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UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO the Recovery of Virtù UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO The Recovery of Virtù: Imitation and Political Practices in the Works of Niccolò Machiavelli A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction for the requirements of the degree Doctor in Philosophy in Political Science by Aaron Cotkin Committee in Charge: Professor Tracy B Strong, Chair Professor Harvey Goldman, Co-Chair Professor Fonna Forman Professor Marcel Hénaff Professor Peter Stacey 2017 Copyright Aaron Cotkin, 2017 All rights reserved The Dissertation of Aaron Cotkin is approved, and it is acceptable in quality and form for publication on microfilm and electronically: _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ Co-Chair _____________________________________________________________________ Chair University of California, San Diego 2017 iii DEDICATION This is dedicated to my father, Spencer Cotkin, in recognition of his constant support, encouragement, and enthusiasm for my academic pursuits. Thank you, Dad! iv EPIGRAPH How different practice is from theory! Many are those who understand things well, who either do not remember them or do not know how to put them into action! And they who do that, their intelligence is useless; because it is like having a treasure stored in an ark with the obligation that it can never be taken out. Francesco Guicciardini v TABLE OF CONTENTS Signature Page………………………………………………………………………...iii Dedication……………………………………………………………………………..iv Epigraph………………………………………………………………………………..v Table of Contents……………………………………………………………...............vi Note on Machiavelli’s Texts Used…………………………………………………..viii Glossary of Technical Italian Words………………………………………………….xi Acknowledgments…………………………………………………………………...xiii Vita…………………………………………………………………………………...xiv Abstract of Dissertation………………………………………………………………xv Introduction…………………………………………………………………………….1 Chapter 1 “I Will Put Forth the Grandest Examples”………………………………...53 1.1 Imitation of Examples…………………………………………………….58 1.2 Individuals………………………………………………………………...62 1.2.1 Romulus………………………………………………………...63 1.2.2 Agathocles………………………………………………………66 1.2.3 Praise for Romulus, Blame for Agathocles……………………..67 1.3 Peoples……………………………………………………………………73 Chapter 2 “By that Same Virtù”……………………………………………………...85 2.1 Persistent Characteristics of Virtù………………………………………...88 2.2 Manifestation of Virtù in Individuals Compared to Peoples……………..93 2.2.1 Individuals………………………………………………………93 2.2.2 Peoples………………………………………………………….95 2.2.3 Individual Compared to Peoples………………………………101 2.3 Manifestation of Virtù in Republics Compared to Principalities………..102 2.3.1 Elections Compared to Hereditary Institutions………………..103 vi 2.3.2 Elections Compared to One Man……………………………...107 2.3.3 Conclusion of Republics Compared to Principalities……........110 Chapter 3 Virtù and the Ends of Politics……………………………………….........113 3.1 Libertà and Mantenere lo Stato................................................................118 3.1.1 “Corporate liberty”…………………………………………….119 3.1.2 Republican Liberty…………………………………………….122 3.2 Good Laws and Good Orders……………………………………………132 3.2.1 Good Laws, Republican Liberty, and Virtù…………………...133 3.2.2 Good Laws, Corporate Liberty, and Virtù…………………….138 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………143 Appendices………………………………………………………………………….150 Appendix 1 Examples of Individuals……………………………………………….154 Appendix 2 Examples of Peoples…………………………………………...............290 Bibliography.………………………………………………………………………...371 vii NOTE ON MACHIAVELLI’S TEXTS USED All translations are my own unless otherwise noted. My main source for Machiavelli’s text in Italian is Tutte le opera toriche, politiche, e litterarie. Edited by Alessandro Capata. Rome: Newton & Compton. 1998. Second Edition 2011. Capata’s text is taken from Tutte le opera. Edited by Mario Martelli, Firenze: Sansoni. 1971, with the exception of il Principe, which is taken from De principatibus. Edited by Giorgio Inglese. Roma: Insituto Storico Italiano per il Medio Evo. 1994. I use the following abbreviations of Machiavelli’s work in citations: P = il Principe (The Prince), D = Discorsi Sopra la Prima Deca di Tito Livio (Discorses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livy), AG = dell’Arte della Guerra (The Art of War), IF = Istorie Fiorentine (Florentine Histories), and CC = La Vita di Castruccio Castracanni da Lucca (The Life of Castruccio Castracani of Lucca). Citations to P are to Chapter Number. Citations to D and IF are to Book Number: Chapter Number. AG citations are reported as Book number: Wood page numbers/Capata page numbers. CC citations are reported as Constantine Page Number/ Capata Page Number. I consulted a number of other English translations of Machiavelli’s works while producing my own. I reference these translations in order of my reliance on them. viii All of Machiavelli’s writings cited in the dissertation are translated into English in Allan Gilbert’s monumental Machiavelli: The Chief Works and Others. 3 Volumes. Trans. Allan Gilbert. Durham and London: Duke University Press. 1989. il Principe Italian: il Principe. Ed. Laurence Arthur Burd. Oxford: At the Clarendon Press. 1968 (1891). Reprinted by Nabu Public Domain Reprints. English: The Prince; A Bilingual Edition. Trans. and Ed. Mark Musa. New York: St. Martin’s Press. 1964. The Prince, in Selected Political Writings. Ed. And Trans. David Wootton. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. 1994. The Prince. Trans. Harvey Mansfield. Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press. 1998. The Prince. Eds. Quentin Skinner and Russell Price, Trans. Russell Price. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1988. Discorsi Sopra la Prima Deca di Tito Livio Italian: Discorsi Sopra la Prima Deca di Tito Livio. Ed. Giorgio Inglese. BUR Rizzoli. 1984. English: Discourses on Livy. Trans. Harvey C. Mansfield and Nathan Tarcov. Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press. 1996. Dell’Arte della Guerra English: The Art of War. Trans. Ellis Farneworth. Revised and Ed. Neal Wood. Cambridge MA: Da Capo Press. 1965. Art of War. Trans. and Ed. Christopher Lynch. Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press. 2003. ix Istorie Fiorentine English: Florentine Histories. Trans. Laura F. Banfield and Harvey C. Mansfield, Jr. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. 1988. La Vita di Castruccio Castracani da Lucca English: The Life of Castruccio Castracani of Lucca in The Essential Writings of Machiavelli. Trans. and ed. Peter Constantine. New York: The Modern Library. 2007. Pages 403-431. Descrizione del modo tentuto dal duca Valentino nello ammazzare Vitellozzo Vitellil,Oliverotto da Fermo, il signor Pagolo e il duca di Gravina Orsini English: How Duke Valentino Killed the Generals Who Conspired Against Him in The Essential Writings of Machiavelli. Trans. and Ed. Peter Constantine. New York: The Modern Library. 2007. Pages 365 – 372. Correspondence James B. Atkinson and David Sices, Trans. and Eds., Machiavelli and His Friends: Their Personal Correspondence. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press. 1996. x GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL ITALIAN WORDS I avoid translating words that Machiavelli uses technically and that I am not satisfied have an adequate English translation. By animo, Machiavelli intends a range of meanings that include “mind”, “soul”, “heart”, and “intellect”. Animo is used as the opposite of meanings such as “body”, “flesh”, and “appetite”. By fortuna, Machiavelli means something akin to the contemporary English usage of “fortune” in the sense of “luck” and sometimes seems additionally to mean the connotation of wealth, which can be in the Italian as well as in the English words. However, Machiavelli also personifies Fortuna in ways both reminiscent of the Roman Goddess and of medieval iconography. By modo (pl: modi) Machiavelli means the mode, manner, means, or method of proceeding or of conduct that can either be peculiar to an individual or habitual for a people. Following convention, I translate this as the English “mode”. By occasione, Machiavelli means something along the lines of occasion or opportunity to accomplish some great thing. Here he invokes the medieval notion (expressed in the iconography) that Occasione is the daughter of Fortune and as Occasione approaches she is difficult to recognize, but she passes she is easy to recognize but impossible to seize. xi By ordine (pl: ordini), Machiavelli means the ordering, rules, and institutions of an organization such as a republic, a monarchy, a guild, or a legion. Following convention, I translate this as the English “order”. By stato Machiavelli does not quite mean “the state” in the modern sense of the world. Instead it means 1. the state of being (as “stato” is the past participle of the verb “to be”), 2. possession of rule or status, or 3. the political structures over which one could rule and in which one can have status. I refrain from translating the noun but I do translate the verb into English. Virtù is the principal quality that Machiavelli finds in politically successful individuals and peoples. Virtù is the specifically human and specifically political response to, and orientation toward, political life conditioned by the contingency and unpredictability of plurality, which the pre-moderns called fortuna. xii AKNOWLEDGMENTS I gratefully acknowledge Professor Tracy B. Strong’s role as Chair and for originally encouraging me to pursue this topic. I also gratefully acknowledge Professor Harvey Goldman’s
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