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Representing Roman Female Suicide. Phd Thesis GUILT, REDEMPTION AND RECEPTION: REPRESENTING ROMAN FEMALE SUICIDE ELEANOR RUTH GLENDINNING, BA (Hons) MA Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy DECEMBER 2011 Abstract This thesis examines representations of Roman female suicide in a variety of genres and periods from the history and poetry of the Augustan age (especially Livy, Ovid, Horace, Propertius and Vergil), through the drama and history of the early Principate (particularly Seneca and Tacitus), to some of the Church fathers (Tertullian, Jerome and Augustine) and martyr acts of Late Antiquity. The thesis explores how the highly ambiguous and provocative act of female suicide was developed, adapted and reformulated in historical, poetic, dramatic and political narratives. The writers of antiquity continually appropriated this controversial motif in order to comment on and evoke debates about issues relating to the moral, social and political concerns of their day: the ethics of a voluntary death, attitudes towards female sexuality, the uses and abuses of power, and traditionally expected female behaviour. In different literary contexts, and in different periods of Roman history, writers and thinkers engaged in this same intellectual exercise by utilising the suicidal female figure in their works. ii Acknowledgments I would like to thank the Arts and Humanities Research Council for providing the financial assistance necessary for me to carry out this research. The Roman Society also awarded a bursary that allowed me to undertake research at the Fondation Hardt pour I'etude de I'antiquite classique, in Geneva, Switzerland (June 2009). I am also grateful for the CAS Gender Histories bursary award which aided me while making revisions to the original thesis. lowe a great debt of gratitude to my supervisor, Mark Bradley, who has patiently provided feedback on this thesis, as well as offering personal support when it was much needed. I also owe many thanks to my second supervisor, Doug Lee, who has offered welcome suggestions and comments on my work and supplemented the supervision process. I am grateful to the suggestions and advice from my two examiners, Betine van zyl Smit and Catharine Edwards, in revising and improving my original thesis. I am indebted to all the support from the members of staff and my fellow postgraduate students at the Department of Classics, University of Nottingham, but especially to Jack, with whom I have shared a long university experience that has been at times challenging, but always rewarding. Finally, I would like to thank my friends and family for all their encouragement and support over the years. My parents, Lynn and Ken, have always supported me in my chosen paths, and my sister Katherine and brother-in-law Neil have always been on hand to help out in whatever way they could. And to Rob, who always manages to put a smile on my face, I want to express my heartfelt gratitude for all the ways he has supported me, which are far too numerous to mention. iii Contents INTRODUCTION 1 1. Themes, theories and modern scholarship 5 i. Death 6 ii. Suicide 9 iii. Roman male suicide 20 iv. Women, gender, sexuality and female suicide 25 2. Thesis arguments and structure 44 i. Thesis arguments, research questions and methodology 44 ii. Chapter summary 48 Chapter 1: LUCRETIA VS. CLEOPATRA: SUICIDAL MODELS OF ROMANNESS AND BARBARITY IN AUGUSTAN ROME 52 1. Introduction 52 i. Livy and Augustan Rome 55 ii. Lucretia's story 56 iii. Modern scholarship on Livy's Lucretia 57 iv. Cleopatra and Augustan Rome 62 2. Lucretia 64 i. Livy's Lucreti a 64 ii. Ovid's Lucretia 77 III. Livy vs. Ovid: conflicting portrayals of Lucretia? 85 3. Cleopatra 89 i. Vergi I' s Cleopatra 89 ii. Vergil's Dido and Cleopatra 91 iii. Horace's Cleopatra 93 iv. Propertius' Cleopatra 101 v. Official propaganda and the portrayal of Cleopatra 109 4. Conclusion 115 Chapter 2: GREEK TRAGIC SUICIDES THROUGH ROMAN EYES 119 1. Introduction 119 i. Tragedy and tragic suicide 123 ii. Female suicides in Greek tragedy 125 III. Greek female suicides in Roman literature 131 2. Ovid's Heroides 135 i. Heroides 7: Dido 138 ii. Heroides 2: Phyllis 143 iii. Heroides 9: Deianira 147 iv. Heroides 11: Canace 149 iv v. Heroides 15: Sappho 153 vi. Suicide suppressed? 155 3. Seneca's tragedies 159 i. Phaedra 162 ii. Oedipus 172 iii. Troades 177 4. Conclusion 180 Chapter 3: THE SUICIDAL FEMALE IN TACITUS' ANNALES 184 1. Introduction 184 i. Tacitus and Women 189 ii. Tacitus and Stoicism 190 III. Tacitus and Suicide 196 2. Agrippina the Elder 198 3. Female suicides: the exemplary paradigm 202 a. Exemplary women 202 i. Paxaea 202 ii. Sextia 205 iii. Pollitta and Sextia 208 b. Stoic women 212 i. Pompeia Paulina 212 ii. Servilia 214 III. Arria the Younger 216 4. Female suicides: the negative paradigm 220 i. Plancina 220 ii. Aemilia Lepida 222 iii. Albucilla 225 iv. Messalina 227 5. Morally ambivalent suicides 231 a. Females directly targeted by empresses 231 i. Poppaea Sabina 231 ii. Lollia Paulina 233 b. The female other 235 i. Boudicca 235 ii. Epicharis 239 6. Conclusion 244 v Chapter 4: LUCRETIA AMONG THE MARTYRS: REPRESENTATIONS OF FEMALE SUICIDE AND FEMALE MARTYRDOM IN THE PATRISTIC LITERATURE AND MARTYR ACTS OF LATE ANTIQUITY 247 1. Introduction 247 i. Women in Late Antiquity 250 ii. The Church Fathers 251 iii. Christian persecutions and the martyr acts 254 iv. Martyrdom vs. suicide? 260 2. Lucretia 263 i. Tertullian's Lucretia 263 ii. Jerome's Lucretia 267 III. Augustine's Lucretia 270 3. The female martyr acts 276 i. Perpetua (and Felicitas) 276 ii. Agathonice 286 iii. Blandina 289 iv. Potamiaena 291 v. Valentina 293 vi. Irene, Agape and Chione 294 vii. Crispina 296 viii. The Donatist female martyrs 298 4. Prudentius' female martyrs 299 i. Eulalia 301 ii. Agnes 305 5. Conclusion 308 CONCLUSION 311 BIBLIOGRAPHY 318 Ancient sources 318 Modern scholarship 321 vi Introduction vir et uxor iuraverunt, ut, si quid alteri accidisset, alter moreretur. vir peregre profectus est, misit nuntium uxori, qui diceret se decessisse. uxor se praecipitavit. recreata iubetur a patre relinquere virum; non vult. abdicatur. A man and his wife swore an oath that if anything should happen to one of them, the other would die. The husband, having departed abroad, sent a message to his wife, which said that he himself had died. The wife threw herself down [from a cliff]. Revived, she is ordered by her father to leave her husband, but she is unwilling to do this. She is disinherited.1 (Seneca the Elder, Controversiae, 2.2) This complex and imaginative tale of a married couple features in the Controversiae of Seneca the Elder, written in the early first century AD. In the course of the debate afterwards, the wife argues that she meant to die because she had both motive and precedent, citing examples to support this (2.2.1). Her very alive husband, believing that she might try and kill herself again, argues that he is not worth committing suicide over (2.2.3). Seneca claims that he heard Ovid declaiming this controversia, and that his speech included the words, (Wife, there is no need 1 All translations are my own, unless otherwise stated. 1 for you to satisfy yourself as if you were the first to commit a moral offense (peccaveris). Some women have died with their husbands, some women have died for them. Yet those women every age will honour, every talent will celebrate' (2.2.11). This short excerpt from Seneca alludes to a number of key issues relevant to this thesis. A woman could feel obliged to commit suicide, especially when it was for a loved one; however, once she had committed suicide or attempted the act, for whatever reason, the elite men around her could react in diverse ways to it. It might be admired or condemned, or treated with suspicion, or be debated and cause controversy. Why does the Ovid of Seneca think that some women deserved praise and lasting veneration for killing themselves, whereas the woman in question here could be censured for trying to commit what is termed a moral transgression? Part of the answer must lie in the character and motivations of the individual female. And one of the themes which this thesis aims to explore is that of the differing viewpoints attached to acts of female suicide and what this reveals about attitudes towards women as a whole, as well as the moral significance of suicide as an act. The act of killing oneself was intrinsically ambiguous, as it could be an honourable end or the coward's way out; as a result it was a subject used by writers, orators and thinkers to tackle important gender and ethical issues, revealing the writers' own thoughts and attitudes about these as well as prompting their readers or audience to consider such issues. This is demonstrated in the example detailed above, as the Controversiae were imaginary legal cases that were designed to prompt debate about the rights and wrongs of each side of the relevant 2 arguments; in this case, the issue is whether females were right to commit suicide for loved ones. The act of suicide was a provocative and highly subjective gesture imbued with powerful moral and social associations. As a result, suicide narratives are also changeable and organic phenomena that can be shaped, exploited and redeveloped over time. Central to this thesis are such questions as the following: how do different writers portray the act of female suicide, and why do they portray the act as they do? What do their different approaches reveal about the usefulness of the motif of female suicide as a literary tool? How is this motif utilised to comment on different societies at different times? What do they reveal about the writers' attitudes towards gender? The very nature of female suicide - a thought-provoking and ambiguous action both endorsed and reviled by different writers and thinkers within the same time periods - points to its great value as a means through which writers could comment on moral, social, political, cultural and ethical values and practices occurring in their own day.2 Any discussions of female suicide are, therefore, particularly noteworthy in the search for writers' political, moral and ethical agendas.
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