The Teacher Teaching the Politics of Islamic *

Masoud Kazemzadeh, University of Alabama at Birmingham

Ever since the of mentalist groups (Bennoune 1995; religions of modernization—Chris- 1979, in which a group of fundamen- Mernissi 1988). At the same time, tianity, , , Shin- talist Shi'i clerics outmaneuvered some women have embraced the veil toism, even and . liberals, socialists, and non-funda- and have become supporters of Is- Each of these religions, in its own way, has been interpreted or reinter- mentalist Islamists, Islamic funda- lamist groups—both fundamentalist preted so as to induce people to be- mentalism has become the dominant and anti-fundamentalist. The cen- have in ways conducive to moderniza- force in much of the Islamic world. trality of gender issues in contem- tion, or to function alongside of, The rise of Islamic fundamentalism porary Middle East politics has without impeding, modern behavior, has generated several issues of ana- spawned scholarly and popular de- yet to provide personal comfort, a lytical significance for political scien- bates on the relationship between sense of continuity with one's past, tists. , Islamic fundamentalism, and and a group identity. (1987b, 60) Many scholars believe that Islamic gender equality. fundamentalism will precipitate vio- Both research and teaching on the The scholars working within the first lent international conflicts (Karabell subject of Islamic fundamentalism paradigm may be divided into three 1996-97). Samuel Huntington (1993) are very recent in political science distinct subgroups. The division is has gone so far as to argue not only because only in the past two decades primarily on political grounds. In that the coming clash between the have fundamentalist groups emerged other words, despite similar paradig- West and the Islamic world will be as major political contenders. I see matic assumptions and conceptions, the defining characteristic of the three main paradigms in the re- sharp political and policy differences post- period but also that search on Islamic fundamentalism: divide adherents of the first para- the Islamic world has "bloody bor- Islamic Exceptionalism, Compara- digm. For lack of better terms, I re- ders" with Orthodox Christian, tive undamentalisms, and Class fer to these subgroups as cultural Hindu, Chinese, and African civiliza- Analysis. relativists, neo-Cold warriors, and Islamic fundamentalists. tions. John Esposito is the most prolific The collapse of communism has and articulate representative of the coincided with the emergence of First Paradigm: Islamic Exceptionalism cultural relativists. Members of this democratic regimes in Latin Amer- subgroup avoid using the term "fun- ica, Eastern Europe, and parts of Scholars who adhere to the first damentalist" because they view the Africa. However, the rise of Islamic paradigm believe that Western social rise of Islamic movements in the fundamentalism may have retarded scientific theories are inapplicable to past two decades as the latest resur- democratization in the Middle East. the study of Islamic fundamentalism gence of a cyclical phenomenon that Islamic fundamentalist movements because this phenomenon is unique has occurred throughout Islamic his- promise to replace incumbent au- to the Islamic world. In other words, tory (Esposito 1991). Instead, they thoritarian regimes with totalitarian the Islamic world is essentially dif- refer to these movements as "Islam- ones which make political dissent ferent from the rest of the world, in ist," or "." Members of blasphemy, assassinate their oppo- general, and the West, in particular. this subgroup tend to view Islam and nents, and carry out inquisitions of According to the first paradigm, Is- Islamist movements in a very posi- university professors, journalists, and lam is comprised of a set of clearly tive light. Concerned with the wide- intellectuals (Middle East Watch defined and unchanging principles. spread negative prejudice against 1993). This has led the incumbent This essentialist conception of Islam Islam and in the West, authoritarian regimes to halt or re- is combined with the assertion that they dismiss much of the antidemo- verse earlier steps towards political Islam is not simply a religion but a cratic, misogynist, and atavistic pol- liberalization and democratization. comprehensive way of life. More- icies of the fundamentalists as aris- This situation has produced scholarly over, this ahistorical and essentialist ing from either cultural differences and popular debates on the relation- Islam is regarded as the independent or the temporary excesses of a few ship between , Islam, and variable determining the behaviors extremists (Rahnema and Behdad Islamic fundamentalism (see, for of the ruled and rulers alike. 1995). example, AbuKhalil 1995; Esposito According to Myron Weiner, However, most Western scholars and Piscatori 1991; Kazemzadeh who adopt the first paradigm belong 1996; Tessler and Brand 1995; Voll What is striking about the Islamic to the second subgroup; they tend to and Esposito 1995). resurgence is its rejection of much of what is generally regarded as modern have a very negative view of Islamic The misogynist programs of Is- in the twentieth century: , movements. Sadowski (1993) calls lamic fundamentalists have provoked democracy, and even nationalism. In this group of scholars "Orientalist" a backlash among many women who this respect Islam has come to play and "neo-Orientalist." Because of have organized resistance to funda- quite a different role from that of the the pejorative connotations which

52 PS: Political Science & Politics Teaching the Politics of Islamic Fundamentalism have come to accompany these coholic beverages, playing games of religious law), but do not advocate terms, I prefer to use the culturally chance and backgammon, engaging the rule of Sunni or muftis neutral term "neo-Cold Warriors" to in pre-marital sex, and watching Bay- (clerics). refer to this group of scholars. They watch or VH1, among others, which As mentioned earlier, sharp politi- argue that the roots of dictatorship fundamentalists regard as harmful to cal differences divide the three sub- and repression of dissent in Islamic the well-being of society. In other groups. , who is one of countries lie in Islamic faith and that words, responsibility to the commu- the most articulate of the neo-Cold Islamic fundamentalism is primarily nity should override notions of indi- warriors, regards the cultural relativ- a more assertive and political form vidual rights and liberties. ists as both naive and appeasers who of the Islamic faith. While Myron Shi'i clerics had always maintained do not realize the dangers which Is- Weiner and Samuel Huntington do that sovereignty belongs to God, lamic fundamentalism poses. Ac- not make distinctions between Islam who had invested it in the Prophet cording to Pipes, "Communists and as a faith and Islamic fundamental- Mohammad who, in turn, had rele- fundamentalists being invariably hos- ism as a political ideology, Daniel tile to us, we should show not empa- Pipes (1995, 1996) goes to great thy but resolve, not goodwill but will pains to make this distinction. power" (1995, 195). He advocates According to neo-Cold warrior Both research and teaching "containment and rollback" of Is- scholars, Islamic fundamentalism lamic fundamentalism. For Pipes, represents the major threat to West- on the subject of Islamic "fundamentalists challenge the West ern interests in the post-Cold War more profoundly than Communists period (Pipes and Clawson 1992/93; fundamentalism are very did and do. The latter disagree with Pipes 1995). First, fundamentalists recent in political science our politics but not with our whole threaten the stability of many pro- view of the world" (1995, 194). Western regimes in the Middle East because only in the past For cultural relativists, the neo- and North Africa, such as those in two decades have Cold warriors overestimate the Egypt, , Jordan, Turkey, and threat of Islamic fundamentalism Tunisia. Second, fundamentalists fundamentalist groups and underestimate the divisions violently oppose the American-spon- among the fundamentalists (Esposito sored peace process between Israel emerged as major political 1992; Mottahedeh 1995; Sick 1996). and the Palestinian authority. Third, contenders. The cultural relativists concede that, the most successful military and ter- by and large, Islamic fundamentalists rorist actions against Israelis and regard the United States as the en- Americans have been carried out by emy and that the fundamentalists fundamentalist groups such as (Leb- gated it to the twelve Shi'i Imams one after another. Khomeini's inno- are more than a mere nuisance. anese) , (Lebanese) Is- However, cultural relativists argue lamic Amal, (Palestinian) , vation was to argue that during the that it is hyperbole to regard Islamic and (Palestinian) Islamic . absence of the 12th Imam (the Shi'i fundamentalism as a threat to West- Fourth, there is a concerted coordi- Muslims' Messiah), sovereignty be- ern societies more dangerous than nation among fundamentalists that longs to the Shi'i clerics. In July Communism. Islamic fundamental- targets American interests. Accord- 1997, Ayatollah Mohammad Yazdi, ists have not achieved nor are they ing to Daniel Pipes, "Teheran ad- chair of the Judicial Branch and one ever likely to achieve the technologi- ministers a network akin to an Is- of the five most powerful men in cal and military might that would be lamist Comintern, making its role Iran, said, "Religious leadership and required to annihilate Western soci- today not that different from Mos- political leadership are not separate eties. The apparent consensus in cow's then" (1995, 193). from each other. Politics, govern- Washington that Islamic fundamen- The third subgroup in the first ment, and Islamic rule are for the talism should replace Communism paradigm is made up of Islamic fun- clergy only and the non-clergy lack as the mortal enemy in the post- damentalists themselves. According the right to interfere in politics" Cold war period is the result of the to Islamic fundamentalists, Islamic (1997, my translation). confluence of three groups: the neo- government is superior to democ- Despite facing repression, the tra- Cold warriors who are presenting racy, and divine law is superior to ditional Shi'i clerics—who constitute sophisticated theories; the old ideo- the man-made laws of the Western the overwhelming majority of high logical Cold warriors who are look- legislatures. For Islamic fundamen- ranking clerics in Iran—continue to ing for a new enemy; and bureau- talists, the Western liberal belief that preach the millennia-long Shi'i belief crats in the defense and national society and government should not that, as long as the 12th Imam is security agencies who are seeking interfere in self-regarding acts (ac- absent, the Shi'i clerics should avoid new missions to justify their role and tions of an individual that affect no direct involvement in politics and avoid budgetary cutbacks (Sick 1996). one but one's self) is harmful to a only dwell on purely religious mat- moral community. Islamic funda- ters (Behrooz 1996; Kazemzadeh Gary Sick—who was the chief Iran mentalists argue that a moral and 1996). Sunnis, both traditional and specialist at the National Security believing society should repress indi- fundamentalist, advocate the imple- Council under Presidents Ford, vidual activities such as drinking al- mentation of the Shariah (Islamic Carter, and Reagan and the princi-

March 1998 53 The Teacher pal White House aide for Iran dur- Germany, Canada, and the United ences and funded by the John D. ing the Iranian revolution—goes so States. Scholars sharing this para- and Catherine T. MacArthur Foun- far as to argue that not only is the digm use social scientific theories to dation made the articulation of the neo-Cold warriors' picture of Iran as compare and contrast the various second paradigm possible. As a re- the instigator of much mischief groups among the religious right sult of this effort, five huge volumes wrong, but also that the policy of (see, for example, Appleby 1997; of encyclopedic proportions were isolating the fundamentalist regime Keddie 1995; Marty 1995; Marty and published (Marty and Appleby in Iran is constructed and advocated Appleby 1991). 1991, 1993a, 1993b, 1994, 1995). The by Israeli officials and pro-Israeli Scholars who adopt the second Fundamentalism Project's major interest groups in Washington. paradigm tend to regard the various contributions include (1) providing Moreover, Sick (1996) contends that religious right movements as threats intra-paradigmatic agreed-upon these policies are harmful to the na- to democracy, civil liberties, women's terminology and definitions, (2) tional security interests of the rights, secular life, and scientific adopting a rigorous comparative United States. Sick advocates a rap- progress. Most proponents of the methodology, and (3) presenting prochement between the United second paradigm tend to be main- generalizations which may be refuted States and the fundamentalist re- stream scholars with moderate and by further research (across funda- gime in Iran. liberal views. Religious right activists mentalisms or on a single case, as are very hostile to the notion that well as qualitatively or quantitative- their respective movement is not iy)- Second Paradigm: unique because, as a rule, each reli- Political scientists have not given gious fundamentalist group (wheth- this project the attention that it truly Comparative er Jewish, Christian, or Islamic) deserves. This is unfortunate consid- Scholars working within the sec- considers itself the sole possessor ering that issues raised in these vol- ond paradigm view the rise of Is- of The Absolute Truth. For many umes are of concern to those spe- lamic movements in the past two members of the religious right, the cializing in comparative politics and decades as a part of the rise of the very notion of comparison with international relations. The lack of religious right around the globe. In other fundamentalists is blasphemy due attention is even more surpris- other words, Islamic fundamentalism (Marty 1995). ing considering that Gabriel Almond is but a part of a larger phenome- As far as I have been able to de- (one of the most prominent political non. For example, it is argued that termine, before the 1990s, only a few scientists in the world and a former Islamic fundamentalism is not off-hand remarks in a few books and president of the APSA) is one of the unique: one witnesses the rise of articles stated that there were some three authors who jointly wrote the in the similarities among the various funda- concluding four chapters of the final United States, Jewish fundamental- mentalist sects of the major Abraha- volume, which summarizes the find- ism in Israel and the United States, mic religions. The extraordinary ings of the project. the rise of Hindu fundamentalism in fruitful "Fundamentalism Project" Perhaps it is too early to discuss India, and the rise of militant, right- conducted under the auspices of the the influence adherents of the sec- wing groups in countries like France, American Academy of Arts and Sci- ond paradigm have had upon the study of Islamic fundamentalism. However, it appears that the five volumes resulting from the Funda- mentalism Project are destined to become classic studies of religious fundamentalisms as more scholars read, review, and critique them. I surmise that the forthcoming debates will be less political and will revolve more around methodological and paradigmatic issues. What seems certain, however, is that the findings of Fundamentalism Project scholars have successfully challenged the dominance of the first paradigm in the study of Islamic fundamentalism.

Third Paradigm: Class Analysis Scholars who adopt the third para- digm use social scientific concepts to Al Azhar Mosque, Cairo Photo Courtesy of Embassy of Arab Republic of Egypt analyze Islamic fundamentalism.

54 PS: Political Science & Politics Teaching the Politics of Islamic Fundamentalism

They rarely compare Islamic funda- groups (i.e., those related to kin, ism of fools, Fred Halliday describes mentalism with other religious move- clan, or region) first gain hold of the Islamic fundamentalism as "the anti- ments. For these scholars, many of state apparatus and then enrich imperialism of fools" (1987, 37). whom were born in Islamic coun- themselves and become wealthy mer- After a decade-long hiatus, class tries, Islamic fundamentalism has chants, landholders, or capitalists analysis of Middle Eastern politics very little relevance to traditional (Bill 1972; Gran 1980). resurfaced in the 1990s. The third Islam. Many, if not most, tend to In the early 1970s, a small number paradigm belongs to an emerging consider Islamic fundamentalism of neo-Marxist and dependency body of scholarship that uses social comparable to populist or fascist school scholars specializing in the scientific concepts of class, the state, movements such as the KKK, the Middle East applied concepts of gender, and ideology to account for Nazis, or the Peronists. These schol- class and imperialism to account for the rise of Islamic fundamentalism ars view Islamic fundamentalism as politics in the region. Many scholars (see, for example, Moaddel 1993; primarily a political movement expected to see new social classes Moghadam 1993; Moghissi 1996; among certain social classes to and modern associations (labor Owen 1992; Paidar 1995). achieve political power for use in the unions, teachers' associations, cham- interest of these classes. bers of commerce, and the like) ush- Unlike the scholars working within ering in politics that were based on Hybrid Studies the first paradigm, who consider so- modern ideologies. However, the cioeconomic class a Western con- emergence of Islamic fundamentalist It is important to note that many struct inapplicable to the Middle movements in the late 1970s and scholars' works cannot be situated East, and unlike the scholars in the early 1980s undermined the notion within the trichotomy discussed in second paradigm, who rarely use that politics in the Islamic world this article. Having said that, I be- class analysis, the scholars embracing were class based. lieve that these three paradigms are the third paradigm pay a great deal Theda Skocpol, for example, who the main schools of thought on the of attention to class and class strug- had earlier relied upon concepts of study of Islamic fundamentalism. gle as primary explanatory factors in class and had explicitly denied any Other works that cannot be situated the rise of Islamic fundamentalism. causal significance to superstructural clearly within one of the three may Sami Zubaida (1993), Ervand Abra- variables (ideology, religion, and the be viewed as hybrids that combine hamian (1993), Misagh Parsa (1989), like) completely reversed herself and various aspects of the main para- and Fred Halliday (1996) are the argued that the Iranian revolution digms. major adherents of the third para- illustrated the saliency of the ideo- Dekmejian (1995), for example, digm. logical factor (Skocpol 1973, 1979, uses Western social scientific theo- Most of the scholars in the third 1982). Referring to Islamic funda- ries associated with the second para- paradigm tend to regard Islamic fun- mentalism, Myron Weiner wrote, digm but operates within assump- damentalism as a major threat to "One striking feature of the new ide- tions and conclusions that are democracy, civil liberties, women's ologies and movements, compared similar to the cultural relativist sub- rights, scientific progress, and secular with the older ones, is the lack of group in the first paradigm. In an life as well as to the civil rights of explicit class content" (1987a, xxvi). insightful study, Halliday (1995) ethnic and religious minorities. Some For scholars of the third para- combines approaches taken from the of these scholars are practicing Mus- digm, Khomeini's Islamic fundamen- second and third paradigms and lims who regard the fundamentalists talism directly appealed to the mo- finds striking ideological similarities as a threat to the future of Islam, stazafin (the dispossessed) and was among fundamentalists in Judaism, while most others tend to be athe- explicitly inimical to the mostakbarin , and Islam without as- ists: most of the former are of Arab (the exploiters). Although these lexi- cribing identical social class bases to descent, whereas the overwhelming cons were somewhat amorphous and them. majority of the latter are scholars of certainly not as clearly well defined Iranian origin teaching at universi- as the Marxian concepts of proletar- ties in the West. iat and bourgeoisie, there is never- Pedagogical Dilemmas Scholars who utilize class analysis theless a strong class element to constitute a small minority of schol- them. Like fascism, Islamic funda- In an introductory course entitled ars of the Middle East. The field of mentalist ideology is explicitly corpo- "Politics of Islamic Fundamental- Middle Eastern studies has always ratist and organic (i.e., society is ism," which I taught in the Spring been dominated by perspectives that conceived of as an organic body term of 1997, I faced the dilemma of regard socioeconomic class as an where all parts have to cooperate in teaching a course in which there is epiphenomenon in the Middle East. order to ensure the healthy function- little scholarly consensus. Although It is argued that, unlike in the West- ing of the system). Like fascism, Is- discussing conflicting paradigms is ern polities where feudal and capi- lamic fundamentalism denies the common in graduate courses, many talist classes have existed indepen- saliency of class struggle and class of us avoid discussing them in lower- dently of the state and have tried to consciousness and utilizes class-de- division courses for fear that doing influence the state's policies to con- rived rhetoric to mobilize certain so might be too confusing for under- form to their interests, in the Middle classes. Paraphrasing Karl Kautsky's graduates. East, individuals and primordial description of Nazism as the social- I see two possible approaches to

March 1998 55 The Teacher

organizing such a course. In the first outcomes of debates in the social in a housing project with no pros- approach, one may organize the lec- sciences, where paradigmatic as- pects of attending college, finding tures and assign reading materials sumptions, theories, conclusions, and above-minimum wage employment, that are consistent with the para- policy ramifications may be tied to or receiving health care, becoming digm that the instructor believes to the economic and political interests pregnant would be a rational way of be superior in that it raises the right of one group or another. Prominent getting health care, food stamps, questions and provides the best an- political scientists Sheldon Wolin monthly cash payments, and housing swers. The strength of this approach (1968, 1969) and Terence Ball subsidies. In other words, an atheist is that the instructor may go into (1976) have called attention to the middle class White female teenager great detail in discussing the various necessity of recognizing the existence would not find it advantageous to issues addressed by the paradigm. of competing paradigms as a long- become pregnant, while a believing The major weakness of this ap- term phenomenon in political sci- Christian underclass African Ameri- proach is that the students may get ence. can female teenager might. the impression that there are no On the first day of the class, I had The students were asked what pol- scholarly disagreements on the sub- to ease the students into thinking in icies Robertson and Jackson would ject matter. terms of competing paradigms. I told advocate to remedy the situation. In the second approach, one may them to imagine that Rev. Pat Rob- The class concluded that Robertson organize the lectures and assign ertson and Rev. Jesse Jackson were would argue that reintroducing reading assignments from all the asked to give lectures at a university prayer and teaching abstinence in paradigms. The strength of this ap- in the Middle East. Both were asked public schools and the media would proach is that it fosters critical think- to explain the pervasiveness of crime reduce crime and teenage pregnancy ing and empowers the students to and teenage pregnancy in America and that Jackson would advocate full choose the paradigm they find supe- to their Middle Eastern students. I employment, universal health care, rior. The major weaknesses of the solicited my students' views on what subsidized higher education, and second approach are that the in- Robertson and Jackson would say. policies to remedy racial discrimina- structor loses some degree of au- Using the Socratic method of de- tion. thority and that the students may get bunking false starts and encouraging Then I touched upon the thornier the impression that all explanations proper answers, I guided the stu- problem of why someone chooses are equally valid. dents toward the anticipated conclu- one paradigm over another. The Ceteris paribus, and if John Stuart sions. class discussed the relevance of the Mill was right when he said that "He The class reached the conclusion fact that Pat Robertson was a mil- who knows only his own side of the that for Robertson, banning of lionaire son of a millionaire who was case, knows little of that," it might prayer in public schools was the a U.S. senator. Robertson would not be a more fruitful pedagogical tech- main culprit. For Jackson, economic benefit from the high income taxes nique to follow the second approach. inequality and racism accounted for that would be necessary to fund the Our conceptual understanding of the crime and teenage pregnancy. For programs Jackson's proposals would term "paradigm" has been formed example, for an indigent 16-year-old require. Jackson, on the other hand, by Thomas Kuhn (1970) whose defi- African American female growing up was born in a housing project, the nition was based on physics, in which (allegedly) historically only one para- digm was dominant at a time. In po- litical science, we do not have the same level of certainty that exists in physics. In the words of Robert Keo- hane:

Theories of world politics are not at all like those of physics. No careful analyst believes that our theories of world politics have attained either the explanatory quality or the practical usefulness of Newton's system, much less of quantum mechanics; and there is general skepticism that they will ever approximate the rigor and accu- racy even of seventeenth-century physics. Furthermore, since both world politics and our values keep changing, there is no guarantee that even a well-tested theory will remain valid in the future (1986, 5).

In addition, political and ideological differences have often influenced the Photo courtesy of Embassy of Arab Republic of Egypt

56 PS: Political Science & Politics Teaching the Politics of Islamic Fundamentalism son of a teenage mother who was based on each paradigm and on the while, the famous Ellen episode, in also born to a teenage mother. Jack- subgroups of the first paradigm. The which the leading character comes son and the constituency he repre- same approach was taken to the out of the closet, was to be aired on sents would not mind high income question of whether Islam and Is- national television. The local ABC taxes on millionaires. lamic fundamentalism are anti-dem- affiliate was the only station in the According to Mark Kann (1980), ocratic and whether Islam and Is- country that did not air the show one's life situation and experiences lamic fundamentalism are invariably because the general manager affect one's preconceptions and eval- misogynist. When discussing assigned deemed it inappropriate. uations of the political system. In readings—an article, a chapter in an The pervasive power of the Chris- other words, adopting a paradigm is edited book, or a book—the stu- tian Right and its ability and willing- neither wholly accidental nor totally dents were asked to place them in ness to impose its views on others innocent of social circumstances. As one of the paradigms. makes many non-fundamentalists in Kann succinctly put it, one who is As part of the final exam, each Alabama feel under siege. This, per- born and raised in Beverly Hills per- student was required to defend the haps, might explain why these stu- ceives the police, the courts, the gov- conclusions of the paradigmatic dents were attracted to the second ernment, and the economic system group or subgroup that the student paradigm, which is highly conscious differently than one who is born and considered most valid. To my sur- of the rise in religious fundamental- raised in the barrios of East Los An- prise, several of the students em- ism around the world. geles. In the words of David Easton braced the positions espoused by Moreover, I showed two taped (1969), "normative presuppositions" adherents of the second paradigm, programs that might have influenced and "value assumptions" are part of Comparative Fundamentalisms. This the students' perceptions. One was all paradigms in political science— was unexpected, considering the ex- an interview with the leader of Kah- behavioralist, post-behavioralist, or tent to which Islamic fundamental- ane Chai (a Jewish fundamentalist otherwise. Our assumptions inform ism has been demonized in the West group in New York) on CBS's "60 the theories we construct, and they and in view of the fact that most Minutes" in which he had threat- in turn influence the policies we rec- American students have been social- ened a civil war against Prime Minis- ommend (Maghroori and Ramberg ized to view Muslims and Middle ter Rabin's government, a program 1982). Easterners as the essentialist Other which had aired a few months before Finally, I asked how two Protes- (Shaheen 1990; Tetreault 1996). a Jewish fundamentalist assassinated tant ministers could come to diamet- This could be explained by the Rabin. The second tape was a C- rically opposed analyses and policy fact that my students live in Ala- SPAN broadcast of a one-hour inter- recommendations. I further inquired bama, the "Heart of Dixie," where view of Iran's President Rafsanjani whether their disagreements might the Christian Coalition alone boasts by Mike Wallace of "60 Minutes" confuse students in the Middle East- of having more than 40,000 mem- which was aired on March 26, 1997. ern university? By means of this 30- bers. Moreover, during the term I The students expressed shock at the minute exercise, I attempted to taught this course, a local county ferocity and extremism of Jewish teach the students the meaning and judge gained national attention for fundamentalism and surprise at the implications of paradigms. posting the Ten Commandments in moderation and reasonableness of In teaching the course, I began by his courtroom and opening court Rafsanjani. When I asked, "Do you presenting the basic facts of the is- sessions by requiring those attending think that Jewish fundamentalists, sue under discussion and then pro- the proceedings to listen to a prayer Christian fundamentalists, and Is- ceeded to present the conflicting in- by a local Christian minister. Judge lamic fundamentalists share striking terpretations and perspectives. The Roy Moore, who rails against "those similarities?" students unanimously transition proceeded far more promoting homosexuality, abortion responded "Yes." A fascinating dis- smoothly than I had hoped. The at- and those who want to abolish God cussion followed when I further in- tempt succeeded in large part be- from the American life by demand- quired as to the specifics of those cause there were 10 students in the ing the removal of 'In God We shared characteristics. class and most of them were juniors Trust' from dollar bills, 'Under One Selecting reading materials was and seniors. I would have been quite God' from the Pledge of Alle- not easy. Although there is an in- apprehensive had the class contained giance," presides in his courtroom a creasing number of fine articles on 50 freshmen. short 30 minute drive from the UAB Islamic fundamentalism, only a few Throughout the quarter, I empha- campus (Moore 1997). readers and edited volumes are sized that there is more than one In response to a court ruling available for classroom use. I could point of view on any given issue. which regarded Judge Moore's post- only find Winters (1995), Dudley Moreover, I encouraged, coaxed, ing of the Ten Commandments to be (1992), Beinin and Stork (1997), Si- and cajoled the students to make unconstitutional, the governor de- dahmed and Ehteshami (1996) and arguments for and against any par- clared that he would call the Ala- Ruedy (1996). The last three are ticular explanation. For example, bama National Guard to "defend the more appropriate for graduate regarding the question of whether Commandments." Not to be out- courses, and Dudley's volume has only Islamic fundamentalism is a threat done, the newly appointed attorney a few articles directly relevant for this to American interests, each student general rushed to provide justifica- course. If Islamic fundamentalism con- had to make compelling arguments tion for the judge's actions. Mean- tinues to be a significant force in poli-

March 1998 57 The Teacher

tics, we need more textbooks with and Its Implications." New Left Review Moghissi, Haideh. 1996. Populism and Femi- which to better acquaint our students 166(Nov/Dec): 29-37. nism in Iran: Women's Struggle in a Male- with a phenomenon which obviously . 1995. "Fundamentalism and the Con- Defined Revolutionary Movement. New temporary World." Contention: Debates in York: St. Martin's Press. animates policymakers, political scien- Society, Culture, and Science 4(2): 41-58. Moore, Roy. 1997. Sermon on Memorial Day tists, and students alike. -. 1996. Islam and the Myth of Confron- at Jerry Falwell's Thomas Road Baptist tation: Religion and Politics in the Middle Church, broadcast on Birmingham's TCI East. London: I.B. Tauris Publishers. Cable Channel 10. Huntington, Samuel P. 1993. "The Clash of Mottahedeh, Roy. 1995. "The Islamic Move- Note Civilizations?" Foreign Affairs 72(3): 22-49. ment: The Case for Democratic Inclu- Kann, Mark E. 1980. Thinking About Politics: sion." Contention: Debates in Society, Cul- * I wish to thank Mary E. Guy, Carol B. Two Political Sciences. St. Paul and New ture, and Science 4(3): 107-27. Thompson, Mark E. Kann, Nora Hamilton, York: West Publishing Company. Owen, Roger. 1992. State, Power and Politics Laurie Brand, Gloria Badal, and the anony- Keddie, Nikki. 1995. "Comparative Methods in the Making of the Modern Middle East. mous reviewers for their comments and criti- in the Study of 'Fundamentalism'." Pre- London and New York: Routledge. cisms, which have enriched this article. I am sented at the 1995 Annual Meeting of the Paidar, Parvin. 1995. Women and the Political solely responsible for any errors of fact or Middle East Studies Association, Washing- Process in Twentieth-Century Iran. Cam- interpretation. ton, D.C. bridge and New York: Cambridge Univer- Karabell, Zachary. 1996-97. "Fundamental sity Press. Misconceptions: Islamic Foreign Policy." Parsa, Misagh. 1989. 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58 PS: Political Science & Politics Battling the Six Evil Geniuses of Essay Writing

East." PS: Political Science and Politics Wolin, Sheldon S. 1968. "Paradigms and Po- 29(4): 696-700. litical Theories." In Politics and Experi- About the Author Voll, John, and John Esposito. 1995. "Islam ences: Essays Presented to Michael Oake- Has Strong Democratic Traditions." In shott, ed. Preston King and B. C. Parekh. Masoud Kazemzadeh teaches political science Islam: Opposing Viewpoints, ed. Paul A. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. at the University of Alabama at Birmingham. Winters. San Diego: Greenhaven Press. . 1969. "Political Theory as a Voca- He is the recipient of the Western Political Weiner, Myron. 1987a. "Introduction." In Un- tion." American Political Science Review Science Association's "Best Dissertation in derstanding Political Development, ed. My- 63(4): 1062-82. Political Science Award" for 1996. He also ron Weiner and Samuel P. Huntington. received an Honorable Mention from the Boston: Little, Brown and Company. Yazdi, Ayatollah Mohammad. 1997. "The Non-Clergy Do Not Have the Right to Foundation for Iranian Studies for the "Best . 1987b. "Political Change: Asia, Af- Dissertation of the Year on a Topic of Ira- rica, and the Middle East." In Understand- 'Interfere' in Politics." Speech Excerpted in Iran Times, July 25, 1. nian Studies" (1996). He is the author of Why ing Political Development, ed. Myron Khomeini? Class and Gender in the Rise of Weiner and Samuel P. Huntington. Bos- Zubaida, Sami. 1993. Islam, the People and the Islamic Fundamentalism in Iran (forthcoming). ton: Little, Brown and Company. State: Political Ideas and Movements in the Winters, Paul A. ed. 1995. Islam: Opposing Middle East. London and New York: I.B. Viewpoints. San Diego: Greenhaven Press. Tauris Publishers.

Battling the Six Evil Geniuses of Essay Writing

Charles King, Georgetown University

E ssay questions, term papers, "take- many of the students' professors Identifying the Six home" finals, research papers, and during their own college days. Evil Geniuses project reports are standard compo- These tricks are all, however, in- nents of most political science spired by one of at least Six Evil The Six Evil Geniuses of Essay courses. Professors may ask students Geniuses of Essay Writing. By fall- Writing come in many different to write an essay as part of a mid- ing prey to one of the Evil Ge- forms, but their main avatars are term of final exam, or to hand in niuses, students are guaranteed of described below. Examples of each extended papers completed outside getting less than full points for of the Genius's "best" work are class that have required substantial their work; more importantly, signs also provided. research in the university library or that the Evil Geniuses are at work Evil Genius No. 1: The Sycophant elsewhere. These kinds of assign- normally convince professors that ments not only give professors a students value getting a passing The Sycophant thinks that if he chance to evaluate students' skills as grade over learning. butters up the reader—by comment- writers and critical thinkers they also Students, especially in introduc- ing positively on the lectures or on give students a chance to reflect seri- the reading assignments—the profes- ously on contentious issues at the tory courses, should be encouraged sor will be likely to ignore the con- heart of the study of politics: What to avoid the company of the Six Evil tent of the essay itself. For example: is democracy? What makes people Geniuses and to beware their evil vote for Party A and not for Party ways. This article exposes the work Question: Why are political scientists B? Do ideas affect the way people of these devilishly clever fiends and concerned with the concept of behave politically? Why do revolu- offers hints for students and profes- "political culture"? tions occur? How do states interact sors on how to resist their wiles. Essay: In their brilliant, path-break- in the international arena? What Most teaching professionals are al- ing work, Almond and Verba ad- determines the shape of a state's ready intimately familiar with the dress the concept of political cul- foreign policy? Why do countries go Evil Geniuses, either because they ture. As Professor Jones to war? have graded essays in which these demonstrated in her excellent and characters have been at work or, stimulating lecture, the concept of But university students are smart, political culture is important. By sometimes too smart by half. They more disturbingly, because they themselves have succumbed to their using it, as Professor Jones co- have learned several tricks of the gently argued, political scientists essay-writing trade and are all too charms during periods of intellectual weakness. This article presents one can explain a number of political willing to employ them, especially phenomena.... when it comes to answering essay framework for addressing some of questions on exams. These tricks are the key concerns undergraduates Sycophantism is, of course, a bad thought to be sure-fire techniques have about writing essays in political idea. Essays like this read more like for writing essays and getting pass- science courses, a framework which I the minutes of a Soviet communist ing grades, for they have been tried have used to good effect when teach- party congress than a response to an and tested by generations of first- ing my own introductory political exam question. The fact that a pro- year college students, including science sections. fessor has assigned a particular read-

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