ISSUE 99, WINTER 2006 SOCIAL WELFARE HISTORY GROUP and the Emergence BOOK REVIEW of Professional Social Work “The Poorhouse: BY JERRY D. MARX America’s Forgotten Institution”–DAVID WAGNER HE TURN OF THE TWENTIETH CEN- TURY, a period in American his- BOOK REVIEW BY GIANNOULA KEFALA Ttory known as the “Progres- sive Era,” was a time of major reforms David Wagner gives us the real picture of in the economic, political, and social nineteenth century institutions for the care institutions of the nation. The Adam of poor Americans in his most recent book, The Poorhouse: America’s Forgotten Institu- Smith model of a capitalist economy tion. The author focuses on the poorhouses based on small business competition in New England during the period from the was increasingly overshadowed by the 1890s until the demise of the poor farms. influence of large-scale industry. The Poorhouses were tax-supported residential enormous industrial growth that fol- institutions to which people were required to lowed the Civil War featured unregu- go if they could not support themselves. They lated competition among individual were started as a method of providing a less entrepreneurs based on the ideology of expensive alternative to what we would to- “Social Darwinism”—survival of the day call “welfare”—what was called “outdoor fittest.1 Yet, as the nineteenth century relief” in those days. The poorhouse became came to an end, many liberal reform- known as “indoor relief”, care in an institution, as opposed to “outside relief”, care within a ers believed that American institutions community. If the need was great or likely to needed better coordination, collabora- be long-term, the destitute were sent to the tion—even regulation. These reformers, poorhouse instead of being given relief while firsthand witnesses to the “Industrial they continued to live independently. Revolution,” came to understand both Migrant Mother, photo by Dorothea Lange The poorhouses in the USA followed the the positive and negative social welfare English example regarding rules and regula- aspects of an industrial economy.2 To better settlements, eventually comprising 70 percent tions of the houses. These poorhouses were promote social welfare, new, more civic- of settlement residents.4 Jane Addams, Edith built with great optimism. They promised to minded organizations needed to be created. Abbott, and Grace Abbott were all settlement be a much more efficient and cheaper way to Social cooperation needed to supplement house residents who became identified as so- provide relief to paupers. And there was a fer- individual initiative and competition. Hull cial workers. While often inspired by religious vent popular belief that housing such people in institutions would provide the opportunity House and other American settlement houses conviction, settlement leaders moved beyond to reform them and cure them of the bad hab- played a major part in achieving these ends. their city mission predecessors to further its and character defects that were assumed The first settlement house, Toynbee Hall emphasize scientific methods. to be the cause of their poverty. in London, England, was a residence for During the , the settle- However, the poorhouse was an inad- Oxford University men in a poor section of ment houses became prominent leaders in equate solution concerning the long-term the city. Run by an Anglican priest, the Rev. social research and advocacy. Although the problems of unemployment and financial Samuel Barnett, this “settlement in the slums” first American settlement house was estab- need. The poorhouse, according to Wagner, was an “outpost” from which to teach stu- lished in 1886 in New York, the most famous was a violation of individual rights such as re- dents social responsibility in accordance with early settlements were ’s Hull House, spect for human dignity and self-determina- Christian social ideals.3 founded by Jane Addams and Ellen Starr tion. Poorhouses have been known by various Using Toynbee Hall as a model, Ameri- in 1889, and New York City’s Henry Street names throughout American history. These institutions were known as almshouses, work- can settlement houses were private nonprofit Settlement, established by Lillian Wald in houses, poor farms, county homes or infir- organizations, established in poor, inner-city 1895.5 (Because Lillian Wald was a nurse, the maries. The importance of the poorhouse is neighborhoods to promote the social welfare Henry Street Settlement was initially called based on the fact that many other institutions of community residents. In cities such as New the Nurse’s Settlement.) By 1900, there were patterned themselves after the poorhouses, York and Chicago, the vast majority of these 100 settlement houses in existence.6 Ten years including mental asylums, prisons, orphan- residents were poor immigrants. Women— in- later, about 400 settlements were operating in ages, and homes for unmarried women. The cluding several famous social workers—be- the . poorhouse was not only an institution came the dominant force in American Continued on page 2 Continued on page 8 2 SOCIAL WELFARE HISTORY GROUP

SWHG MEMBERSHIP Hull House continued from page 1 These settlement houses (along with social saloon.13 Due to the limited amount of activity SWHG OFFICERS work educators such as Eduard Lindeman)7 space in the crowded urban neighborhoods, YOLANDA BURWELL, PRESIDENT were significant influences on the community settlements such as Hull House were particu- PEGGY PITTMAN-MUNKE, SECRETARY organization and group work methods in larly valued by immigrants as a space to hold GARY LOWE, TREASURER the emerging profession of social work. Like club meetings, public discussions, lectures, JERRY D. MARX, EDITOR, charity organization societies of the time, dances, and other social activities. As a result, SWHG NEWSLETTER settlement houses were founded on the prin- Hull House became the social center of the ciple of scientific philanthropy. Observation, neighborhood, constantly filled with activity. MEMBERSHIP LIST information gathering (or in today’s terms, Eventually, other services were added includ- “data collection”), and documentation were ing a “boarding club” for young women, a 1. JANICE ANDREWS believed to be prerequisites to social advocacy nursery, and a post office branch.14 In fact, 2. ANN ROSEGRANT ALVAREZ and change. In fact, Residence, Research, services commonly found at the settlement 3. ERNEST BARBEAU and Reform were the three “Rs” of settlement houses around the United States included 4. AARON BECKERMAN house work.8 While acknowledging the worth employment referral, visiting nurses, arts and 5. TANYA SMITH BRICE of the individual, for the most part, settlement crafts courses, libraries, penny savings banks, 6. RUTH BRITTON leaders targeted their reform efforts on the art galleries, and music halls.15 7. MARY LYNN BRYAN social environment of immigrant neighbor- In providing space for various clubs, lec- 8. ICE BURSON hoods in the large industrial cities. In so do- tures, and public discussions, the settlement 9. YOLANDA BURWELL ing, their goal was the prevention of poverty house workers were able to see and hear the 10. SUSAN CHANDLER and class conflict while promoting the health needs of the various neighborhood immigrant 11. LAURA CURRAN and welfare of industrial communities. groups. Settlement workers at Hull House, 12. ELIZABETH DANTO Leaders of the settlement houses criticized for instance, spent much time advocating for 13. ROBERT H. DAUGHERTY the casework approach of charity organization needy individuals.16 This made the settle- 14. MICHAEL DOVER societies for not being more social reform- ments attractive sites for young professionals 15. JOHN HERRICK minded. Yet, radicals in the labor movement interested in social research and advocacy, 16. RANDY HOELZEN considered the settlement houses to be too especially young, well-educated women want- 17. NANCY A. HUMPHREYS conservative in terms of social reform.9 Settle- ing a socially significant career. The medical 18. JEAN JACKSON HYCHE ment leaders such as Jane Addams accepted research of physician and Hull House resident, 19. MITCH KAHN the capitalist base of the American industrial Dr. Alice Hamilton, examined the spread of 20. CRIS CARLTON LANEY system. After all, life in the United States typhoid in the tenement buildings.17 Hamilton 21. LELIE LEIGHNINGER was better for most immigrants than the life and , a lawyer and fellow Hull 22. TARYN LINDHORST they left in Europe.10 The settlement houses, House resident, were also active in indus- 23. GARY LOWE therefore, aimed to promote social integra- trial research, and consequently, the fight for 24. ALICIA MARTIN tion, facilitating the functioning of immigrant occupational disease laws, 8-hour workday 25. KARLA MILEY groups as they adapted to industrial life. maximums for women, and labor restrictions 26. MEGAN MORRISSEY Where radicals in the Socialist and Commu- for children. Consistent with the settlement 27. MERYL NADEL nist Parties emphasized the struggle among philosophy, careful research typically pre- 28. NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE classes, settlement leaders, for the most part, ceded the call for reform. 29. PAULA PFEFFER encouraged cooperation among classes in Thus, settlement leaders became active in 30. PEGGY PITTMAN-MUNKE promoting social welfare.11 Addams, for one, the various social reforms of the Progressive 31. SUE PLATTSMIER believed that the most effective anecdote to Era. Given the significant amount of social 32. PHIL POPPLE rapid and disorganized industrial growth was legislation passed during the Progressive Era, 33. SUSANNE ROLLAND better coordination among key community the community organization and social advo- 34. MARGARET K. ROSENHEIM stakeholders. In short, the mission of the cacy efforts of settlement house leaders must 35. MARLENE ANITA SAUNDERS settlements was to make the existing system be considered a success.18 Yet, settlement lead- 36. LAINE SCALES better, not to replace it. ers were aware of their limitations as volun- 37. PATRICK SELMI Although there was variation among set- tary charitable organizations.19 Leaders such 38. TROY H. MIDDLETON LIBRARY tlement houses, the reader might be surprised as Jane Addams recognized the importance SERIALS DEPT. at the range of activities organized at some of coordinated effort among various commu- 39. MICHAEL SHERRADEN settlements. Hull House, the most prominent nity stakeholders, both public and private, in 40. BARBARA SIMON example, first started a kindergarten, which promoting social welfare. In fact, settlement 41. EARNESTINE SIMPSON helped to establish a positive relationship with houses served as a means of communication 42. PAUL H. STUART immigrant parents and children in the neigh- among various groups.20 Sometimes these 43. RUTA J.WILK borhood.12 The kindergarten was followed were diverse immigrant groups with different 44. MILDRED WILLIAMSON by a public kitchen, called a “coffee house” languages but common problems. Sometimes and a gymnasium, adapted from a former these groups were in opposition regarding WINTER 2006 NEWSLETTER 3

some community problem. At other times, the playground to the city. Thus, all three sec- ed. Lillian D. Wald: Progressive Activist (New groups trying to communicate were public of- tors—the for-profit, nonprofit, and public sec- York: The Feminist Press, 1989), p. xv. ficials and needy immigrants seeking services. tors —contributed to the establishment and 6. Trattner, p. 175. The settlement leaders, therefore, often maintenance of a critically-needed resource 7. Leiby, pp. 186-187. worked in partnership with other groups in for parents and children. conducting research, initiating community Their focus on collaboration eventually 8. Trattner, p. 171. improvements, founding other social orga- led settlement house leaders to join forces 9. Ibid., pp. 167-168. nizations, and advocating for social legisla- with the charity organization societies, fur- 10. Ibid., p. 165. tion.21 These groups included city and state ther contributing to the emergence of “social 11. Addams, p. 141. government officials, trade unions, progres- work” as a profession.26 A significant event in sive business leaders, and other nonprofit this evolution of the profession was the 1905 12. Ibid., p. 70. associations. To illustrate, in 1899, long before merger of the settlement house journal, The 13. Ibid., pp. 87-90, 98-99. Ralph Nader’s consumer movement, settle- Commons, with the New York Charity Organi- 14. Ibid., pp. 90, 112,199. ment leaders such as Florence Kelley worked zation Society’s journal, Charities. And in 15. Trattner, p. 176. with other reformers in creating the National 1909, Jane Addams became the first settlement Consumers League, an organization that used house leader to be elected president of the 16. Addams, p. 111. consumer pressure in advocating for child National Conference of Charities and Correc- 17. Addams, pp. 134-136, 196-198; Moira labor laws, minimum wages and shorter work tions, the most prominent national conference Davison Reynolds, American Women Scien- days for women, as well as safer consumer at the time for social workers. tists: 23 Inspiring Biographies (Jefferson, NC: products.22 With respect to trade unions, McFarland, 1999), p. 27. settlement house leaders collaborated with DID YOU KNOW? 18. Trattner, p. 171. other reform groups to establish the National Jane Addams was voted in public opin- 19. Addams, pp. 204-205. Women’s Trade Union League in 1903. Fur- ion polls the most “exemplary” Ameri- 20. Ibid., pp. 111-112. thermore, regarding minorities, a number of can?27 Can you imagine a social worker settlement reformers supported the founding receiving that honor today? Her father 21. Addams, pp. 150, 188, 199; Leiby, p. 129. of the National Association for the Advance- had been a prosperous businessman in 22. Dorothy Rose Blumberg, Florence Kelley: ment of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909 and , and perhaps, the biggest ethi- The Making of a Social Pioneer (New York: the National Urban League in 1911. In helping cal influence on her life. In addition to Augustus M. Kelley, 1966), pp. 171-174; Theda to organize the NAACP, Lillian Wald hosted establishing her Chicago settlement, Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The the National Negro Conference at the Henry Hull House, Addams helped found Political Origins of Social Policy in The United Street Settlement in 1909.23 the American Civil Liberties Union States (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University), in 1920 and was a leader in national pp. 383, 404; Trattner, pp. 179-181. DID YOU KNOW? and international peace efforts. For 23. Coss, p. xvi. Florence Kelley became a resident of this latter work, she received the Nobel 24. Kathryn Kish Sklar, Florence Kelley and the Hull House while fleeing a violent do- Peace Prize in 1931. Nation’s Work (New Haven: Yale University mestic situation.24 In late December of Press, 1995), pp. 168-172. 1891, after being hit and spit on by her REFERENCES 25. Addams, p. 191. husband, Florence packed up her three 26. Trattner, p. 182. children and belongings and moved to 1. James Leiby, A History of Social Welfare and Chicago, becoming a resident of Hull Social Work in the United States (New York: 27. Jansson, p. 117. House within a week of her arrival. Columbia University Press, 1978), p. 137. 2. Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The This article by Jerry D. Marx, Ph.D., is an Collapse and Revival of American Community excerpt from Marx, J.D. (2004). Social Welfare: At times settlement leaders worked in (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), pp. 384- coalitions with other groups. At other times, a 385, 368, 395; Bruce S. Jansson, The Reluctant The American Partnership. Boston: Pearson community project started by one group was Welfare State: American Social Welfare Policies- Education Inc. handed over to another group for future op- Past, Present, and Future (Pacific Grove, CA: eration. In one instance, a landlord gave Hull Brooks/Cole, 1997), p. 116. House a free lease on a tract of city property 3. Leiby, p. 127; Michael B. Katz, In the with four buildings.25 Hull House was allowed Shadow of the Poorhouse, 10th ed. (New York: to keep the rent from the property. When Hull BasicBooks, 1996), p. 164. To contribute an article to the House leaders ask the landlord for permission 4. Leiby, pp. 128-129. next Social Welfare History Group to tear down one building and move the other 5. Leiby, p. 128; Harold B. Hunting, Lillian newsletter, e-mail Jerry Marx at three to make a playground, the landlord con- Wald: Crusading Nurse (Freeport, NY: Books [email protected]. sented. Hull House operated the playground for Libraries Press, 1945), p. 13; Clare Coss, for 10 years, at which time, it turned over the 4 SOCIAL WELFARE HISTORY GROUP Social Welfare History Symposium Oral Sessions

CSWE ANNUAL PROGRAM MEETING also provide a rich historical context for an and leadership issues within the movement. CHICAGO, ILLINOIS • FRIDAY FEB. 17, 2006 examination of the welfare rights movement. These results indicate that similarities in Racial and economic transformation occurred gender or motherhood status were helpful Boundaries of Sisterhood: Race, as white flight from the areas surrounding in motivating individuals to initially form Class, and Gender in Michigan’s the inner city took hold concurrent to blacks linkages across difference, but connections Welfare Rig0hts Movement integration of these neighborhoods, and the were often not maintained due to perceived auto industry’s decline accelerated, result- imbalances in decision-making and control BY CYNTHIA EDMONDS-CADY ing in increased lay-offs (Sugrue, 1996). This within the movement. ABSTRACT: This study examines women’s study emphasized the particular experiences participation in the early welfare rights move- of women in the Detroit, Michigan area. IMPLICATIONS: An understanding of the ment and their responses to policy changes, ways in which race, class, and gender inter- 1964-1972. The purpose is to understand how QUESTIONS: This study was primarily inter- sected historically to affect participation in the women’s standpoints, as they related to ested in answering the following questions: 1.) the welfare rights movement and response the intersection of race, class, and gender, im- How did women involved in the welfare rights and action towards welfare policy, will help pacted movement participation and their re- movement mobilize across the difference and current community practitioners and social actions to changes in welfare policy (Collins, within similarities? 2.) How did women’s work students maximize client self-deter- 1998; Hartsock, 1998), focusing on the ways responses to changes in welfare policy reflect mination and advocacy efforts. Themes that in which boundaries of race and class were difference and similarities? emerged from this study indicate that the use crossed and maintained. A multidimensional of women’s standpoints must be an important standpoint theory (Naples, 2003) frames this METHODS: Combined methods of oral his- factor in developing linkages across difference qualitative, historical study. tory and document analysis were used, with as long as diversity is maintained in decision- a purposive theoretical (Silverman, 2000) making and leadership opportunities. This PROBLEM: In 1996 the Aid to Families with sampling strategy ensuring a diverse sample knowledge is particularly important for social Dependent Children (AFDC) program was re- to fit the theoretical framework. In-depth oral work students and practitioners to utilize placed with Temporary Assistance for Needy history interviews were conducted with 15 in community intervention efforts, because Families (TANF). Within this current climate women who participated in the welfare rights of the current climate of disempowerment of welfare reform, shifts to privatization and movement. Documents created by movement inherent in contemporary welfare reform. downsizing of social services has accelerated, participants, from archival sources located making it critical that social workers develop at Wayne State University, Michigan State effective and creative community intervention University, the University of Michigan, and Undermining Progress in early strategies (Mizrahi, 2001). Social work educa- the Wisconsin State Historical Society at the 20th century North Carolina to- tion must produce an understanding of how University of Wisconsin-Madison, were also wards delinquent Black girls analyzed. The theoretical framework was women historically crossed or maintained BY TANYA S. BRICE AND FATINA J. LORICK boundaries of race and class in their anti- used to create a conceptual map for the study, poverty movement work, in order to inform which acted as a guide for specific oral history ABSTRACT: African American women were current efforts at community intervention interview questions and categories of analysis instrumental in developing social welfare and outreach to diverse populations. for the documents. Transcripts from the inter- services for African American girls as a means views were initially coded and analyzed using to uplift the race, and more specifically, as a LITERATURE: In looking at the history of the computer program, NVivo, with larger means to protect “true Black womanhood:. the War on Poverty, it is important to assess patterns and relationships analyzed using ma- Through the National Association of Color the complex changes made to welfare policy. trix displays (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Women (NACW) these women united to The trajectory of the national welfare rights formalize social welfare services to meet the movement interacted with specific changes FINDINGS: Results indicate that an identity needs of the community. They established in welfare policy from 1964-1972. Research or standpoint as “woman” or “mother” was orphanages, old age homes, kindergartens, on the development of the welfare state and important for both white, middle-class par- homes for working girls, homes for wayward welfare policy has been criticized for assum- ticipants and African American, poverty-class girls, as well as other programs (Hodges, 2001; ing a gender-neutral stance (Gordon, 1994), participants alike, in their initial motivation Lerner, 1974; Salem, 1994). These clubwomen resulting in distortions to our understanding to join the movement. Documents (such as provided services to the African American of how welfare policies affect, and are affected newsletters, handbooks, action alerts, etc...) community through women’s girl’s clubs. They by women. In order to increase our under- that responded to changes in welfare policy even provided activities for boys as a means of standing of the historical response to welfare also emphasized motherhood and the right to protecting young girls (Carlton-LaNey, 1999). policy, the perceptions of the women involved financial support in order to care for children. African American clubwomen were keenly must be obtained. The profound changes Differences emphasized race and class, and aware of the negative perceptions of African that Detroit experience during the 1960s were most pronounced in decision-making Americans by Whites. They were indefatigable WINTER 2006 NEWSLETTER 5 in their efforts to improve the image of the race used to provide services to these young girls. tion Societies (Paul, 1975). In fact, although through the social uplift of its weakest element, Middle class values were the standards and Paul had been exposed to the cause of suffrage particularly delinquent African American girls. these delinquent girls were evaluated according while growing, she attributed her commit- This quest for uplift motivated them to provide to these standards. This work is important to ment to a meeting she was taken to in London benevolence, educational services, and to social work education. It exposes students to by the Director of the COS in which she was teach social graces to those of the lower classes the historical contributions of African Ameri- working (Paul, 1975). (Gilmore, 1994; Hodges, 2001; Hunter, 1983). cans to the social work profession. Further- Many social workers of the time were During the early 20th century, North Caroli- more, it enables students to interpret historical supporters of the cause and Paul had impor- na’s African American clubwomen gained sup- dynamics of contemporary policy, programs, tant relationships with notable social workers port from the African American community and organizational development. Finally, this who were suffragists, including Jane Addams, and from progressive Whites as they sought study provides an example of working towards who nominated her to lead the Congressional to meet the increasing needs of delinquent social justice through social reform. This paper Union of the National American Women’s African American girls. Despite the semblance advances the knowledge base of social work Party, and Florence Kelly, who served for a of support, these women also battled elements education by providing content that is lacking time on the Board of Directors of the National that worked against their efforts. This presenta- or underrepresented in social work/welfare Women’s Party (Paul, 1975, Baker, 2002). tion will examine efforts made to undermine literature. Additionally, it fills gaps in our In addition, four of the 81 women who were progress towards adequate service provision for knowledge and understanding of services for jailed for suffrage listed their profession as delinquent African American girls. In addition, delinquent African American girls in early 20th “social work” (Lunardini, 1986). this presentation seeks to explore the nuances century North Carolina. However, despite many social workers of support, from the African American com- commitment to the cause of women’s suf- munity and by progressive Whites, as it relates frage, and despite Paul’s training, her profes- to legislative efforts, economic support and Social Work and Alice Paul: sional experience and her lifelong commit- public health issues. Finally, this presentation Remembering Our History, ment to the fight for social justice and social seeks to examine motivations for engaging in Reclaiming Our Future reform, Paul has remained conspicuously absent from histories of social work. Indeed, undermining activities. This paper builds on BY ROBERT DAUGHERTY, SYLVIA HAWRANICK, JOAN historical and contemporary literature about DORIS Paul herself did not claim professional affili- attitudes towards delinquent (wayward) girls ation with social work, claiming that social ABSTRACT: Alice Paul belongs to the forgotten and will further this theme as it focuses on workers “didn’t do anything” (Paul, 1975). generation of suffragists. Her generation had attitudes towards African American girls, a Although there are a number of factors not yet been born at the time of the Seneca population often excluded from historical which contribute to this historical omission, Falls convention, yet they carried the torch research (Abrams & Curran, 2000; Carlton- it is our contention that it is chiefly the result that had been lit by Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth LaNey, 1999; Hunter, 1983; Nevferdon-Morton, of overly narrow definitions of social work Cady Staton, Susan B. Anthony and their 1982; Peebels-Wilkins, 1995; Wedlak, 1982; practice, which have dichotomized the field. sisters in struggle, and continued the fight Waites, 2001). This historical paper relied on In embracing the legacy of Alice Paul we are that eventually resulted in the passage of the primary data from the following sources: the also suggesting a redefinition of social work 19th amendment. In addition to her extraor- North Carolina State Archives, Public Welfare practice, in which “direct practice” includes dinary leadership in the suffrage movement, Collection, Raleigh, North Carolina; Perkins work towards social justice and social reform, Paul continued her fight for woman’s rights Library and Archives, African American and one in which social action, is informed and nationally and internationally until her death Women Historical Collection, Duke University, directed by the needs and desires of social work in 1977. Included in her countless accomplish- Durham, North Carolina; and Wilson Library clients. ments was authorship of the Equal Rights and Archives, University of North Carolina, Such a redefinition would have profound Amendment and founding the National the North Carolina Collection, Chapel Hill, implications, not only for social work practice, Women’s Party (Gilmore, 1977). North Carolina. This examination of social but for social work education as well. Such a While the contributions of Paul and reformists’ efforts towards social justice may definition would require that throughout cur- other suffragists of her generation are often be described through the lens of an Africentric ricula, content would include course work on overlooked by the general public, it is perhaps theoretical perspective. African American social advocacy, activism and social reform. more disturbing that she has been forgotten clubwomen were empowered by the principles Had such a definition been widely accepted by the social work profession as well. Alice of self help, mutual aid, race pride, and social in 1906, perhaps Paul herself would have been Paul, as a 1906 graduate of the New York debt, all of which are fundamental to Afric- better able to see the connections between her School of Applied Philanthropy, was one of entric social work practice (Carlton-LaNey, social work training and practice and her life’s the first professionally trained social workers 1999). These principles provided the neces- work and the social work profession would not in the United States. While at the New York sary resilience against undermining activities have lost the insights and perspectives of this School, Paul lived and worked in the College experience by; these women. In addition, social brilliant and courageous leader. It is our hope Settlement House. After her graduate, she stratification theory influenced the way in that in reclaiming our professional history, we obtained work with the New York Charity which delinquent girls were viewed by African shall not be condemned to repeat it, but rather, Organization Society. In 1907 she went to Americans and by progressive Whites. While can move forward in creating a professional London, again to work in a Settlement House there were tireless efforts towards social justice, which embraces the “work” of social work, in and to work with several Charity Organiza- there were distinct class differences in methods all of its many forms. Continued on page 6 6 SOCIAL WELFARE HISTORY GROUP Oral Sessions cont. from page 4 Hull House was central to the connections Breathlessness: Richard Cabot’s forged among the three women. Addams and 1908 Conceptualization of Social Trans-Atlantic Diffusion of Social Masaryk first met after young Alice’s mother Work Burnout Work Knowledge: Careers of (The American-born first-lady of Czechoslo- BY DR. CLAUDIA D. RAPPAPORT, PHD, ACSW, Addams, Masaryk, and Salomon vakia) wrote to Addams, who she knew only LCSW from her writings, asking that Addams look BY REBECCA L. HEGAR out for her daughter, who was visiting the ABSTRACT: Since the 1970s much has been ABSTRACT: Jane Addams in the United States, United States and staying in Chicago (Ma- written about social work burnout or compas- Alice Masaryk (or Masarykova) of Austro- saryk, C., letter of 4/7/04 in Addams, 19784). sion fatigue. In researching the development Hungary and later Czechoslovakia, and Alice Salomon also met Addams in Chicago, when of medical social work at Massachusetts Salomon of Germany were central to the cam- she traveled to the U.S. in 1909 as a delegate of General Hospital, I discovered that in 1908 paigns for social reform and the emergence of the International Council of Women (Sa- Dr. Richard Cabot wrote about social work social work in their respective countries. They lomon, 2004). Both Masaryk, and Salomon “breathlessness.” This presentation explores also were instrumental in the development of stayed at Hull House during intermittent his theory, early social worker experiences international forums for exchanges among so- visits to the U.S. (Masayk, A., 1980; Salomon, that led to these theories, and how Cabot’s cial workers, which became important in the 2004). Although Addams forms one of the ideas compare with theories since the 1970s. early diffusion of social work knowledge. Tang primary links between them, Masaryk and Cabot hired the first medical social (1996) and other theorists (Adams, 2001) Salomon had more similar careers. Each was worker at MGH in October 1905; he began note the key role of diffusion or international among the first European women to earn writing about breathlessness only 2 years later, transfer in the processes of social reform and the PhD and each founded an early school showing how quickly he recognized the posi- social development. of social work. Both encountered political tive and negative impact of the work on the This paper draws from the letters, auto- persecution during the Nazi era, although staff. Cabot’s theories on breathlessness are biographies, and published works of Addams for somewhat different reasons, Salomon, a found in three 1908 sources in the Ida Can- (1860-1935), Masaryk (1879-1966), and Solo- convert to Christianity, was from a Jewish non Collection (ICC) at MGH: 2 handwritten mon (1872-1948) to examine their contribu- family. She attributes her own eventual loss documents form February and March 1908 tions to social reform and the transatlantic of professional status and exile both to her and a published articles, “How to Avoid the diffusion of social work knowledge. Although Jewish heritage and to her internationalism Breathless Habit,” from Charities and the Addams in an internationally renowned (Salomon, 2004). Masaryk, the daughter Commons in 1908. Primary research on the figure, Salomon and Masaryk are less well of the President of Czechoslovakia and his early experiences of MGH social workers that known outside of Europe (Lehmkuhl, 1988; prominent American wife, was jailed and contributed to his development of this theory Sodova, 2001). While the three women were later exiled because of her family’s political comes from a variety of material in the ICC, not close personal friends, their careers reflect role (Masaryk, A., 1920; Unterberger, 1974). including correspondence, reports, early case interesting parallels and intriguing points of Addams supported an international campaign records, and published articles and books by intersection. The single published treatment to free Masaryk (Wald, letter of 5/16/1916 to Cabot, Ida Cannon (head of the Social Service of connections among them (published in Addams in Addams, 1984). Both Salomon Department from 1907 through 1945), and German) concerns only Addams and Solomon and Masaryk came permanently to the U.S. other MGH social workers. (Schuler, 2004), however, some of the original as refugees in the 1930s. Each suffered a loss Cabot’s theory of breathlessness has documents used by the author do appear in of status and influence with the change of a number of interesting similarities and English translation in another work (Sklar, circumstances. contrasts with later books and articles deal- Schuler & Strasser, 1998). In Europe, there is a renewed interest ing with social work burnout; these will be Addams, Masaryk and Salomon share a among both historians (Lehmkuhl, 1988; explored in this presentation. Some of his number of characteristics with other women Schuler, 2004) and social workers (Kubickova, ideas include the following conceptualizations who achieved prominence in the early 20th 2001; Weiler, 1988) concerning the careers of what breathlessness is, what causes it, and century, including influential family back- and contributions of social reformers, includ- what can be done to remedy it. grounds; higher education, and lives that did ing Addams, Masaryk, and Salomon. U.S. lit- Cabot characterized breathlessness as not include marriage and children. What sets erature also has considered the contributions including: feeling overwhelmed by clients them apart from many contemporaries was their of European pioneers to the development of needs, getting lost in the details; loss of cre- simultaneous involvement in the struggle for the profession (Healy, 2001; Kendall, 2000). ativity, inspiration, and originality, becoming social justice through women’s organizations, the It is important that social work educators and short-sighted and dull; allowing the work to international peace movement, and social work students recognize the role of international become mechanical and routine; loss of abil- and social work education. Each was a prolific transfer of ideas and methods in the early his- ity to think progressively about the work; loss author who showed appreciation for social work tory of social services, as well as the contribu- of ability to humanize clients; satisfying only in other countries and promoted the interna- tions of less well known social workers who superficial client needs; becoming callous tional transfer of ideas (e.g. Salomon, 1909). For were present at the creation of the profession. to human suffering; loss of ability to see the example, Salomon wrote the introduction to the The process of transfer or diffusion of ideas beauty inherent in social work; dulling the German edition of Twenty Years at Hull House has continued relevance to education in social social worker’s soul; physical exhaustion and (Addams, 1910) and translated Social Diagnosis policy and social work practice. illness; emotional pain. (Richmond, 1917). WINTER 2006 NEWSLETTER 7

Cabot saw a number of causes of breath- Not Such a “Barren Time” : increasingly in terms of individual problems” lessness, including: large caseloads, being Developments in Social Casework (1994, p. 201). Theoretical developments, such required continuously to take on new clients in the 1950s as family theory and problem solving theory despite already being overloaded; worrying have been overlooked. However, the advances about cases that had not been resolved satis- BY JOAN DORIS in casework theory during the 1950s were factorily; being asked to do concrete, routine Histories of social work have often focused significant and very real, and they helped to client services that don’t utilize professional on major social movements, changes in social integrate more recent psychological knowledge social workers’ skills fully; seeing sad, ugly re- policy, or landmarks in professional devel- with the profession’s traditional concern with alities of clients’ living situations; dealing with opment. Only rarely have developments in the family and larger social environment. human suffering every day, which could drain practice methods or theories been seen as In addition to the advances made in the social worker’s sympathy and wound their significant historical markers. However, to practice theory during this period, numerous spirit; the inevitability of beginning to question ignore or gloss over significant developments in articles were written addressing issues such why such bad things happened to people; con- social casework theory and method is to miss as the nature and purpose of social work, the stantly having to make difficult decisions about a story that is central to the development of definition of social work, and how to incorpo- human problems. the profession itself. As Wilensky and Lebeaux rate work for social justice into mainstream Cabot proposed a number of potential noted, “...it [casework] is so dominant that it is practice (e.g. Bisno, 1956, Bohen, 1958) This solutions, including: watching for early doubtful that there would be any such identifi- conceptual work resulted in a redefinition symptoms and consulting immediately with able entity as professional social work without of social work practice that was significantly the supervisor; reducing caseloads (which was it. Emphasis on casework evolution can index broader and more socially focused than the always easier said than done); limiting types the evolution of the whole profession” (p. 288, narrow conception of which it is often ac- of referrals being accepted (another solution 1965). Despite this, histories in social work cused. The advances in casework theory dur- that was a challenge to accomplish); refer- continue by and large, to focus on periods of ing this period lasted for decades, and paved ring clients to other agencies instead of trying social reform, rather than on developments in the way for some of the more radical changes to handle all needs themselves; engaging in social casework. The nineteen fifties, the focus in casework over the sixties and seventies. follow-up work with clients to see positive of this presentation, are a case in point. Finally, as the profession matured in the outcomes; setting aside time each day for The nineteen fifties were an era of signifi- fifties, with the establishment of the NASW reading and reflecting on social work issues cant and profound changes for social casework and the CSWE, so too was casework matur- to find new directions for the work; sharing theory and practice, as well as for the larger ing. For the first time, social caseworkers in ideas with other social workers, recognizing profession, however, they have often been the fifties had access to practice theory that common experiences and concerns and build- ignored by social work historians, or dismissed incorporated both psychological and socio- ing fellowship; giving public presentations as being largely negative developments in logical theory, as well as practice wisdom. about social work to remember what the work which social workers focused on their own This provided a theoretical base to guide accomplishes; writing about social work to status, rather than on the needs of their clients. caseworkers in both thinking about and do- increase thinking and to further the science As Reisch and Andrews put it, “Ironically, the ing casework—addressing at the same time of social work; conducting research for a sense drive for professionalization within social work both the individual and her environment. In of accomplishmentvrecreation, laughter, diminished, rather than expanded, the profes- moving past the rift created by the func- including with clients, to maintain balance; sion’s attention to the public interest through tional-diagnostic debates that had dominated being in touch with the beauty of life; sim- social reform activities... By reducing clients’ discussions in casework for well over a decade, plifying the work, developing more efficient control over services, professionalization social work was making room for the diversity approaches; engaging in self-study to discover directly contradicted the democratic ideal that of casework approaches that were to emerge in strength, courage, cheerfulness, originality had guided the social work field for decades” the seventies and beyond. and wisdom; maintaining a broad vision of (p. 130, 2001). Some historians have continued In examining the developments in the work, not getting lost in detailsvfocusing to focus on the lasting impact of what has been casework theory, as well as the discourse sur- on the enjoyment and pleasure obtained from termed the “Freudian or psychiatric deluge” or rounding social work education and profession the workvreceiving encouragement from a on the influence of spiritualism and human- building, it appears that social work leaders co-worker who is not feeling discouraged by ism and decry the conservative, individualist were more concerned with traditional social the work; avoiding the trap of martyrdom; focus on casework during this era (Specht and work values and interests than has often been utilizing spirituality as a source of strength. Courtney, 1994, Leiby, 1962). Other historians acknowledged. During this conservative era, Cabot had a comprehensive theory regard- have examined professional developments they developed ideas which informed and en- ing what we now call social work burnout or within a political or economic framework abled the more radical changes which were to compassion fatigue. Our ideas about how such and have virtually ignored developments in follow, while providing a professional frame- theories were first developed should be revised casework theory and practice (Wenocur and work which could withstand those changes. to give credit to this early conceptualization Reisch, 1994, Reisch and Andrews, 2001). In of an important social work phenomenon that discussing the post war era, Kemp states, in ret- SOURCES: This presentation is based upon a continues being researched today. rospect the period seems, “...a barren time, at review of conference proceedings, contempo- best a backdrop for the dramatic social upheav- rary and historical books and journal articles als of the 1960s, at worst a period of grinding which address developments in social casework conservatism in which social work was defined theory and practice during the nineteen fifties. SOCIAL WELFARE HISTORY GROUP Jerry Marx, Ph.D. Social Work Dept., Pettee Hall University of New Hampshire Durham, NH 03824

IN THIS ISSUE

1 Hull House and the Emergence of Professional Social Work, BY JERRY D. MARX 1 The Poorhouse: America’s Forgotten Institution, BOOK REVIEW BY GIANNOULA KEFALA 4 Social Welfare History Symposium Oral Sessions

Book Review cont. from page 1 concerning poverty; it also dealt with problems related to be permanent responses to poverty. Despite these programs, old age, sickness, physical and psychological disability, al- comprehensive solutions to the poverty of the Great Depression coholism, child welfare, widowhood, single parenthood, remained elusive. treatment of deviance, and unemployment. The goals of social welfare in this era were expressed as help- The poorhouse was a structured and regimented en- ing people develop self-respect and dignity through self-support vironment that had a harmful impact on people’s self-re- and by protecting vulnerable people from temptation. These spect and self-reliance. The poorhouses were institutions goals were translated into the social control goals of “making that created an environment of apathy and passive com- people behave themselves and keep working.” The social welfare pliance through the strict routines and regimentation of system in the United States was developing and taking on a unique residents. The residents in poorhouses lost the capacity character, responding not only to individual needs but also to its and inclination to care for themselves and resume independent citizens’ beliefs about dependency. People were beginning to real- lives in the community. ize that the needs of some members of the society were not being met By mid-century, people were beginning to question the success of the in the poorhouses and this was due not to these people’s lack of moral poorhouse movement. Investigations were launched to examine the con- character but to the nation’s social, political and economic reality. Even- ditions in poorhouses. They had proven to be much more expensive than tually the poorhouses evolved almost exclusively into nursing homes for had been anticipated. And they had not significantly reduced the numbers dependent elderly people. But poorhouses left orphanages, general hospi- of the “unworthy poor” nor eliminated the need for “outdoor relief”. The tals and mental hospitals—for which they had provided the prototype—as society recognized that poorhouses were a temporary solution to a perma- their legacy. nent problem. The nation seemed to understand that these people needed In our current health and human service system, deinstitutionalization public assistance in order to maintain independent living situations. and social integration are pivotal to service delivery, and will continue to The Civil War brought major changes in social welfare. Included among be so in the future. Thus, the author predicts that the need for alternative these was the fact that the war increased the number of populations in residential services will increase significantly in the future. Social work- need in society. Recently freed African Americans and disabled war veter- ers will be called upon to play an important role in fulfilling this mandate. ans needed support. During this period, the poorhouse continued to serve Whether it is people with intellectual or physical disabilities, mental health multiple roles such as a health care provider for poor people, a maternity problems, AIDS, or families and individuals who are homeless, the social hospital, a holding area for orphaned children and a homeless shelter. worker’s primary mandate will be the maintenance and support of deinsti- During the Great Depression laws were passed prohibiting children tutionalized persons in the community. from residing in poorhouses and removing mentally ill patients and others Therefore, according to Wagner, social workers must develop new, with special needs to more appropriate facilities. The poorhouse popula- broader based strategies to deal with oppositional communities. They tion was even more narrowly defined during the twentieth century when must innovate and propose new structures for involving community resi- social welfare legislation (Workman’s Compensation, Unemployment dents, as old models are no longer effective. Social workers must educate benefits and Social Security) began to provide a rudimentary “safety net” the public about their role in supporting social policies for the disadvan- for people who would previously have been pauperized by such circum- taged groups; must work systematically and cooperatively with communi- stances. The Social Security Act of 1935 marked the beginning of a major ties, and encourage people to become involved as active participants in shift in the social welfare system. This act made changes in public welfare, this helping process. social insurance and social services. Certain categories of poor became the Wagner’s book in a passionate way gives us an education in the long joint responsibility of state and federal government. The Social Security Act history of the poorhouses. This is a book that all the social workers need provided both social insurance and public welfare programs designed to to read in order to have a deep understanding of the modern schema of institutional settings. During the 1930s the demands of the Depression in- volved social workers in the highest levels of policy development. Today, Giannoula Kefala is a social work student social workers need to assume leadership roles in the creation of a new in the University of New Hampshire national policy for dealing with poverty. Social Work Department.