DOCSLIB.ORG

Unit Conversions: 5.73 Ma = ______Ma ?

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Unit Conversions: 5.73 Ma = ______Ma ? Unit Conversions: 5.73 mA = __________ mA ? 24 MB = __________ kB ? Computer History: Generation Zero: Mechanical Calculating Machines (1642 - 1945) - Calculating Clock - Wilhelm Schickard (1592 - 1635). - Pascaline - Blaise Pascal (1623 - 1662). - Difference Engine - Charles Babbage (1791 - 1871), also designed but never built the Analytical Engine. - Punched card tabulating machines - Herman Hollerith (1860 - 1929). The Science Museum's Difference Engine No. 2, built from Babbage's design By User:geni - Photo by User:geni, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4807331 Computer History: Generation One: Vacuum Tube Computers (1945 - 1953) - Atanasoff Berry Computer (1937 - 1938) solved systems of linear equations. - Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) 1946 (first general-purpose computer) - The IBM 650 first mass-produced computer. 1955 It was phased out in 1969. - many others 6L6 tubes in glass envelopes By Pjacobi at German Wikipedia - Transferred from de.wikipedia to Commons., Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2491137 Computer History: Generation Two: Transistorized Computers (1954 - 1965) Generation Three: Integrated Circuit Computers (1965 - 1980) - IBM 360 Vacuum Tube - DEC PDP-8 and PDP-11 - Cray-1 supercomputer - many others Generation Four: VLSI Computers (1980 - ????) Transistor - Very large scale integrated circuits (VLSI) have more than 10,000 components per chip. SSI IC - Enabled the creation of microprocessors. - The first was the 4-bit Intel 4004. Later versions, such as the 8080, 8086, and 8088 spawned the VLSI IC idea of “personal computing.” Figure 1.2: Comparison of Computer Components. Clockwise, starting from the top: 1) Vacuum Tube 2) Transistor 3) Chip (IC) containing 3200 2- input NAND gates 4) VLSI Integrated circuit package. Moore’s Law (1965) - Gordon Moore, Intel founder - “The density of transistors in an integrated circuit will double every year.” Contemporary version: - “The density of silicon chips doubles every 18 months.” Rock’s Law - Arthur Rock, Intel financier - “The cost of capital equipment to build semiconductors will double every four years.” - In 1968, a new chip plant cost about $12,000. - In 2012, a chip plants under construction cost well over $5 billion (more than the GDP of several small countries). By Author: ourworldindata.org - Original text : Data source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor_countURL: https://ourworldindata.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/Transistor-Count-over-time.pngArticle: https://ourworldindata.org/technological-progress), CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=71553709 Von-Neumann Architecture: CPU: Central Processing Unit Registers ALU Control PC: Unit Input / Instruction Ouput and Data Memory Von-Neumann Architecture: Harvard Architecture: CPU: Central Processing Unit Stored Program CPU: Central Processing Unit Registers Computer Components: Registers ALU - CPU: ALU - ALU Control - Registers Control - Control Unit PC: Unit PC: Unit - Data Path - Memory - Input - Output Input / Data Input / Instruction Ouput Ouput and Memory Data Memory Instruction Memory Single external bus for both instructions and data. Separate external busses for instructions and data. (Instructions and Data) CPU Input Memory and ALU, Registers, Output and Control) An external bus will consist Data Bus of paths for data address and control signals. Address Bus Control Bus Figure 1.6 The Von-Neumann Architecture Showing the System Bus Note that in this diagram, there is one external bus for Instructions and Data and I/O. The previous diagrams showed I/O using a separate external bus, which is occasionally done, as in some DSP (digital signal processing) processors. Lev el 6 L ev Us el 5 er L ev Hi el 4 gh- Lev el L Lev A an el sse gu 3 mb age Executable Programs ly L Lev Sy ang el 2 ste uag C++, Java, Fortran, etc. m S e oft Lev M wa el ach re 1 ine Assembly Code Le C vel on 0 trol Operating System, Library Code Di gita Instruction Set Architecture l Lo gic Microcode or Hardwired Figure 1.3 The Abstract Levels of Modern Computing Systems Cloud Computing: With the growth in speed and availability of the Internet, “Cloud Computing” has become possible. Cloud Computing: Where the computing hardware (and possibly O/S and application software) is housed and maintained remotely by a separate entity (i.e. Amazon AWS / Microsoft Azure etc). What the remote entity provides and maintains: SaaS Software as a Service applications / operating system / and computing hardware PaaS Platform as a Service operating system / and computing hardware IaaS Infrastruture as a Service computing hardware.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Von Neumann Computer Model 5/30/17, 10:03 PM
    The von Neumann Computer Model 5/30/17, 10:03 PM CIS-77 Home http://www.c-jump.com/CIS77/CIS77syllabus.htm The von Neumann Computer Model 1. The von Neumann Computer Model 2. Components of the Von Neumann Model 3. Communication Between Memory and Processing Unit 4. CPU data-path 5. Memory Operations 6. Understanding the MAR and the MDR 7. Understanding the MAR and the MDR, Cont. 8. ALU, the Processing Unit 9. ALU and the Word Length 10. Control Unit 11. Control Unit, Cont. 12. Input/Output 13. Input/Output Ports 14. Input/Output Address Space 15. Console Input/Output in Protected Memory Mode 16. Instruction Processing 17. Instruction Components 18. Why Learn Intel x86 ISA ? 19. Design of the x86 CPU Instruction Set 20. CPU Instruction Set 21. History of IBM PC 22. Early x86 Processor Family 23. 8086 and 8088 CPU 24. 80186 CPU 25. 80286 CPU 26. 80386 CPU 27. 80386 CPU, Cont. 28. 80486 CPU 29. Pentium (Intel 80586) 30. Pentium Pro 31. Pentium II 32. Itanium processor 1. The von Neumann Computer Model Von Neumann computer systems contain three main building blocks: The following block diagram shows major relationship between CPU components: the central processing unit (CPU), memory, and input/output devices (I/O). These three components are connected together using the system bus. The most prominent items within the CPU are the registers: they can be manipulated directly by a computer program. http://www.c-jump.com/CIS77/CPU/VonNeumann/lecture.html Page 1 of 15 IPR2017-01532 FanDuel, et al.
    [Show full text]
  • Demystifying Internet of Things Security Successful Iot Device/Edge and Platform Security Deployment — Sunil Cheruvu Anil Kumar Ned Smith David M
    Demystifying Internet of Things Security Successful IoT Device/Edge and Platform Security Deployment — Sunil Cheruvu Anil Kumar Ned Smith David M. Wheeler Demystifying Internet of Things Security Successful IoT Device/Edge and Platform Security Deployment Sunil Cheruvu Anil Kumar Ned Smith David M. Wheeler Demystifying Internet of Things Security: Successful IoT Device/Edge and Platform Security Deployment Sunil Cheruvu Anil Kumar Chandler, AZ, USA Chandler, AZ, USA Ned Smith David M. Wheeler Beaverton, OR, USA Gilbert, AZ, USA ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-2895-1 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-2896-8 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-2896-8 Copyright © 2020 by The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Open Access This book is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this book are included in the book’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material.
    [Show full text]
  • Reverse Engineering X86 Processor Microcode
    Reverse Engineering x86 Processor Microcode Philipp Koppe, Benjamin Kollenda, Marc Fyrbiak, Christian Kison, Robert Gawlik, Christof Paar, and Thorsten Holz, Ruhr-University Bochum https://www.usenix.org/conference/usenixsecurity17/technical-sessions/presentation/koppe This paper is included in the Proceedings of the 26th USENIX Security Symposium August 16–18, 2017 • Vancouver, BC, Canada ISBN 978-1-931971-40-9 Open access to the Proceedings of the 26th USENIX Security Symposium is sponsored by USENIX Reverse Engineering x86 Processor Microcode Philipp Koppe, Benjamin Kollenda, Marc Fyrbiak, Christian Kison, Robert Gawlik, Christof Paar, and Thorsten Holz Ruhr-Universitat¨ Bochum Abstract hardware modifications [48]. Dedicated hardware units to counter bugs are imperfect [36, 49] and involve non- Microcode is an abstraction layer on top of the phys- negligible hardware costs [8]. The infamous Pentium fdiv ical components of a CPU and present in most general- bug [62] illustrated a clear economic need for field up- purpose CPUs today. In addition to facilitate complex and dates after deployment in order to turn off defective parts vast instruction sets, it also provides an update mechanism and patch erroneous behavior. Note that the implementa- that allows CPUs to be patched in-place without requiring tion of a modern processor involves millions of lines of any special hardware. While it is well-known that CPUs HDL code [55] and verification of functional correctness are regularly updated with this mechanism, very little is for such processors is still an unsolved problem [4, 29]. known about its inner workings given that microcode and the update mechanism are proprietary and have not been Since the 1970s, x86 processor manufacturers have throughly analyzed yet.
    [Show full text]
  • Control Unit Operation
    PART SIX: THE CONTROL UNIT CHAPTER 19 CONTROL UNIT OPERATION 19.1 MICRO-OPERATIONS ............................................................... 3 The Fetch Cycle ...................................................................... 5 The Indirect Cycle................................................................... 8 The Interrupt Cycle ................................................................. 9 The Execute Cycle................................................................... 9 The Instruction Cycle............................................................. 12 19.2 CONTROL OF THE PROCESSOR ............................................... 13 Functional Requirements........................................................ 13 Control Signals ..................................................................... 16 A Control Signals Example ..................................................... 19 Internal Processor Organization .............................................. 23 The Intel 8085...................................................................... 24 19.3 HARDWIRED IMPLEMENTATION .............................................. 30 Control Unit Inputs ............................................................... 30 Control Unit Logic ................................................................. 33 19.4 RECOMMENDED READING ...................................................... 35 19.5 KEY TERMS, REVIEW QUESTIONS, AND PROBLEMS ................... 35 Key Terms ..........................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • IBM Z Connectivity Handbook
    Front cover IBM Z Connectivity Handbook Octavian Lascu John Troy Anna Shugol Frank Packheiser Kazuhiro Nakajima Paul Schouten Hervey Kamga Jannie Houlbjerg Bo XU Redbooks IBM Redbooks IBM Z Connectivity Handbook August 2020 SG24-5444-20 Note: Before using this information and the product it supports, read the information in “Notices” on page vii. Twentyfirst Edition (August 2020) This edition applies to connectivity options available on the IBM z15 (M/T 8561), IBM z15 (M/T 8562), IBM z14 (M/T 3906), IBM z14 Model ZR1 (M/T 3907), IBM z13, and IBM z13s. © Copyright International Business Machines Corporation 2020. All rights reserved. Note to U.S. Government Users Restricted Rights -- Use, duplication or disclosure restricted by GSA ADP Schedule Contract with IBM Corp. Contents Notices . vii Trademarks . viii Preface . ix Authors. ix Now you can become a published author, too! . xi Comments welcome. xi Stay connected to IBM Redbooks . xi Chapter 1. Introduction. 1 1.1 I/O channel overview. 2 1.1.1 I/O hardware infrastructure . 2 1.1.2 I/O connectivity features . 3 1.2 FICON Express . 4 1.3 zHyperLink Express . 5 1.4 Open Systems Adapter-Express. 6 1.5 HiperSockets. 7 1.6 Parallel Sysplex and coupling links . 8 1.7 Shared Memory Communications. 9 1.8 I/O feature support . 10 1.9 Special-purpose feature support . 12 1.9.1 Crypto Express features . 12 1.9.2 Flash Express feature . 12 1.9.3 zEDC Express feature . 13 Chapter 2. Channel subsystem overview . 15 2.1 CSS description . 16 2.1.1 CSS elements .
    [Show full text]
  • The Microprogrammed Control Unit
    The Microprogrammed Control Unit Up to this point, we have studied: 1. The microoperation sequence associated with each assembly language instruction 2. The control signals associated with those microoperations. 3. The use of combinational logic in the form of a signal generation tree to generate these control signals. We now consider another option for generating the control signals. This is the microprogramming option, in which representations of the control signals are stored in a micro–memory and read into a MBR (micro–memory buffer register) from whence they are issued. Consider the control signal PC B1. When this is asserted, the contents of the Program Counter are copied onto bus B1. The method of generating this signal has no effect on the action it takes. We have two options for generating each control signal: Hardwired: The signal is output from an AND gate Microprogrammed: The signal is output from a D flip–flop. Survey of Bus Usage and Other Control Signals In order to structure the micro–memory properly, we must tabulate the control signals used and arrange them by use: bus transfer, ALU operation, memory operation, etc. Option Bus 1 Bus 2 Bus 3 ALU Other 0 1 PC B1 1 B2 B3 PC tra1 L / R’ 2 MAR B1 – 1 B2 B3 MAR tra2 A 3 R B1 R B2 B3 R shift C 4 IR B1 MBR B2 B3 IR not READ 5 SP B1 IOD B2 B3 SP add WRITE 6 B3 MBR sub extend 7 B3 IOD and 0 RUN 8 B3 IOA or 9 xor Note the important option 0.
    [Show full text]
  • Microprogramming: Basic Idea
    5-45 Chapter 5—Processor Design—Advanced Topics Microprogramming: Basic Idea • Recall control sequence for 1-bus SRC Step Concrete RTN Control Sequence T0 MA ← PC: C ← PC + 4; PCout, MAin, INC4, Cin, Read ← ← T1 MD M[MA]: PC C; Cout, PCin, Wait T2 IR ← MD; MDout, IRin ← T3 A R[rb]; Grb, Rout, Ain ← T4 C A + R[rc]; Grc, Rout, ADD, Cin ← T5 R[ra] C; Cout, Gra, Rin, End • Control unit job is to generate the sequence of control signals • How about building a computer to do this? Computer Systems Design and Architecture by V. Heuring and H. Jordan © 1997 V. Heuring and H. Jordan 5-46 Chapter 5—Processor Design—Advanced Topics The Microcode Engine • A computer to generate control signals is much simpler than an ordinary computer • At the simplest, it just reads the control signals in order from a read-only memory • The memory is called the control store • A control store word, or microinstruction, contains a bit pattern telling which control signals are true in a specific step • The major issue is determining the order in which microinstructions are read Computer Systems Design and Architecture by V. Heuring and H. Jordan © 1997 V. Heuring and H. Jordan 5-47 Chapter 5—Processor Design—Advanced Topics Fig 5.16 Block Diagram of Microcoded Control Unit Ck CCs Other IR Opcode PLA • Microinstruction has Sequencer (computes branch control, 2 start addr) External source n branch address, and control signal fields Increment 4–1 Mux n • Microprogram µPC counter can be set n from several sources to do the required Control sequencing store k n m µBranch µIR control Branch Control signals address PCout, etc.
    [Show full text]
  • CHAPTER 4 MARIE: an Introduction to a Simple Computer
    CHAPTER 4 MARIE: An Introduction to a Simple Computer 4.1 Introduction 219 4.2 CPU Basics and Organization 219 4.2.1 The Registers 220 4.2.2 The ALU 221 4.2.3 The Control Unit 221 4.3 The Bus 221 4.4 Clocks 225 4.5 The Input/Output Subsystem 227 4.6 Memory Organization and Addressing 227 4.7 Interrupts 235 4.8 MARIE 236 4.8.1 The Architecture 236 4.8.2 Registers and Buses 236 4.8.3 Instruction Set Architecture 238 4.8.4 Register Transfer Notation 242 4.9 Instruction Processing 244 4.9.1 The Fetch–Decode–Execute Cycle 244 4.9.2 Interrupts and the Instruction Cycle 246 4.9.3 MARIE’s I/O 249 4.10 A Simple Program 249 4.11 A Discussion on Assemblers 252 4.11.1 What Do Assemblers Do? 252 4.11.2 Why Use Assembly Language? 254 4.12 Extending Our Instruction Set 255 4.13 A Discussion on Decoding: Hardwired Versus Microprogrammed Control 262 4.13.1 Machine Control 262 4.13.2 Hardwired Control 265 4.13.3 Microprogrammed Control 270 4.14 Real-World Examples of Computer Architectures 274 4.14.1 Intel Architectures 275 4.14.2 MIPS Architectures 282 Chapter Summary 284 CMPS375 Class Notes (Chap04) Page 1 / 27 Dr. Kuo-pao Yang 4.1 Introduction 219 • In this chapter, we first look at a very simple computer called MARIE: A Machine Architecture that is Really Intuitive and Easy. • We then provide brief overviews of Intel and MIPS machines, two popular architectures reflecting the CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) and RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) design philosophies.
    [Show full text]
  • 5 Computer Organization
    5 Computer Organization Source: Foundations of Computer Science Cengage Learning 5.1 Objectives After studying this chapter, students should be able to: List the three subsystems of a computer. Describe the role of the central processing unit (CPU). Describe the fetch-decode-execute phases of a cycle. Describe the main memory and its addressing space. Define the input/output subsystem. Understand the interconnection of subsystems. Describe different methods of input/output addressing. Distinguish the two major trends in the design of computers. Understand how computer throughput can be improved using pipelining and parallel processing. 5.2 1 A computer can be divided into three broad categories or subsystem: the central processing unit (CPU), the main memory and the input/output subsystem. 5.3 5-1 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT The central processing unit (CPU) performs operations on data. In most architectures it has three parts: an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), a control unit and a set of registers, fast storage locations. 5.4 2 The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) performs logic, shift, and arithmetic operations on data. Logic operations: NOT, AND, OR, and XOR. Shift operations: logic shift operations and arithmetic shift operations Arithmetic operations: arithmetic operations on integers and reals. 5.5 Registers Registers are fast stand-alone storage locations that hold data temporarily. Multiple registers are needed to facilitate the operation of the CPU. Data registers Instruction register Program counter The control unit The control unit controls the operation of each subsystem. Controlling is achieved through signals sent from the control unit to other subsystems.
    [Show full text]
  • The Central Processing Unit (CPU)
    The Central Processing Unit (CPU) Crash Course Computer Science #7 The Central Processing Unit https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FZGugFqdr60 Internals ● Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) ● Control Unit (CU) ● Registers ● Cache Memory ● The Fetch-Execute Cycle Arithmetic Logic Unit An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit used to perform arithmetic and logic ​ operations. It represents the fundamental building block of the central processing unit ​ (CPU) of a computer. Modern CPUs contain very powerful and complex ALUs. In addition to ALUs, modern CPUs contain a control unit (CU). Most of the operations of a CPU are performed by one or more ALUs, which load data from ​ input registers. A register is a small amount of storage available as part of a CPU. The ​ control unit tells the ALU what operation to perform on that data and the ALU stores the result in an output register. The control unit moves the data between these registers, the ALU, and memory. Control Unit A control unit coordinates how data moves around a cpu. The control unit (CU) is a ​ ​ component of a computer's central processing unit (CPU) that directs operation of the processor. It tells the computer's memory, arithmetic/logic unit and input and output devices how to respond to a program's instructions. ● The control unit obtains data / instructions from memory ● Interprets / decodes the instructions into commands / signals ● Controls transfer of instructions and data in the CPU ● Coordinates the parts of the CPU Registers In computer architecture, a processor register is a quickly accessible location available ​ to a digital processor's central processing unit (CPU).
    [Show full text]
  • ARM Processor Architecture Embedded Systems with ARM Cortext-M Updated: Monday, February 5, 2018 a Little About ARM – the Company
    Chapters 1 and 3 ARM Processor Architecture Embedded Systems with ARM Cortext-M Updated: Monday, February 5, 2018 A Little about ARM – The company • Originally Acorn RISC Machine (ARM) • Later Advanced RISC Machine • Then it became ARM Ltd owned by ARM Holdings (parent company) • In 2016 SoftBank bought ARM for $31 billion • ARM: • Develops the architecture and licenses it to other companies • Other companies design their own products that implement one of those architectures— including systems- on-chips (SoC) and systems-on-modules (SoM) that incorporate memory, interfaces, radios, etc. • It also designs cores that implement this instruction set and licenses these designs to a number of companies that incorporate those core designs into their own products. • ARM Processors • RISC based processors • In 2010 alone, 6.1 billion ARM-based processor, representing 95% of smartphones, 35% of digital televisions and set-top boxes and 10% of mobile computers • over 100 billion ARM processors produced as of 2017 • The most widely used instruction set architecture in terms of quantity produced https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM_architecture M R https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM_architecture ARM Family and Architecture CPU ARM FAMILY TREE CORTEX- CORTEX- CORTEX- ARM Cortex Processors • ARM Cortex-A family: • Applications processors • Support OS and high- performance applications • Such as Smartphones, Smart TV • ARM Cortex-R family: • Real-time processors with high performance and high reliability • Support real-time processing and mission-critical control • ARM Cortex-M family: • Microcontroller • Cost-sensitive, support SoC 6 CORTEX- • Cortex-M is a great trade-off between performance, cost, efficiency; used for IoT, various applications.
    [Show full text]
  • NX-Series Safety Control Unit Instructions Reference Manual (Z931) 1 CONTENTS
    Machine Automation Controller NX-series Safety Control Unit Instructions Reference Manual NX-SL Z931-E1-05 NOTE All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means, mechanical, electronic, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of OMRON. No patent liability is assumed with respect to the use of the information contained herein. Moreover, because OMRON is constantly striving to improve its high-quality products, the information contained in this manual is subject to change without notice. Every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this manual. Neverthe- less, OMRON assumes no responsibility for errors or omissions. Neither is any liability assumed for damages resulting from the use of the information contained in this publication. Trademarks • Sysmac and SYSMAC are trademarks or registered trademarks of OMRON Corporation in Japan and other countries for OMRON factory automation products. • Microsoft, Windows, Excel, and Visual Basic are either registered trademarks or trademarks of Microsoft Corpora- tion in the United States and other countries. • EtherCAT® is registered trademark and patented technology, licensed by Beckhoff Automation GmbH, Germany. • Safety over EtherCAT® is registered trademark and patented technology, licensed by Beckhoff Automation GmbH, Germany. • ODVA, CIP, CompoNet, DeviceNet, and EtherNet/IP are trademarks of ODVA. • The SD and SDHC logos are trademarks of SD-3C, LLC. Other company names and product names in this document are the trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective companies. Copyrights Microsoft product screen shots reprinted with permission from Microsoft Corporation. Introduction Introduction Thank you for purchasing Machine Automation Controller NX-series Safety Control Units.
    [Show full text]