Curiosidades De La F´Isica, Parte VI

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Curiosidades De La F´Isica, Parte VI Curiosidades de la f´ısica, parte VI Jos´eMar´ıa Filardo Bassalo, Fundaci´on Minerva, Prof. retirado de la Universidad de Par´a www.bassalo.com.br Recibido: 23 de mayo de 2007 De acuerdo a Gamow, la idea de incluir al neu- Aceptado: 18 de marzo de 2008 trino como entidad principal del colapso estelar fue de Schenberg. Las contribuciones de Schenberg a la f´ısica te´orica Este mecanismo fue conocido en la literatura cient´ıfi- El f´ısico brasile˜noMario Schenberg (1914–1990) hizo ca mundial como proceso (efecto) URCA, nombre grandes contribuciones a la f´ısica te´orica presentadas dado por los mismo autores a este proceso. Acer- en los siguientes libros: ca de la raz´on de este nombre hay tres versiones. La primera es que fue dado por los primeros lecto- 1. Pensando la f´ısica (Brasiliense, 1984) res del art´ıculo que inventaron el acr´onico URCA a 2. Mario Schenberg: entrevistas (Organiza- partir de ultra r´apida cat´astrofe. La segunda versi´on do por Gita K. Guinsbirg y Jos´eLuis Gold- es muy pintoresca, seg´unnarra el cosm´ologo bra- farb, IFUSP/Perspectiva, 1984) sile˜noMario Novello (n. 1942) en su libro Juegos 3. Di´alogos con Mario Schenberg (Coordinado por de 2005. Seg´uneste cosm´ologo, Gamow habr´ıa da- Lurdes Cedran y organizado por Jos´eLuis Gold- do ese nombre para homenajear la patria de Schen- farb, Valter Ponte, Ana Mar´ıa Alfonso Goldfarb berg pues, como en el proceso hay una gran p´erdida y Tom Genz, Nova Stella, 1985). (robo) de neutrinos, lo compar´ocon la p´erdida de di- 4. Perspectivas en f´ısica te´orica (organizado por nero de las personas que frecuentaban el antiguo ca- Alberto Luis de Rocha Barros, IFUSP, 1987). sino de URCA, en R´ıo de Janeiro. Dice esta con- 5. Cr´onicas de f´ısica, tomo 1 (Jos´eMar´ıa Filardo seja que una de las personas era la esposa de Ga- Bassalo, EDUFPA, 1987) mow, aficionada a jugar en ese casino durante la vi- sita de Gamow a R´ıo de Janeiro, en 1939. La ter- En esta ocasi´on haremos notar algunas de sus con- cera explicaci´on es la siguiente: Gamow vivi´ocier- tribuciones. to tiempo en Odessa, Rusia, donde la palabra ur- ca significa “bandido”. Es oportuno anotar que, en En 19411 el f´ısico ruso–norteamericano George Ga- 1941, trabajando en el Instituto de Estudios Avan- mow (1904–1968) y Schenberg presentaron un famo- zados de Princeton (donde tambi´ense hallaban Al- so mecanismo para explicar el colapso estelar de la si- bert Einstein), Schenberg public´odos importantes guiente manera: cuando el centro de una estrella al- trabajos en Physical Review 60 p. 46, 468. En el pri- canza una densidad muy alta y comienza a captu- mero propuso, por primera vez, que un campo gra- rar electrones (e−), hay una fuga de neutrinos (m´as vitacional posee un momento angular. En el segun- tarde identificados como neutrinos electr´onicos (νe)) do, tambi´ende forma pionera, propuso la no conser- que provoca su enfriamiento y, en consecuencia, su vaci´on de la paridad en las interacciones fuertes que colapso. Esta fuga de neutrinos ocurre mediante el implican mesones. proceso conocido como neutronizaci´on, por el cual un prot´on (p) al absorber un electr´on (e−) se trans- A pesar de que el f´ısico japon´es Hideki Yukawa forma en un neutr´on (n) y un neutrino (νe) seg´unla (1907–1981, premio nobel de f´ısica en 1949) se in- reacci´on (en notaci´on actual): teres´opor ese trabajo con algunos de sus ayudan- tes, el descubrimiento de la ruptura de la paridad en − p + e −→ n + νe las interacciones d´ebiles fue descubierta por los f´ısi- cos chino–norteamericanos Tsung–Dao Lee (n. 1926, 1Physical Review 59, p. 539 premio nobel de f´ısica en 1957) y Chen Ning Yan (n. 54 Curiosidades de la f´ısica, VI. Jos´eMar´ıa Filardo Bassalo 55 1922, premio nobel de f´ısica en 1957), en 1956.2 En 1942,3 Schenberg y el astrof´ısico indio Subrah- manyan Chandrasekhar (1910–1995, premio nobel de f´ısica en 1983) presentaron un an´alisis de la evo- luci´on del Sol y de estrellas semejantes que com- supergigantes ponen la llamada “secuencia principal” del diagra- gigantes ma de Hertzsprung–Russell. En ese an´alisis se estu- dia la luminosidad de la estrella en funci´on de su secuencia principal masa cuando fuese quemado todo el hidr´ogeno cen- subgigantes tral. En ese trabajo mostraron que no existe una es- trella estable cuyo contenido de helio sea superior al 10 % de la masa estelar. Este resultado, conoci- magnitud absoluta do como l´ımite de Schenberg–Chandrasekhar, expli- ca la formaci´on de las estrellas rojas gigantes en el curso de su evoluci´on.4 enanas blancas Es oportuno anotar que ese diagrama result´ode las investigaciones realizadas por los astr´onomos, el dan´esEjnar Hertzsprung (1873–1966), en 1905 y 1911, y el norteamericano Henry Norris Russell Figura 1. Gr´afica de la magnitud absoluta respecto al (1877–1957), en 1914. En ese diagrama se relacio- ´ındice de color. na el color con la luminosidad de las estrellas y pre- senta una secuencia cont´ınua de estrellas a lo lar- go de una diagonal en el sentido de aumento de la lu- el ´algebra conmutativa que incluye al c´alculo inte- minosidad. gral y todos los formalismos simpl´eticos y la geo- metr´ıa diferencial, y al ´algebra anticonmutativa, li- En la d´ecada de 1950, Schenberg desarroll´oimpor- gada a los tensores antisim´etricos que re´unelas re- tantes trabajos en mec´anica estad´ıstica cl´asica. Por presentaciones espinoriales en la representaci´on ten- ejemplo, en 1952,5 y en 1953,6 aplic´olos m´etodos sorial, adem´as de contener el c´alculo diferencial. Esta de la segunda cuantizaci´on a esta mec´anica y estu- ´algebra provee un formalismo precursor de las teor´ıas di´osu generalizaci´on. Estos trabajos fueron objeto modernas de unificaci´on entre las interacciones f´ısi- de consideraci´on en el prefacio del libro Field Theo- cas, tales como: gran unificaci´on, supersimetr´ıa y su- retical Methods of Chemical Physics (Elsevier, 1982), pergravedad. escrito por R. Paul. A partir de 1955, la atenci´on de A partir de 1965, Schenberg se interes´oen lo que de- Schenberg se dirigi´oal estudio de ciertas estructu- nomin´o continuo f´ısico primario, entidad cuadridi- ras algebraicas ligadas a la geometr´ıa y a la mec´ani- mensional que no posee una m´etrica riemaniana de- ca cu´antica. A fin de realizar una serie de trabajos finida. La idea de que en la f´ısica existe tal continuo buscando relacionar estas dos materias escribi´osu se le present´oa Schenberg al buscar una relaci´on en- gran obra Quantum Mechanics and Geometry (De- tre la gravitaci´on einsteniana y el electromagnetis- partamento de F´ısica de la USP, 1957) que es un in- mo. Un primer art´ıculo acerca de ese continuo f´ısi- tento de geometrizar la f´ısica, sue˜noviejo de Eins- co primario fue presentado por Schenberg en en la tein que nunca concret´o. Conferencia Internacional sobre Part´ıculas Elemen- 7 Seg´unel f´ısico brasile˜noNormando Celso Fernan- tales de 1965, en Kyoto, Jap´on. En 1971, public´oun des (n. 1936), Schenberg introdujo en ese at´ıculo dos art´ıculo completo sobre Electromagnetismo y Gravi- grandes extensiones de las ´algebras de Grassmann: taci´on, donde la teor´ıa electromagn´etica maxwellia- na era formulada en una variedad diferenciable aje- 2 Physical Review 102; 104, p. 290; 254. na a cualquier m´etrica y estructura af´ın. Es m´as, la 3Astrophysical Journal 96, p. 161. 4 ecuaci´on gravitacional de Einstein aparece comple- V´ease Malcolm S. Longair, Twentieth Century Physics, vol. III, Institute of Physics Publishing and American Insti- mentando al electromagnetismo maxwelliano siendo, tute of Physics Press, 1995. por tanto, una fusi´on natural entre el electromagne- 5Nuovo Cimento 9, p. 1139. 6Nuevo Cimento 10, . 419; 697. 7Revista Brasileira de F´ısica 1, p. 91. 56 ContactoS 68, 54–65 (2008) tismo y la gravitaci´on. Seg´unel f´ısico brasile˜noHen- gi´ode una conversaci´on entre los f´ısicos brasile˜nos rique Fleming (n. 1938),8 Schenberg sorprendi´oal Giorgio Frossati (n. 1949, de origen italiano) y Ody- mundo cient´ıfico al considerar la gravitaci´on como lio Denys de Aguiar (n. 1953), en enero de 1993, una consecuencia del electromagnetismo, al contra- con el tambi´enf´ısico brasile˜noCarlos Ourivio Esco- rio de lo que pretend´ıa Einstein con el campo unifica- bar (n. 1948) en el Instituto de F´ısica de la USP. do. Para Schenberg, la gravitaci´on no ser´ıa otra co- El profesor Frossati comenz´oa construirlo en el a˜no sa que un ´ındice de refracci´on en el vac´ıo. 2000, en el Instituto de F´ısica de Leiden. Este detec- tor, conocido como minigrail, comenz´oa funcionar En relaci´on al continuo f´ısico primario, Schenberg 9 en el a˜no2004; el detector brasile˜node la IFUSP co- public´odos trabajos m´as. En 1973, consider´oque menz´oa operar en 2006, con una temperatura de la m´etrica riemanniana se reproduce mediante la 4.2 K, y en 2008 lo har´aa 50 mK, seg´unla informa- din´amica de las part´ıculas y ondas, donde el tensor ci´on del profesor Odylio.
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