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City Beautiful, Hull-House, and the Emergence of American Internationalism, 1890-1920

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City Beautiful, Hull-House, and the Emergence of American Internationalism, 1890-1920 When Europe Re-Built the Neighbourhood: City Beautiful, Hull-House, and the Emergence of American Internationalism, 1890-1920 by Maureen A. Mahoney A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario © 2014, Maureen A. Mahoney ABSTRACT Alice Hamilton, Grace Abbott, and Frederic C. Howe were members of a well-educated, white middle-class that burgeoned around the turn-of-the-century in the United States, and they embraced “Progressivism” and pacifism. In the flow of people, ideas, and culture that criss- crossed the North Atlantic, creating the intricate networks that formed an “international consciousness,” Hamilton, Abbott, and Howe were also deeply involved. In Chicago and Cleveland, however, their encounters with European culture were informed by shifting conventions of gender. At Hull-House in Chicago, Hamilton and Abbott observed the social transformations induced by mass immigration, and were forced to admit their education was not directly relevant. Drawing upon pragmatism and feminism, they learned to emphasize the subjectivity of experience, to view culture as a cooperative balance of diverse values, and to conceive of identity and knowledge as products of social and historic circumstances rather than innate racial or ethnic categories. By using these principles, they came to perceive American and European domestic spaces as two parts of an inclusive community. In Cleveland, corruption and chaotic growth convinced Howe that reform must be initiated by “public-spirited” men who privileged collective well-being, were familiar with “civilized” European cities, and experimented with reform. Mayor Tom L. Johnson, who tried to reclaim local democracy with tent meetings, three cent fares, public (municipal) ownership of key utilities, amongst other reforms, commissioned architect Daniel H. Burnham to develop the Group Plan (1903), which drew heavily upon Beaux-Arts traditions, before rebuilding downtown. Inspired, Howe returned to Europe to study male civic leadership. The purpose of an international community, as he perceived it, was the unlimited exchange of information between public-spirited men. Internationalism was therefore gendered. This dissertation argues this happened within American cities where Hamilton, Abbott, and Howe had novel experiences and encountered European people, ideas, and architectural traditions as they were integrated within Chicago and Cleveland during an intense period of trans-Atlantic sharing. By using collective biography to examine the effects of domestic gendered experience on perceptions of internationalism, this dissertation reveals how local and global traditions converged in ways that altered definitions of power, culture, and community at local, national, and international levels. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Like any doctoral candidate, I owe many thanks to many people. First, there is my supervisor, Andrew M. Johnston. With a great deal of support and encouragement, he allowed me to shift my focus to the American city when I was casting about for a thesis project. That he has become so well-versed in urban history and historiography, both United States and European, is a testament to his intellectual generosity and enthusiasm, and the confidence he has (and instills) in his students. From the Department of History, I would also like to thank Sonya Lipsett-Rivera, Michel Hogue, James Opp, James Miller, Bruce Elliott, Norman Hillmer, and Patrizia Gentile for supporting various aspects of my work as this project developed. Joan White has, time and time again, proven to not only be the utmost professional Graduate Administrator, but truly supportive of graduate students and their endeavours. Colleagues including Brian Foster, Melissa Horne, Emmanuel Hogg, and Jess Dunkin each deserve thanks for helping to edit various portions of this dissertation. Financially, I want to acknowledge the wonderful support given me by the Department of History and the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs, both at Carleton University. Without several research and conference awards, and grants from both units, this project would have never gotten beyond the proposal stage. The Canadian Centre for Architecture also gave me the incredible opportunity to better understand not just architecture, but the ideas and the people that inform the buildings and plans that make up cities. I would like to thank them, therefore, for helping to fund my month of study in their Scholar’s Centre. Added to that, the Office of the Dean of Arts at Memorial University of Newfoundland provided me with J.W. Pickersgill Fellowships, and the Government of Ontario provided me with Ontario Graduate Scholarships. Both these awards allowed me to circumvent the expense of archival research. iii Librarians and archives are the backbone of any historian’s project. I have to thank Christine Taylor, Senior Interlibrary Loan Technician, for patiently and enthusiastically fulfilling the countless requests I have made for obscure books, pamphlets, and microfilm collections. I would also like to thank the following archives for permission to quote from various collections held or to reproduce historical images: the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Swarthmore College Peace Collection, Chicago History Museum, University of Illinois at Chicago, Michael Schwartz Library at Cleveland State University, and the Ryerson and Burnham Libraries at the Art Institute of Chicago. On a more personal note, I owe even more thanks to a few important individuals. Rob and Amy, my brother and sister-in-law, gave me a place to stay as I shuttled between cities and their endless patience as I navigated certain stressful periods over the past few years. Jamie Wildsmith, Meghan Mahoney, and Patrick Mahoney, have always been there to let me complain, to help me find the right plan of attack, and, most importantly, to be wonderfully light-hearted and joyous individuals. I cannot thank the five of you enough. Lauren Wheeler went above and beyond on countless occasions; her friendship propelled the completion of this project forward many times. And to Chris, you may have missed the beginning and middle of this project, but you made the end possible and my work better. Along with the beautiful office space you gave me, you pushed me to work harder and to expect more. Last, but certainly not least, my parents. When I was young, my mother made education familiar, comfortable, and fun, and she showed me the value in hard work. Later, as an impressionable, young twenty-something, my father told me to follow my heart. Thankfully, they have both provided endless support, without question, as I did exactly that. It is with tremendous honour that I dedicate this project to these three incredible individuals, as a humble expression of my gratitude. iv DEDICATION For Ron, Gerri, and Chris v TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ii Acknowledgements iii Dedication v Table of Contents vi List of Illustrations vii Introduction 1 Chapter One 35 Locating Hull-House within Public Transnational Space Chapter Two 79 Engaging the City: Building Public-Spirited Manhood alongside European Civic Architecture and Democratic Reform Chapter Three 123 Experiencing Transnationalism within Chicago’s Near West Side Chapter Four 193 Public-Spirited Prominence and International Networks of City Men Chapter Five 247 From Chicago to Zürich: Practising Pacifist Internationalism Chapter Six 308 Preparing a Wilsonian Public-Spirited Internationalism Conclusion 367 Bibliography 378 vi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure 1 The Rookery 36 Figure 2 Art Institute of Chicago 37 Figure 3 Tenements near Hull-House 40 Figure 4 Reception Hall, Hull-House 46 Figure 5 Main Entrance, Hull-House 57 Figure 6 Nationalities Map, Hull-House Maps and Papers 69 Figure 7 The Superior Arcade 81 Figure 8 Downtown Cleveland, Map 83 Figure 9 “Birdseye View” of the Group Plan 100 Figure 10 Gare d’Orleans or Gare d’Orsay 103 Figure 11 At the Front Door of Hull-House 140 Figure 12 Panoramic view of Public Square 229 vii INTRODUCTION Alice Hamilton, Grace Abbott, and Frederic C. Howe had certain things in common. They were members of a well-educated, urban, and white middle-class that burgeoned around the turn-of- the-century in the United States of America.1 Beginning in the 1890s, they passionately embraced political, economic or social reform, including settlement work at Hull-House in Chicago, Illinois, and Goodrich Settlement House in Cleveland, Ohio. When the Great War broke out in 1914 and President Woodrow Wilson announced preparedness and a declaration of war in 1916 and 1917 respectively, they were amongst a small group of left and liberal-left Progressive reformers who agitated for peace. Against the “mob-psychology” and “herd instinct” of war, which Randolph Bourne bitterly delineated, these three protested.2 Within the flows of people, ideas, and material culture that criss-crossed the North Atlantic, connecting the cities and towns of Europe and the United States within intricate networks that formed what Daniel Rodgers has called an “international consciousness,” Hamilton, Abbott, and Howe were also involved.3 As post-graduates, Alice and Fred had, on the 1 An urban middle-class was not unknown prior to the late 1800s. Yet, historians have acknowledged that its rapid emergence occurred in tandem with unprecedented industrialization, urban growth, immigration, migration, technological
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