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Emerging Technologies for Degradation of Dichlorvos: a Review

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Emerging Technologies for Degradation of Dichlorvos: a Review International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health Review Emerging Technologies for Degradation of Dichlorvos: A Review Yuming Zhang 1,2, Wenping Zhang 1,2, Jiayi Li 1,2, Shimei Pang 1,2, Sandhya Mishra 1,2 , Pankaj Bhatt 1,2 , Daxing Zeng 3,* and Shaohua Chen 1,2,* 1 State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Microbial Signals and Disease Control, Integrative Microbiology Research Centre, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; [email protected] (Y.Z.); [email protected] (W.Z.); [email protected] (J.L.); [email protected] (S.P.); [email protected] (S.M.); [email protected] (P.B.) 2 Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, China 3 School of Applied Chemistry and Biological Technology, Shenzhen Polytechnic, Shenzhen 518055, China * Correspondence: [email protected] (D.Z.); [email protected] (S.C.); Tel.: +86-20-8528 8229 (S.C.) Abstract: Dichlorvos (O,O-dimethyl O-(2,2-dichlorovinyl)phosphate, DDVP) is a widely acknowl- edged broad-spectrum organophosphorus insecticide and acaracide. This pesticide has been used for more than four decades and is still in strong demand in many developing countries. Extensive application of DDVP in agriculture has caused severe hazardous impacts on living systems. The International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization considered DDVP among the list of 2B carcinogens, which means a certain extent of cancer risk. Hence, removing DDVP from the environment has attracted worldwide attention. Many studies have tested the removal of DDVP using different kinds of physicochemical methods including gas phase surface discharge plasma, physical adsorption, hydrodynamic cavitation, and nanoparticles. Compared to Citation: Zhang, Y.; Zhang, W.; Li, J.; physicochemical methods, microbial degradation is regarded as an environmentally friendly ap- Pang, S.; Mishra, S.; Bhatt, P.; Zeng, D.; Chen, S. Emerging Technologies proach to solve several environmental issues caused by pesticides. Till now, several DDVP-degrading for Degradation of Dichlorvos: A microbes have been isolated and reported, including but not limited to Cunninghamella, Fusarium, Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Talaromyces, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Ochrobium, Pseudomonas, Bacillus, and Trichoderma. Moreover, Health 2021, 18, 5789. https:// the possible degradation pathways of DDVP and the transformation of several metabolites have doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18115789 been fully explored. In addition, there are a few studies on DDVP-degrading enzymes and the corresponding genes in microorganisms. However, further research relevant to molecular biology Academic Editor: Paul B. Tchounwou and genetics are still needed to explore the bioremediation of DDVP. This review summarizes the latest development in DDVP degradation and provides reasonable and scientific advice for pesticide Received: 26 April 2021 removal in contaminated environments. Accepted: 24 May 2021 Published: 28 May 2021 Keywords: dichlorvos; biodegradation; degradation pathways; mechanisms Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affil- 1. Introduction iations. The overly common use of organophosphorus pesticides (OPs) has led to a high risk of exposure to acute toxic compounds for various kinds of creatures, including hu- mans [1]. As a representative organophosphorus pesticide, dichlorvos (O,O-dimethyl O-(2,2-dichlorovinyl)phosphate, DDVP) has been commonly used in developing countries Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. and many other regions for more than 40 years [2]. DDVP has the molecular formula × –2 This article is an open access article C4H7Cl2O4P, with a molecular weight of 220.98, vapor pressure of 1.2 10 mmHg at ◦ ◦ distributed under the terms and 20 C, and density of 1.415 g/mL at 25 C. It is classified by the World Health Organization conditions of the Creative Commons (WHO) as class 2B: possible carcinogens [3]. In addition, the United States Environmental Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Protection Agency (EPA) has also classified it as a Class I pollutant (highly toxic) [4]. creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Since DDVP came into commercial use in 1961, it could be seen in many countries due 4.0/). to its significant advantages in terms of controlling internal and external parasites in crops Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 5789. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18115789 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 13 Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 5789Since DDVP came into commercial use in 1961, it could be seen in many countries2 of 13 due to its significant advantages in terms of controlling internal and external parasites in crops and livestock and its ability to eliminate several pests in houses and farmlands [1]. The yearly sales in 2019 around the world were about USD 88 million [5]. In many devel- and livestock and its ability to eliminate several pests in houses and farmlands [1]. The oping countries, the excessive use or misuse of DDVP in agricultural production leads to yearly sales in 2019 around the world were about USD 88 million [5]. In many developing countries,serious environmental the excessive useproblems or misuse and ofhazardous DDVP in conditions. agricultural This production situation leads usually to serious has an environmentalimpact on the soil problems biome andand hazardousbecomes people’s conditions. environmental This situation concern usually because has an of impact its res- onidue the toxicity soil biome in the and ecological becomes system. people’s This environmental issue has caused concern an organophosphorus because of its residue pesti- toxicitycide contamination in the ecological problem. system. This issue has caused an organophosphorus pesticide contaminationThe massive problem. application of DDVP can affect non-target organisms profoundly throughThe massivevarious kinds application of pathways of DDVP (Figure can affect 1). Some non-target reports organisms have shown profoundly that exposure through to variousDDVP in kinds childhood of pathways is related (Figure to an1). increased Some reports risk of have diabetes shown and that may exposure lead to to the DDVP increas- in childhooding risk of isbreast related cancer to an in increased adulthood risk [6]. of Scientific diabetes andresearch may leadhas demonstrated to the increasing certain risk ofef- breastfects of cancer chronic in adulthood exposure [to6]. DDVP Scientific on researchmouse. hasThose demonstrated animals exposed certain to effects DDVP of chronicshowed exposurenigrostriatal to DDVP neuron on degeneration mouse. Those and animals remarkable exposed behavioral to DDVP showed impairment. nigrostriatal Such animals neuron degenerationhave representative and remarkable symptoms behavioral called cataleps impairment.y which Such is similar animals to havethose representativeof Parkinson’s symptomsdisease in calledhumans catalepsy [7]. However, which isthe similar current to situation those of Parkinson’sshows that OPs, disease including in humans DDVP, [7]. However,are still widely the current used in situation China, India, shows Braz thatil, OPs,and many including other DDVP, developing are still countries. widely Expo- used insure China, is inevitable India, Brazil, for people and many in those other countr developingies. Therefore, countries. there Exposure is an extremely is inevitable urgent for peopleneed to in deal those with countries. DDVP Therefore,residues in there the environment is an extremely and urgent to protect need people to deal from with DDVPfurther residuesphysiological in the damage. environment and to protect people from further physiological damage. FigureFigure 1.1.Contamination Contamination andand removalremoval ofof dichlorvosdichlorvosfrom from natural natural environment. environment. ManyMany studiesstudies havehave testedtested the degradation of DDVP using using different different kinds kinds of of physico- physic- ochemicalchemical methods, methods, including including gas gas phase surfacesurface dischargedischarge plasma,plasma, physicalphysical adsorption,adsorption, hydrodynamichydrodynamic cavitation,cavitation, andand nanoparticlesnanoparticles [[8].8]. TheseThese approachesapproaches areare notnot cost-effective cost-effective andand hardhard toto applyapply toto largelarge contaminatedcontaminated areas.areas. Therefore,Therefore, microbialmicrobial degradation degradation of of DDVP DDVP hashas becomebecome aa powerfulpowerful andand attractiveattractive methodmethod toto solvesolve thethe exposureexposure problemproblem ofof thisthis haz-haz- ardousardous pesticide.pesticide. Several Several microbes, microbes, including including CunninghamellCunninghamell aelegans aelegans, Fusarium, Fusarium solani solani, Tal-, Talaromycesaromyces atroroseus atroroseus, Aspergillus, Aspergillus oryzae oryzae, ,OchrobactrumOchrobactrum intermedium intermedium, Pseudomonas aeruginosaaeruginosa,, andandPenicillium Penicilliumsp., sp., have have been been isolated isolated and and play play vital vita rolesl roles in DDVP in DDVP degradation. degradation. It has It been has reportedbeen reported that the that organic the organic pollutants pollutants can be can used be byused edaphon by edaphon including including
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