” summed up in the phrase, “It [the culture industry] reduces love to romance.” In Dialectic of the Enlightenment: Philosophical Fragments , ed. Gunzelin Schimi Noerr; trans. Edmund Jephcott (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002), 111. 39. Letter , 328 ( OC , 5:95–96). This passage alludes to Rousseau’s insistence that love is always illusory or based on a fiction. However, this does not contradict his assertion that “love” in Parisian society is false (based on self-love and masked with gallantry). Some fictions/illusions are better than others. 40. Second Discourse , 65 (OC , 3:191). 41. Rousseau, Julie or the New Heloise , trans. Philip Stewart and Jean Vaché, vol. 6 of Collected Writings (1997), 222 (OC , 2:271). 42. Luce Irigaray, “The Power of Discourse and the Subordination of the Feminine,” in This Sex Which Is Not One , trans. Catherine Porter (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985), 84. Irigaray’s emphasis. 43. As Rousseau alludes to throughout the Letter , previously it was the male body that was considered to be the erotic ideal. Solomon- Godeau argues that the turn toward a visual culture in which “femininity” and the female body are fully exploited as “spectacle” in the nineteenth century was first articulated by Rousseau in the eighteenth century in the Letter to d’Alembert . Solomon- Godeau, “Other Side of Venus,” 128. 44. Letter , 333 ( OC , 5:101). This objectification is particularly clear in the modern fetishization of the female body. Rousseau cites two extreme examples. The first is of Lacedaemonian girls who could dance naked in the streets without causing the slightest dis- turbance. In the second, Rousseau refers to the chaos a single extended foot causes in Peking (alluding not only to foot fetishism but also, it seems, to the cruel practice of foot-binding): “A young Chinese woman extending the tip of her foot, covered and shod, will wreak more havoc in Peking than the most beautiful girl in the world dancing stark naked on the banks of the Taygetus.” Of 158 NOTES

course, Rousseau does not believe that one can or should give up wearing clothes. Rather, he suggests that clothes have a symbolic and political meaning. This is why he pays so much attention to fashion throughout his writings. Ibid., 350 (5:123). 45. Ibid., 287 (5:45). 46. Zerilli, Signifying Woman , 31. 47. Rousseau uses this phrase in connection with the men’s circles: “Our circles still preserve some image of ancient morals among us. By themselves, the men, exempted from having to lower their ideas to the range of women and to clothe reason in gallantry, can devote themselves to grave and serious discourse without fear of ridicule.” Letter , 328 ( OC , 5:96). Obviously, Rousseau himself preferred to talk to women. 48. Julie , 221 (OC , 2:270). 49. Letter , 287 ( OC , 5:45). 50. Julie , 226 (OC , 2:275). 51. Ibid., 226–28 (2:276–78). 52. Fermon, Domesticating Passions , 89. 53. For example, he writes, “It is possible that there are a few women worthy of being listened to by a decent man; but, in general, is it from women that he ought to take counsel, and is there no way of honoring their sex without abasing our own?” And: “Women, in general, do not like any art, know nothing about any, and have no Genius.” Letter , 287 ( OC , 5:327). 54. Ibid., 327n (5:94–95n). 55. Ibid., 286 (5:44). 56. Christopher Kelly, Rousseau as Author: Consecrating One’s Life to Truth (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), 102. 57. “Moral Letters,” in Rousseau, Autobiographical, Scientific, Religious, Moral, and Literary Writings , trans. and ed. Christopher Kelly (2007), vol. 12 of Collected Writings , 179. My emphasis. 58. Letter , 328–29 ( OC , 5:96–97). 59. Ibid., 347–48 (5:119–20). My emphasis. 60. Ibid., 351n (5:123–24n). 61. See Eli Friedlander, J.J. Rousseau: An Afterlife of Words (Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press, 2004), 95. The discussion of the Ninth Walk, like the Letter to d’Alembert , is a response to a writing by d’A lembert. This time it is to d’A lembert’s obituary of Mme Geoffrin. Rousseau reads d’Alembert’s praise of Geoffrin’s love of children as an indirect insult, as a critique of Rousseau’s abandonment of his children. Thus, much of the Ninth Walk revolves around children (and Rousseau’s defensive claim that he loves children). However, what is also notable is that NOTES 159

the Ninth Walk ends with the same quote (now foreshortened to just one couplet) from Plutarch as the Letter : “Formerly, we were Young, valiant, and Bold.” The Letter ended with Rousseau as a boy watching generations of soldiers and future soldiers celebrat- ing their power and country in the quartier Saint- Gervais. The Reveries ends, in contrast, with a discussion of disabled veterans around the Ecole Militaire. The Ninth Walk can thus be read perhaps as an obituary of patriarchy and patrilineal power. See Rousseau, The Reveries of the Solitary Walker, Botanical Writings, and Letter to Franquières , trans. Charles Butterworth, Alexandra Cook, and Terence Marshall and ed. Christopher Kelly (2000), vol. 8 of Collected Writings , 86–88 ( OC , 1:1095–97). 62. Reveries , 83 ( OC , 1:1091). 63. Ibid. Significantly Rousseau, while playing the judge, finds none of the girls to be especially “pretty”—signifying his lack of preference or interest. 64. Ibid., 83–84 (1:1092). 65. Ibid., 84 (1:1092). 66. Ibid. 67. Rousseau writes in the Fourth Walk, “Fictions which have a moral purpose are called allegories or fables; and as their purpose is or ought to be only to wrap useful truths in easily perceived and pleasing forms, in such cases we hardly care about hiding the de facto lie, which is only the cloak of truth; and he who merely sets forth a fable as a fable in no way lies. There are other purely idle fictions such as the greater part of stories and novels which, con- taining no genuine instruction, have no purpose but amusement. Stripped of all moral usefulness, their worth can be assessed only in terms of the intention of the one who invents them.” Ibid., 32 (1:1029). 68. See James Swenson, On Jean- Jacques Rousseau: Considered as One of the First Authors of the Revolution (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000), 131–33. 69. Reveries , 84 ( OC , 1:1093). 70. Confessions , 29 (OC , 1:34). 71. Swenson, On Jean- Jacques Rousseau , 130. 72. Although Swenson is undoubtedly correct that in the episode of the Confessions the word partager is used alternatively to mean “to split” and “to share,” this is somewhat of an exception. For the most part, Rousseau uses partager (one of his favorite words) in the sense of “to share.” Indeed, in the rather concise Ninth Walk (a mere ten pages), Rousseau employs partager in the sense of “to share” at least seven times. 160 NOTES

73. Schwartz translates this dual nature as Rousseau’s bisexuality. For Schwartz, Rousseau’s bisexuality is an attempt at “wholeness,” an attempt to transcend sexuality altogether, to remain absolutely independent. Schwartz thus reads Rousseau’s self- ascribed “femininity” not as a critique of normative identities but as an attempt at transcendence, to be the exception to the rule. See Schwartz, Sexual Politics , 106–9. 74. One can read already in the Letter itself Rousseau’s preference for literature and novels as a form of entertainment. He writes, “From this common taste for solitude arises a taste for contem- plative readings and the Novels with which England is inundated. Thus both [sexes], withdrawn more into themselves, give themselves less to frivolous imitations, get more of a taste for the true pleasures of life, and think less of appearing happy than being so.” Letter , 311 ( OC , 5:75). 75. The subtitle itself, La Nouvelle Héloïse , signals that Rousseau’s text will be a rewriting of an already existing text: the love letters between Héloïse and Abélard. 76. Notice (Avertissement ), in Julie , 5 ( OC , 2:9). 77. Rousseau begins the (first) preface by stating, “Great cities must have theaters; corrupt peoples, Novels.” Julie , 3 ( OC , 2:5). This statement recalls Rousseau’s argument in the Letter that the theatre is a positive distraction for those in large cities. But it adds explicitly that for all others (since we are all “corrupt”), or those outside the metropolis, novels are the preferable form of entertainment. 78. Second Preface, in Julie , 10 ( OC , 2:15). 79. Ibid., 13–14 (2:19). 80. Ibid., 15 (2:22). 81. Rousseau, however, was absolutely mistaken about Julie ’s audience. In the Confessions , he indicates, “It is peculiar that this book succeeded better in France than in the rest of Europe although the French, both men and women, are not treated extremely well in it. Completely contrary to my expectation, its least success was in Switzerland and its greatest in Paris. . . . If, for example, Julie had been published in a certain country I am thinking of [pre- sumably Geneva], I am sure that no one would have finished reading it, and that it would have died at birth.” Confessions , 456–57 (OC , 1:545–46). 82. Second Preface, in Julie , 16 ( OC , 2:23). My emphasis. 83. Ibid., 16 (2:22). 84. Ibid., 17–18 (2:24). 85. Ibid., 9, 11 (2:14, 2:16). My emphasis. 86. Ibid., 10 (2:15). This passage is similar to what Rousseau claimed in Essai sur l’origine des langues : that the first language was NOTES 161

figurative rather than literal. “[T]he figurative word is born before the literal word, when passion fascinates our gaze. [T]he first idea it conveys to us is not that of the truth.” OC , 5:381. My translation. 87. Second Preface, in Julie , 11 ( OC , 2:16–17). My emphasis. 88. Christopher Kelly has noted that what is interesting about Rousseau’s refusal to answer is not a coy attempt to suggest that the text is true (a common enough ruse) but his “refusal to deny his book was a novel.” Rousseau as Author , 113. 89. Second Preface, in Julie , 21 ( OC , 2:29). 90. OC , 2:1338. My translation of Rousseau’s translation: “The world possessed her without knowing her, me, I knew her and remain here below to cry for her.” 91. Pau l de Ma n, Allegories of Reading: Figural Language in Rousseau, Nietzsche, Rilke, and Proust (New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 1979), 204. 92. It is noteworthy that the interlocutor, “N,” claims that the characters in Julie could not possibly exist (that is, if they did not actually exists), since they are too “unnatural.” “R” responds by saying, “Why do you decide it so? Do you know how vastly Men differ from each other? How opposite characters can be? To what degree morals, prejudices vary with the times, places, eras? Who is daring enough to assign exact limits to Nature, and assert: Here is as far as Man can go, and no further?” “R’s” response recalls Rousseau’s argument in the Second Discourse on nature and freedom— nature being “nothingness” or “lack” and freedom the possibility to transform what is given. It is also worth mentioning in this context that “N” intimates that the relation of the “two women friends” (Claire and Julie) is one of the most unbelievable or “unnatural,” perhaps even “monstrous” (to cite not only “N’s” but Claire’s own self- description in Julie ). This point will also be elaborated in the next chapter.

3 Postoedipal Desire: Reading the MÉNAGE À TROIS 1. Jean Starobinski, Jean- Jacques Rousseau: Transparency and Obstruction , trans. Arthur Goldhammer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 177. 2. Thomas M. Kavanagh, Writing the Truth: Authority and Desire in Rousseau (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1987), chapter 1 . 3. Tzvetan Todorov, Frail Happiness: An Essay on Rousseau , trans. John T. Scott and Robert D. Zaretsky (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001). 162 NOTES

4. See Todorov, Frail Happiness , chapter 4. On the implications of ignoring Les Solitaires , see my review in the Canadian Journal of Political Science/Revue canadienne de science politique 35, no. 4 (December 2002): 960–962. 5. Judith Shklar, Men and Citizens : A Study of Rousseau’s Social Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), 150. 6. Rousseau, Emile or On Education , trans. Allan Bloom (New York: Basic Books, 1979), 46; Oeuvres complètes de Jean- Jacques Rousseau , 5 vols. (Paris: Gallimard Pléiade, 1959–95), 4:258. Translation modified. 7. Ibid., 49 (4:262). 8. Ibid., 208 (4:488). 9. Ibid., 357–58 (4:692–93). 10. Ibid., 407 (4:765). 11. I am inclined to believe the narrative voice here is Rousseau’s rather than the tutor’s. First of all, this utopia differs so much from the tutor’s discourse on sex segregation in Book V. And secondly, I believe this because of the desire to have “a shed full of cows, so that I would have the dairy products I like so much.” Rousseau was known to have a penchant for dairy products— —as do Emile and St. Preux, unlike the tutor, who prefers more “manly” treats (i.e., meat and wine). 12. Emile, 351 ( OC , 4:687). 13. See Juliet Flower MacCannell, The Regime of the Brother: After the Patriarchy (London and New York: Routledge, 1991), 70. 14. Rousseau, The Confessions and Correspondence, Including the Letters to Malesherbes , trans. Christopher Kelly, vol. 5 of Collected Writings (1996), 37 ( OC , 1:43). 15. OC , 4:887. My translation. 16. Ibid. My translation. 17. Ibid., 4:887–88. My translation. 18. Ibid., 4:904. My translation. 19. Ibid., 4:909. My translation. 20. Ibid., 4:917. My translation. 21. Julie , 143 ( OC , 2:174–75). 22. Ibid., 349 (2:424). 23. See Lori Jo Marso, (Un)Manly Citizens: Jean- Jacques Rousseau’s and Germaine de Staël’s Subversive Women (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), and MacCannell, Regime of the Brother . 24. Lisa Disch, “Claire Loves Julie: Reading the Story of Women’s Friendship in La Nouvelle Héloïse,” in Hypatia: A Journal of NOTES 163

Feminist Philosophy 9, no. 3 (Summer 1994): 19–45; and Marso, (Un)Manly Citizens , 52–78. 25. Julie , 146 ( OC , 2:179). 26. Ibid., 169 (2:206). 27. Ibid., 328 (2:399). 28. Ibid., 334–35 (2:407). 29. Ibid., 492 (2:601). 30. Ibid., 392 (2:477). 31. Ibid., 371–72 (2:451). 32. Ibid., 490 (2:599). 33. Ibid., 491 (2:601–2). 34. Ibid., 403 (2:490–91). 35. Ibid., 417 (2:509). 36. Ibid., 610 (2:743). 37. Ibid.,173 (2:212). 38. Ibid., 583 (2:710). 39. Ibid., 582–83 (2:710). As Marso writes, “Could the ‘secret joy’ glimmering in Julie’s eyes be attributed to a lesbian liaison with Claire?” (Un)Manly Citizens , 70. 40. Marso, (Un)manly Citizens , chapters 2 and 3 . 41. See MacCannell, Regime of the Brother , 85–101. 42. Confessions , 387 ( OC , 1:462). 43. MacCannell, Regime of the Brother , 82. 44. Confessions , 169 ( OC , 1:201). 45. This is the conclusion of Kavanagh, Writing the Truth , 6–11. 46. Confessions , 169 ( OC , 1:201). 47. Ibid., 172–73 (1:205–6). 48. Ibid., 183 (1:219). 49. That Rousseau’s relationship to Mme de Warens, in the absence of Anet, is transformed to one of mother and son is underscored by the “sympathetic ink” episode. Rousseau’s attempt to make invisible ink ends up blowing up in his face, temporarily blinding him for six weeks. Like Oedipus, Rousseau punishes himself for sleeping with his mother. See ibid., 183 (1:218). 50. Ibid., 186 (1:222). 51. Ibid., 190 (1:226–27). 52. Ibid., 208 (1:248) 53. Ibid., 221 (1:265).

4 Autobiography: Writing the Self, Writing Gender 1. In the second letter to Malesherbes, Rousseau describes the aim of the letters as to “give you [Malesherbes] an account of myself.” 164 NOTES

In Rousseau, The Confessions and Correspondence, Including the Letters to Malesherbes , trans. Christopher Kelly (1996), vol. 5 of The Collected Writings of Jean- Jacques Rousseau , ed. Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly, 12 vols. (Hanover, NH, and London: University Press of New England, 1990–2007), 574. 2. The Dialogues takes place among three participants (again a nod to a ménage à trois ): a “Frenchman,” “Rousseau,” and “J.J.” (though the latter never speaks or makes an appearance). As is well known, Rousseau tried to deposit his text on the altar of the Cathedral of Notre Dame out of fear that it would fall into the hands of his “enemies.” See “History of the Preceding Writing,” in Rousseau, Judge of Jean- Jacques: Dialogues , trans. Judith R. Bush, Roger D. Masters, and Christopher Kelly, vol. 1 of Collected Writings (1990), 246–47; Oeuvres complètes de Jean- Jacques Rousseau , 5 vols. (Paris: Gallimard Pléiade, 1959–95), 1:977–92. 3. As stated previously, Kelly argues in Rousseau’s Exemplary Life that the Confessions are a work of politics. Miller uses the trope of reveries/imagination to discuss Rousseau’s politics in Rousseau Dreamer of Democracy . And Strong in Politics of the Ordinary devotes considerable attention to the Confessions . There are, of course, others. 4. Some recent feminist political theorists have been more likely to consider the autobiographical works, particularly the Confessions , in greater detail. See, for example, Elizabeth Rose Wingrove, Rousseau’s Republican Romance (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), and Nicole Fermon, Domesticating Passions: Rousseau, Woman, and Nation (Hanover, NH, and London: Wesleyan University Press, 1997). However, none have read the autobiographical works as calling into question the sta- bility of gender purportedly sustained in his other works. 5. Penelope Deutscher in “Woman, Femininity: Distancing Nietzsche from Rousseau” argues that the significant difference between the two thinkers is that Rousseau bases his concept of femininity on nature, whereas Nietzsche does not. In Nietzsche, Feminism, and Political Theory , ed. Paul Patton (London and New York: Routledge, 1993), 162–88. 6. Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, Vol. 1: An Introduction , trans. Robert Hurley (New York: Vintage Books, 1990), 59. My emphasis. 7. Foucault, though, did write an introduction to Rousseau’s Dialogues . “Introduction to Rousseau’s Dialogues ,” in Aesthetics, Method, and Epistemology, Vol. 2 , ed. James D. Faubion; trans. Robert Hurley et al. (New York: New Press, 1998), 33–51. NOTES 165

8. This was not the only time that Rousseau appropriated a title of a previous work and “rewrote” it. Consider Letters from the Mountain and La Nouvelle Héloïse . 9. Of course, Rousseau often feels guilt over his failures or wrong choices (sometimes contrary to what the reader would expect), yet he never calls them “sins.” On the differences between Augustine’s Confessions and Rousseau’s, see Christopher Kelly, Rousseau as Author: Consecrating One’s Life to Truth (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), 103–6. 10. Judith Butler, Giving an Account of Oneself (New York: Fordham University Press, 2005), 112–13. Butler’s emphasis. 11. First inscribed on the title page of Letters from the Mountain (1764). 12. Rousseau, The Reveries of the Solitary Walker, Botanical Writings, and Letter to Franquières , trans. Charles Butterworth, Alexandra Cook, and Terence Marshall, vol. 8 of Collected Writings (2000), 39 (OC , 1:1038). 13. Thomas M. Kavanagh, Writing the Truth: Authority and Desire in Rousseau (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1987), x. 14. James Swenson, On Jean- Jacques Rousseau: Considered as One of the First Authors of the Revolution (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000), 127. Swenson cites two eighteenth-century histori- ans, Pierre-Louis Ginguené and Sébastien Mercier, who both read the Confessions as a series of mini allegories or cautionary fables, though the two disagreed on which part of the Confessions was more allegorical/fictional than the other. Ginguené focused on the first half while Mercier believed the latter half to be more so. What is perhaps more incredible is that many eighteenth- century readers were absolutely convinced that Julie was a true story. See Robert Darnton, “Readers Respond to Rousseau: The Fabrication of Romantic Sensitivity,” in The Great Cat Massacre: And Other Episodes in French Cultural History (New York: Vintage Books, 1985), 215–57. Thus we have throughout Rousseau’s writings a continuous (deliberate) ambiguity of what is fact and what is fiction. 15. Wingrove, Rousseau’s Republican Romance , 134. 16. Confessions , 7 ( OC , 1:8). 17. Letters to Malesherbes , in Confessions , 574. In both the Letters to Malesherbes and the Dialogues , Rousseau reverses the order of his readings. He begins with Plutarch and then moves on to “romantic novels.” The ambiguity of which reading comes first (heroic or romantic works) underscores the impossibility of giving 166 NOTES

priority to either. In the Dialogues , describing his early readings (in the second person), Rousseau writes, “Plutarch’s famous men were his first reading at an age when children rarely know how to read. . . . These readings were followed by that of Cassandra and old novels which tempering his Roman pride, opened this nascent heart to all the expansive and tender feelings to which it was already only too well disposed.” Dialogues , 123 ( OC , 1:819). Furthermore, the specific examples of Plutarch and Cassandra in turn refer us back to the tutor’s lesson on what makes good history in Book IV of Emile . Rousseau cites Plutarch as exemplary in this regard for “an inimitable grace at depicting great men in small things.” For rather than great actions or events, Rousseau states, “I would prefer to begin study of the human heart with the reading of lives of individuals; for in them, however much the man may conceal himself, the historian pursues him everywhere. He leaves him no moment of respite, no nook where he can avoid the spectator’s piercing eye; and it is when the subject believes he has hidden himself best that the biographer makes him known best.” Emile or On Education , trans. Allan Bloom (New York: Basic Books, 1979), 240. Historical novels, such as Cleopatra or Cassandra , in contrast, “pile fictions on fictions to make reading more agreeable” and “yield” to the author’s “imagination” in order to have a “moral goal.” Emile, 238. It is possible to read Rousseau’s own methodology in the Confession s as itself a combi- nation of these two historical methodologies: (auto)biography of “low” and “intimate” details and novelistic re-creation. 18. OC , 1:1108. My translation. 19. Letters to Malesherbes , in Confessions , 574. 20. Confessions , 16 ( OC , 1:18). 21. Dialogues , 122 ( OC , 1:817–18). 22. Confessions , 8 ( OC , 1:9). 23. Ibid., 7 (1:8). 24. Ibid., 11 (1:12). 25. Ibid., 13 (1:15). This passage has led commentators to pre- sume that Rousseau’s masochism was a result of his guilt over his mother’s death. That Mlle Lambercier and later Mme de Warens (at least for a while) were mother figures seems to indi- cate that Rousseau’s masochism was the desire to be punished by the mother. However, Rousseau’s most enjoyable masochistic relations were always with girls his own age—for example, Mlles Goton, Galley, and Graffenreid. 26. Ibid. 27. Ibid., 13–14 (1:15). NOTES 167

28. Ibid., 14 (1:16). 29. Ibid., 15 (1:17). We might also consider that Rousseau’s penis is a never- ending source of physical pain. Throughout the Confessions , he complains of the inability to urinate. Unable to trace the cause, Rousseau resorts to the frequent use of catheters. His condition, coupled with the fear of getting his companion Therese preg- nant again, leads him to abstain from sexual intercourse. “I had noticed that intercourse with women made my condition sen- sibly worse.” Confessions , 498 (OC , 1:595). Might we not read Rousseau’s “illness” as a hypochondriac excuse to forego “normal” sexual relations? Might we not also consider Rousseau’s frequent use of catheters— often administered by Therese—as a means of indirectly attaining his masochistic desires (of being painfully “penetrated” by a woman)? This suggestion is made by Jaromír Janata in Masochism: The Mystery of Jean- Jacques Rousseau (Danbury, CT: Rutledge Books, 2001), 264. This work, however, is an example of the most reductive, pathologizing, and normal- izing reading of Rousseau. 30. Confessions , 15 ( OC , 1:17). 31. Kaja Silverman, Male Subjectivity at the Margins (New York and London: Routledge, 1992), 211. 32. Gilles Deleuze, Masochism: Coldness and Cruelty (New York: Zone Books, 1991), 60. 33. Zerilli does allude to the possibility of reading Rousseau’s masochism as described in the Confessions in a Deleuzian vein (that is, as the exaltation of the mother/female figure and the denigra- tion of the paternal figure). However, since this suggestion is rele- gated to a footnote, it remains just that— a possibility that is never explored in the body of the text. See Linda Zerilli, Signifying Woman: Culture and Chaos in Rousseau, Burke, and Mill (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), 163n. 34. Confessions , 16 ( OC , 1:19). 35. Ibid., 17 (1:20). 36. Ibid., 26–27 (1:31). 37. Ibid., 26 (1:30–31). 38. Ibid., 27 (1:32). 39. Ibid., 29 (1:34–35). 40. Ibid., 30, 26 (1:35–36, 1:31). Obviously this passage can be read in a multitude of ways. One of the first that comes to mind is in terms of writing— and of the writing of the Confessions in particu- lar. Rousseau’s writing is not a counterfeit, nor is it “genuine.” That is, it is not representational. Rather, it is literary— a romantic fable that generates its own truth. Derrida cites this passage in its 168 NOTES

entirety in Of Grammatology in a footnote, suggesting that here Rousseau surreptitiously acknowledges the “originarity of lack that makes necessary the addition of the supplement.” However, Derrida does not expound further than citing the passage. I am suggesting that what Derrida claims is “not made explicit” (i.e., originary lack) is continually proclaimed by Rousseau. See Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology , trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 214, 346n. 41. Jean Starobinski, Jean- Jacques Rousseau: Transparency and Obstruction , trans. Arthur Goldhammer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 106. See also Christopher Kelly, Rousseau’s Exemplary Life: The “Confessions” as Political Philosophy (Ithaca, NY, and London: Cornell University Press, 1987), 102–9. Kelly concurs with Starobinski that Rousseau’s distaste for money stems from his desire for unmediated pleasure. 42. On the homologous relation of money and the phallus, see Jean- Joseph Goux, Symbolic Economies: After Marx and Freud , trans. Jennifer Curtiss Gage (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990). Goux writes, “The institution of FATHER, PHALLUS, and LANGUAGE, of the major ‘signs’ that regulate the values market, in fact stems from agenesis whose necessity and whose limits are doubtless most pronounced, theoretically, in the origin of MONEY” (13). We might also consider what Rousseau writes in the Dialogues against the instrumental use of women. “The debauched see in women merely instruments of pleasure that are as contemptible as they are necessary, like those receptacles used daily for the most basic needs.” Dialogues , 23 ( OC , 1:688). 43. Confessions , 31 ( OC , 1:37). 44. Ibid., 33 (1:39). 45. Ibid., 34 (1:40). 46. Ibid., 34 (1:40–41). 47. Ibid., 34 (1:41). 48. Ibid., 37, 38 (1:43, 1:45). 49. Ibid., 40 (1:48). 50. Ibid., 40 (1:48). My emphasis. 51. Juliet Flower MacCannell, The Regime of the Brother: After the Patriarchy (London and New York: Routledge, 1991), 77. 52. Discourse on the Origins of Inequality (Second Discourse), Polemics, and Political Economy , trans. Judith R. Bush, Roger D. Masters, Christopher Kelly, and Terence Marshall (1993), vol. 3 of Collected Writings , 11 ( OC , 3:121). 53. Confessions , 74; OC , 1:88–89. 54. Ibid., 75; 1:89–90. Translation modified. NOTES 169

55. Starobinski, Transparency and Obstruction , 173. 56. Confessions , 64; OC , 1:76–77. 57. Ibid., 66; 1:79–80. 58. Ibid., 121; 1:144. 59. Ibid., 122; 1:145–46. 60. Again, for Rousseau this regret is similar in structure to the one cited earlier that he expresses upon leaving Geneva—notably, that if he stayed he might have been “a good Christian, good citizen, good father of a good family, good friend, good worker, good man in everything.” 61. Starobinski, Transparency and Obstruction , 173. 62. René Laforgue, for example, writes, “Here it is then formulated for the first time, this reproach by which Jean- Jacques felt himself persecuted. It is as if his father, the paternal superego, were saying to him: ‘You killed your mother, give her back to me, replace her by abandoning your virility.’ Thereafter, instead of exposing ‘the obscene object,’ that is to say, the penis, which he qualifies as obscene, he exposes the anus that pederasts substitute for the female organ. Moreover, he seems to have spent whole nights with his father developing a sentimentality that, by all accounts, had nothing in common with that of a normally turbulent and aggres- sive boy.” “Jean-Jacques Rousseau,” in Psychopathologie de l’échec: l’échec dans la vie des hommes et des peuples (Geneva: Editions du Mont Blanc, 1963), 127–28. My translation. 63. Confessions , 56 ( OC , 1:67). 64. See Julia Kristeva, Powers of Horror: An Essay on Abjection (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), 2–5. 65. Calvin Thomas, Male Matters: Masculinity, Anxiety, and the Male Body on the Line (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 63. 66. In the chapter “The Mechanics of Fluid,” in This Sex Which Is Not One , Irigaray argues that, part of a masculine economy founded on rationality and clear borders (male and female, subject and object), “sperm fluid” must be hidden/denied or rendered “solid” through the birth of a (male) child. That is, in denying its own “fluidity,” the male body (and male discourse) is idealized. “[W]e might ask (ourselves) why sperm is never treated as an object a ? Isn’t the subjection of sperm to the imperatives of repro- duction alone symptomatic of a preeminence historically allocated to the solid (product)? And if, in the dynamics of desire, the problem of castration intervenes— fantasy/reality of an amputation, of a “crumbing” of that solid that the penis represents—a reckon- ing with sperm-fluid as an obstacle to the generalization of an 170 NOTES

economy restricted to solids remains suspension.” Luce Irigaray, This Sex Which Is Not One , trans. Catherine Porter (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985), 115. Irigaray’s emphasis. 67. Confessions , 139 ( OC , 1:166). 68. MacCannell devotes a fair amount of attention to Rousseau’s homosexual encounters but completely ignores those that could be considered “positive.” This neglect is due, I think, again, to MacCannell’s insistence on “sexual difference” or the inclu- sion of the “sexually different” for a positive sexual politics. See MacCannell, Regime of the Brother , 74–80. Wingrove also discusses Rousseau’s “negative” homosexual encounter with the Moor in Turin but likewise neglects his positive examples. I certainly don’t think this is due to any heterosexist bias on Wingrove’s (or MacCannell’s) part but rather is a result of her reading of Rousseau as instantiating and upholding heterosexist norms. See Wingrove, Rousseau’s Republican Romance , 223–25. 69. Confessions , 83 ( OC , 1:99). 70. Ibid., 85 (1:101–2). 71. Ibid., 86 (1:102). 72. Ibid., 105 (1:125). 73. Ibid., 105 (1:126). 74. Mme de Warens has a particularly mobile, figurative power. As noted in the previous chapter, she was variously a sister and a mother figure. Here, in the earlier years, she can be seen to represent the father—perhaps because of being Genevan? In any case, this fluidity indicates that, for Rousseau, identity is a function of power rather than an intrinsic essence or even an effect of one’s corporeality. 75. Confessions , 112 ( OC , 1:133). 76. Ibid., 116 (1:139). 77. Ibid. 78. Ibid., 123–24 (1:147–48). Rousseau’s emphasis. 79. Ibid., 104 (1:124). 80. Ibid., 334 (1:398). 81. Ibid., 125 (1:149). 82. Ibid., 318 (1:379). 83. Ibid., 318–19 (1:380). 84. Ibid., 319 (1:380).

Conclusion 1. Paul de Man, “The Rhetoric of Blindness,” in Blindness and Insight: Essays in the Rhetoric of Contemporary Criticism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983), 111. NOTES 171

2. Tzvetan Todorov, Frail Happiness: An Essay on Rousseau , trans. John T. Scott and Robert D. Zaretsky (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001), 3. 3. Rousseau, Emile or On Education , trans. Allan Bloom (New York: Basic Books, 1979), 40. 4. It is somewhat curious that feminist readers have been so aghast at Rousseau’s “idealization” of Spartan women, given that the women of Sparta reputedly enjoyed a measure of equality and freedom unknown to their contemporaries or even their modern-day counterparts (education, property rights, freedom of movement). 5. Rousseau, Social Contract, with Discourse on Virtue of Heroes, Political Fragments, and Geneva Manuscript , trans. Judith R. Bush, Roger D. Masters, and Christopher Kelly (1994), vol. 4 of The Collected Writings of Jean- Jacques Rousseau , 12 vols., edited by Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly (Hanover, NH, and London: University Press of New England, 1990–2007), 132; Oeuvres complètes de Jean-Jacques Rousseau , 5 vols. (Paris: Gallimard Pléiade, 1959–95), 3:352. 6. Discourse on the Origins of Inequality (Second Discourse), Polemics, and Political Economy , trans. Judith R. Bush, Roger D. Masters, Christopher Kelly, and Terence Marshall (1993), vol. 3 of Collected Writings , 7 ( OC , 3:115). 7. Rousseau, Rousseau, Judge of Jean- Jacques: Dialogues , trans. Judith R. Bush, Roger D. Masters, and Christopher Kelly (1990), vol. 1 of Collected Writings , 108 ( OC , 1:800). 8. Second Discourse , 77n7 ( OC , 3:205n). 9. Dialogues , 179 ( OC , 1:890–91). 10. Ibid., 213 (1:935).

Bibliography

Works by Rousseau The Collected Writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau . Edited by Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly. 12 vols. Hanover, NH, and London: University Press of New England, 1990–2007: Vol. 1: Rousseau, Judge of Jean-Jacques : Dialogues . Translated by Judith R. Bush, Roger D. Masters, and Christopher Kelly, 1990; Vol. 2: Discourse on the Sciences and Arts (First Discourse) and Polemics , Translated by Judith R. Bush, Roger D. Masters, and Christopher Kelly, 1992; Vol. 3: Discourse on the Origins of Inequality (Second Discourse), Polemics, and Political Economy . Translated by Judith R. Bush, Roger D. Masters, Christopher Kelly, and Terence Marshall, 1993; Vol. 4: Social Contract, Discourse on Virtue Most Necessary for a Hero, Political Fragments, and Geneva Manuscript . Translated by Judith R. Bush, Roger D. Masters, and Christopher Kelly, 1994; Vol. 5: The Confessions and Correspondence, Including the Letters to Malesherbes . Translated by Christopher Kelly and edited by Christopher Kelly, Roger D. Masters, and Peter G. Stillman, 1996; Vol. 6: Julie, or the New Heloise . Translated by Philip Stewart and Jean Vaché, 1997; Vol. 7: Essay on the Origin of Languages, and Writings on Music . Translated and edited by John T. Scott, 1998; Vol. 8: The Reveries of the Solitary Walker, Botanical Writings, and Letter to Franquières . Translated by Charles Butterworth, Alexandra Cook, and Terence Marshall and edited by Christopher Kelly, 2000; Vol. 9: Letter to Beaumont, Letters Written from the Mountain, and Related Writings . Translated by Christopher Kelly and Judith Bush and edited by Eve Grace and Christopher Kelly, 2001; Vol. 10: Letter to d’Alembert, and Writings for the Theater . Edited and translated by Allan Bloom, Charles Butterworth, and Christopher Kelly, 2004; Vol. 11: The Plan for Perpetual Peace, On the Government of Poland, and Other Writings on History and Politics . Translated by Christopher Kelly and Judith Bush and edited by Christopher Kelly, 2005; Vol. 12: Autobiographical, Scientific, Religious, Moral, and Literary Writings . Translated and edited by Christopher Kelly, 2007. Emile: Or, On Education . Translated by Allan Bloom. New York: Basic Books, 1979. 174 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Oeuvres complètes de Jean-Jacques Rousseau . Vols. 1–5. Paris: Gallimard Pléiade, 1959–95. Rousseau on Women, Love and Family . Edited by Christopher Kelly and Eve Grace. Hanover, NH, and London: University Press of New England, 2009.

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Index

actresses, 67–68 confession, 110–111 Allegories of Reading (de Man), 81 Confessions (Rousseau): apple story “Allegory (Julie) ” (de Man), 81 in, 76–78; as autobiographical amour de soi (love of self), 15 , 23 , work, 109; as fictional, 165n14; 30–32 France and, 49–50; gender and, amour-propre (self-love, egotism), 4 , 17; homosexual encounters in, 15 , 27 , 30–32 , 65 , 140–141 , 128–133; ménages à trois in, 13; 150n21 money and, 122; passion and, 8; apple stories, 75 , 76–78 as political work, 113; prostitute artisans of Geneva, 45 stories in, 16 , 40–43; Rousseau’s authenticity, 81–82 , 110 , 161n92 characteristics in, 114 autobiographical works, 109–136; consensual nonconsensuality, 15 , 33 as confessions, 110–111; as Cornell, Drucilla, 12 constituting the self, 111–112; couples, 80 , 89–92 , 142. as literary works, 17; as political, See also ménages à trois 5–6; punishment in, 116–121; cross-dressing, 2–4 Rousseau’s early life in, 113–124; Rousseau’s homosexual experiences d’Alembert, Jean le Rond, 55 , in, 128–134; Rousseau’s 154n4 , 155n13. See also Letter to relationships d’Alembert (Rousseau) with women in, 124–128 death: of Julie, 101 , 102–103; in Levite, 36–37 Bâcle (Rousseau’s boyhood friend), Deleuze, Gilles, 118 130–131 De Luc, Jacques-François, 49 Basile, Mme, 126–127 de Man, Paul, 24 , 81 , 137 , 148n36 Benjamites, 36–38 democracy, 16 , 83–85 betrayal, 51–53 , 90 Derrida, Jacques, 5 , 27–28 , 32 , bodies, deformities of, 41–42 167–168n40 brothers, 11 , 13–14 desire: in Levite, 34–35; Rousseau brother-sister relationships, 94 , and, 61 , 104 , 135. See also passion 105–106 deviant masculinities, 2 Butler, Judith, 3–4 , 12–13 , 111 Le devin du Village (“The Village Soothsayer”) (Rousseau), 134 Caputo, John, 13 Dialogues (Rousseau), 109 , 114 , Coldness and Cruelty (Deleuze), 118 140–141 , 164n2 comedy, 64 Disch, Lisa, 95 182 INDEX

Discourse on the Origin and exclusion: in gingerbread story, 75; Foundations of Inequality among of women, 7–10 , 66–69 Men (the Second Discourse). See exhibitionism, 2 , 125–126 , 169n62 Second Discourse (Rousseau) Discourse on the Sciences and Arts familial model, 138–139 , 142 (the First Discourse) (Rousseau), family: feminist readings and, 8–9; 19 , 55–56 Geneva as, 72; in Levite, 34–36; Domesticating Passions (Fermon), republican model and, 138–139; in 56 , 69 Second Discourse, 23 , 25 drag, 2–4 fantasies: of Geneva, 50–51 , 152n75 , DuCommun, M., 120–124 155n13; of love, 61–62 fathers: Anet as, 105; as dangerous, economic relations, 75 , 76. 139–140; duties of, 86; in See also exchange value of women familial model, 139–140; Levite education, 61 , 68 , 86–87 , 92–93 , 94 as, 35; ménages à trois and, egalitarian relationships. See equal 83–84; Mme de Warens as, 131 , relations 132; prostitution and, 42–43; egoism. See amour-propre Rousseau’s, 45–46 , 115–116; Elshtain, Jean, 8 tutor as, 86–88. See also paternal Emile (Rousseau), 1 , 10–11 , 13 , 17 , authority 85–89 , 138 fear, 9–10 , 68 , 126 , 134–135 Emile et Sophie, ou Les Solitaires femininity: exchange value (Rousseau), 10–11 , 89–93 and, 66–67; modern world Enlightenment, 11 , 86–87 , 94–95 and, 7–8; objectification of, entertainment: public festivals, 157n43 , 157n44; of Parisian 58–59 , 71–76; theater, 16 , 55 , society, 57–58; pity and, 27–28; 59 , 63–73 revaluing of, 12; Rousseau’s, Epinay, Louise d’, 51 124–125 , 160n73; Rousseau’s equal relations: in Emile, 88–89; as works and, 5–6; St. Preux’s, 98. future ideal, 142–143; in Geneva, See also masculinity 45–46; incestuous relationships feminist readings, 1 , 6–13 , 55–57 , and, 152n73; in Julie, 93; in Levite, 109–110 35; ménages à trois and, 13–14 , Fermon, Nicole, 56 , 69 84–85; politics and, 17–18; public fiction: autobiographical works as, festivals and, 58–59; waferman 113; Confessions as, 165n14; in story and, 74. See also inequality Fourth Walk, 159n67; Geneva as, “Essay on the Important Events of 58; Julie as, 81–82 , 165n14; new Which Women Have been the selves and, 141–142; Rousseau’s Secret Cause” (Rousseau), 48 love life and, 61–62; Second Essay on the Origin of Languages Discourse as, 20–21 (Rousseau), 8 First Discourse (Rousseau), 19 , 55–56 exchange value of women: egoism Foucault, Michel, 110–111 and, 15–16; femininity and, Frail Happiness (Todorov), 85 66–67; in Julie, 94; in Levite, France, 49–50 , 57–58 , 140–141. 32–39; as prostitutes, 39–43 See also Parisian society INDEX 183 fraternal power, 11 , 13–14 inequality, 1; love relation and, 66; freedom, 24 , 97 , 134–135 in Rousseau’s relationships, 105 , Freudian model, 83–85 107; Second Discourse and, 15–16 , Friedlander, Eli, 73 19–23. See also equal relations Irigaray, Luce, 66–67 , 169–170n66 gallantry, 65–66 Garden of the Hesperides, 75 , jealousy, 27 , 90–91 , 100 , 103–104 76–77 “Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Sexist?” Gauffecourt (Genevan friend), (Thomas), 6 44–45 , 51–52 Jean-Jacques Rousseau: The Politics gender identities: binary model of, 142; of the Ordinary (Strong), 23 in Confessions, 113; instability of, Jean-Jacques Rousseau: 9–11 , 104; Rousseau’s, 2–4; of Transparency and Obstruction St. Preux, 98. See also femininity; (Starobinski), 20 masculinity; sexual difference J. J. Rousseau: An Afterlife of Words Gender Trouble (Butler), 3–4 (Friedlander), 73 Geneva, 43–53; “Dedication” and, Julie, or the New Héloïse (Rousseau): 43–47; as fantasy, 50–51 , 58 , audience for, 160n81; authenticity 152n75 , 155n13; France and, of, 81–82 , 161n92 , 165n14; Claire 49–53; in Letter, 57–58; sex in, 95–97; as critique of social segregation in, 70–73; theater relations, 78–82; equal relations in, 55 , 65 , 70–73; women of, in, 93; exchange of women in, 46–47 , 51 94; father figures in, 140; gender “Geneva” (d’Alembert), 55 relations in, 1 , 10–11; as instructive, gingerbread story, 74–75 79; literature and, 59; ménages à Giving an Account of Oneself trois in, 13 , 93–103; mothers in, (Butler), 111 96–98; new relationships and, 17; Parisian women in, 66; paternal the Hermitage, 51 , 60 authority in, 79–80 , 94–95 , 103; heroism, 114–116 , 119–121 writing of, 62 history, 20–22 The History of Sexuality, Vol. I Kavanagh, Thomas, 5 , 34 , 35 , (Foucault), 110 83–84 , 95 , 112 homosexuality: in Julie, 96–97 , Kelly, Christopher, 69 102; in Levite, 36–37; Rousseau Kofman, Sarah, 7 , 49 , 56 and, 128–134 , 170n68 Houdetot, Sophie d’, 3 , 62 , 69–70 , Laforgue, René, 83 , 128 , 169n62 83 , 103–104 l’amour à trois. See ménages à trois Landes, Joan, 7–8 , 46–47 illegitimate contract, 15–16 , 33–34 , Lange, Lynda, 8 38–39 Laqueur, Thomas, 7 impersonation, 133–134 Letters to Malesherbes (Rousseau), 114 incest taboo, 25–26 Letter to d’Alembert (Rousseau), incestuous relationships, 23 , 28–29 , 55–73; cross-dressing and, 3; 94 , 105–106 , 152n73 feminist readings of, 55–57; 184 INDEX

gender inequality in, 1; Geneva Merceret, Mlle, 127–128 and, 57–58 , 70–73; introduction milk, 98 , 107 , 162n11 to, 55–59; as love letter, 58 , model of modern state, 138 62–63; theater and, 16 , 63–70 money, 121–122 Lévi-Strauss, Claude, 25 “Moral Letters” (Rousseau), 69–70 The Levite of Ephraïm (Rousseau), moral love (love relation), 31–32 , 65 15–16 , 32–39 , 140 , 143 Morgenstern, Mira, 8–9 literature, 16–17 , 50 , 59. mother-child relationship, 23 , See also writing 28–29 , 105–106 love: absence of in society, 65–69; mothers: critique of, 14; duties of, in Emile, 87–88; in Julie, 95–97 , 86; in Julie, 96–98; masochism 102; Letter and, 58 and, 166n25 , 167n33; ménages love letters, 58 , 62–63 , 69–70 à trois and, 83 , 84; pity and, love of self. See amour de soi 27–29; Rousseau’s, 83 , 115 love triangles. See ménages à trois multiplicity, 12–13

MacCannell, Juliet Flower: on narcissism, 26–32 , 66–67 , 140–141 fraternal order, 11–12; on nature, 19–23 , 161n92 homosexual encounters, 170n68; Ninth Walk of Reveries (Rousseau), on Julie, 95; on Letter, 63; on 16–17 , 73–78 , 158–159n61 love triangles, 104; on narcissism, nonphallic desire, 2 , 125–128 31; on women’s power, 65 nothingness, 19–23 Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud (Laqueur), 7 objectification of women, 65–68 , Male Matters (Thomas), 129 157n43 , 157n44 manipulation, 87–88 , 95 oedipal drama, 11 , 83–84 , 147n32 marriage, 71 , 97 Of Grammatology (Derrida), 27 Marso, Lori Jo, 9 , 10–11 , 95 , 103 Okin, Susan, 6–7 masculinity: deviant, 2; idealization On Jean-Jacques Rousseau of, 133–134; modern world and, (Swenson), 113 7–8; “perversities” as critique of, 135–136; Rousseau’s works and, Parisian society, 56–58 , 65–66. 5–6. See also femininity See also France masochism, 2 , 116–118 , 132 , partage (splitting/sharing), 77 , 91 , 166n25 , 167n33 159n72 master/slave dialectic, 32 , 38 , 39 , passion, 8 , 29–32 , 102 , 115. 92. See also submission See also desire masturbation, 2 , 128–129 Pateman, Carole, 39–40 ménages à trois, 83–107; paternal authority, 2; in Confessions, 13; in Dialogues, in apple story, 77; in Confessions, 164n2; in Emile, 85–89; Freudian 135–136; first families and, 25; model and, 83–85; in Julie, in Julie, 79–80 , 94–95 , 103; 93–103; in Les Solitaires, 89–93; masochism and, 118; ménages politics of, 13–14; in Rousseau’s à trois as critique of, 13–14; life, 83–84 , 103–107 punishment and, 118–120; INDEX 185

Rousseau’s attempt to assume, work, 109; Fourth Walk, 159n67; 105–106 , 107; Rousseau’s father literature in, 16–17; Ninth Walk, and, 115–116; of tutor in Les 16–17 , 73–78 , 158–159n61; Solitaires, 92–93. See also fathers; public entertainments and, 59; patriarchy stories from, 73–78; truth in, 112 patriarchy: challenges to, 118–122; romance, 64–66 , 114–116 , Ninth Walk and, 158–159n61; 124–128 Rousseau and, 6–7; waferman Rousseau, Isaac, 45–46 , 115–116 story and, 74. See also paternal Rousseau, Jean-Jacques: early life authority of, 113–124; gender identity of, perfectability, 24 2–4; homosexual experiences Le Persiffleur (Rousseau), 114 of, 128–134; relationships of, pity, 23–24 , 26–32 60–63 , 83–84 , 124–128; style Plutarch, 81 , 138 , 158–159n61 , of, 80–81 , 137–138 165–166n17 Rousseau, Judge of Jean-Jacques: political/cultural models, 138–139 Dialogues (Rousseau), 109 , 114 , “The Power of Discourse and the 140–141 , 164n2 Subordination of the Feminine” Rousseau and the Politics of (Irigaray), 66 Ambiguity (Morgenstern), 8–9 “Preface to Narcissus” (Rousseau), Rousseau’s Republican Romance 55–56 (Wingrove), 33 prostitutes, 16 , 39–43 Rubin, Gayle, 25–26 public festivals, 58–59 , 71–76 public/private split, 7–9 , 85 , 90 sacrifice, 33–34 , 38–39 punishment, 116–121 salonnières, 66–69 Schwartz, Joel, 56 , 78 , 160n73 reading, 113–115 , 123–124 , Second Discourse (Rousseau), 141–142 , 165–166n17 19–32; Dedication of, 1 , reason, 8 , 27 , 29–30 , 115 43–47; familial model in, The Regime of the Brother: After the 138–139; gender inequality Patriarchy (MacCannell), 11 in, 1; illegitimate contract in, “La Reine Fantasque” or “Queen 38; inequality and, 15–16; Whimsical” (Rousseau), 48–49 , Letter and, 57; Levite and, 34; 153n84 narcissism and pity in, 26–32; relationships, alternative nature in, 19–23; passion and, (postoedipal), 13–14 , 17–18 , 8; paternal authority and, 14; 84–85 , 142 society in, 23–26 relationships, brother-sister, 94 , secrecy, 100–101 105–106 self, 111–112 , 141–142 relationships, mother-child, 23 , self-preservation. See amour de soi 28–29 , 105–106 sex segregation, 56–57 , 70–73 , 75 relationships, same-sex, 96–97 , 102 Sexual Contract (Pateman), 39 republican model, 138–139 sexual difference: binary of, 12–13; The Reveries of the Solitary Walker in Emile, 87–88; exclusion of (Rousseau): as autobiographical women and, 7–9; fear and, 186 INDEX

9–10; in “La Reine Fantasque,” tragedy, 63–64 153n84; in Second Discourse, truth, 110–113 23–26 sexuality: autobiography/ (Un)Manly Citizens: Jean-Jacques confession and, 110–111; Rousseau’s and Germaine de Staël’s Rousseau’s, 2 , 117–118 , Subversive Women (Marso), 9 125–128 , 160n73. utopias, 88–89. See also homosexuality See also relationships, alternative sharing. See partage (splitting/ (postoedipal) sharing) Shklar, Judith, 85 Villeneuve, Venture de, 131–134 Signifying Woman: Culture, Chaos Voltaire, 19 in Rousseau, Burke, and Mill (Zerilli), 9 waferman story, 73–74 Silverman, Kaja, 2 , 118 Warens, Françoise-Louise de: Social Contract (Rousseau), 18 , 33 , identity of, 170n74; in love 34 , 139 , 148n36 triangle, 83–84 , 105–107; Les Solitaires, 10–11 , 89–93 as paternal figure, 131 , 132; Starobinski, Jean, 20 , 42 , 83 , 95 , Rousseau’s betrayal of, 52–53 122 , 126 Weiss, Penny, 8 stealing, 120–121 Wingrove, Elizabeth, 15 , 33–34 , Still, Judith, 32 , 35 , 36 113 , 170n68 Strong, Tracy, 23 women: “Dedication” and, 44; submission, 33–34 , 125–127. exchange value of, 15–16 , See also master/slave dialectic 32–43 , 94; exclusion of, 7–10 , Swenson, James, 77–78 , 113 66–69; Genevan, 46–47 , 51; as influential, 47–49; moral love theater: critique of, 16; effects and, 31–32; objectification of, of, 63–64; in Geneva, 55 , 65 , 66–68; power and, 57 , 65–66. 70–73; isolation of, 59; Letter See also femininity and, 63–70; objectification of Women and the Public Sphere in women and, 65–68; Wolmar and, the Age of the French Revolution 99–100 (Landes), 7 Therese (Rousseau’s lover), 60–61 Women in Western Political Thought Thomas, Calvin, 129 (Okin), 6–7 Thomas, Paul, 6 writing, 141–142 , 167n40. threesomes. See ménages à trois See also literature Todorov, Tzvetan, 85 , 137–138 “The Traffic of Women” (Rubin), 25 Zerilli, Linda, 9–10 , 56 , 68 , 167n33