N U M BJOURNAL FORANTHROPOSOPHY E R 42 AUTUMN 1985 ISSN-0021-8235

E D IT O R A rthur G. Zajonc MANAGING EDITOR Susann Gierman-Clark ASSOCIATE EDITOR Jeanne Bergen

The Journal For Anthroposophy is published twice a year by the Anthroposophi­ cal Society in America. Subscription is $10.00 per year (domestic); $12.00 per year (foreign). Manuscripts (double-spaced, typed), poetry, artwork, and advertising can be mailed to the editor. Back issues can be obtained for $5.00 ea. plus postage. All correspondence should be sent to:

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Title Design by Walter Roggenkamp. Journal for Anthroposophy. Number 42, Autumn, 1985 ® 1985, The Anthroposophical Society in America Christmas[Image: graphicform]JournalforAnthroposophy

Deep in the ground of the human soul, O f victory assured, The Spirit-Sun is living. All through the winter of the inner life The faithful heart divines it. Now the heart’s spring of hope beholds The Sun, His coming glory In Christmas’ light of blessing— Token of highest life In winter’s deepest night.

— Rudolf Steiner translated by George Adams.

AUTUMN 1985 • NUMBER 42 Dear Reader,

With this issue, the editorship of the Journal for Anthroposophy is placed into new hands. For twenty years, since its inception in 1965, the Journal has been edited by the Barnes’, first Henry and then Christy. Under their able guidance the Journal grew from modest beginnings to the substantial magazine it now is. Throughout, even with its first issues, the Journal has striven to bring together in the English language, articles of the highest quality. As I assume the role of editor, I do so aware of the sound foundations established by those before me, but I also look forward with excitement to the developments of the future. I hope that with each issue you sense the energy, thought, and care behind every feature, every change. A few changes may be evident in this issue, others are still to come. As the Journal is gradually reshaped, I hope its readers will comment on its moments of success or failure—for its sole purpose is to serve you, the readership, in a manner not possible through the myriad publications available on every newstand. As with those periodicals, this is a journal about our world, about people, initiatives and creations. Yet each of these should be considered, probed, and illumined in a manner touched by a deeper vision. While this is not a journal about Anthroposophy, it is one about ourselves and our world illumined by a struggle for knowledge of our spiritual self and the spiritual cosmos in which we are placed. Although the articles of this issue are varied, many revolve around the theme of health—body and soul. They seek to explore the nature of childhood illness, nutrition, and mental health by a fuller understanding of the human being. In addition, you will find two “feature” articles, one on the Russian filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky and the other on the work in education undertaken by Professor Douglas Sloan of Columbia University. Features such as these will become a regular part of the Journal bringing important and interesting initiatives to greater awareness.

— Arthur G. Zajonc Contents 5 Reflections on Fever in Childhood BY UWE STAVE 13 Nourishment and Education BY UDO RENZENBRINK • Translated by Peter Luborsky 22 Psychology, Anthroposophy, and Self-Transformation: Transition to a New Age BY DAVID SCHULTZ 36 An Interview with Andrei Tarkovsky BY NATHAN FEDEROVSKY • Translated by Marton Radkai 43 Goethe’s Philosophy of Science Facts as Theory: Part II BY ARTHUR G. ZAJONC 58 Joy, Healing and Community in Singing BY DINA SORESI WINTER 68 The Reunion of Knowledge and Values: On Douglas Sloan BY DONNA MARIE TROSTLI Poems & Prayers 1 Christmas • RUDOLF STEINER 11 In Thought for a Child • ADAM BITTLESTON 21 Grace Before Meals • RUDOLF STEINER Book Reviews 73 To Look on Earth with More Than Mortal Eyes MARJORIE SPOCK • Reviewed by Jeanne Bergen 76 Art and Human Consciousness GOTTFRIED RICHTER • Reviewed by J. Leonard Benson 79 Rumors of Peace ELLA LEFFLAND • Reviewed by Sandra Doren 82 The Inner Nature of Music and the Experience of Tone RUDOLF STEINER • Reviewed by Marton Radkai 85 Notes on Contributors [Image: drawing]Study[Image: of a child for “Downtrodden”. Kaethe Kollwitz, 1900 Reflections on Fever in Childhood

UWE STAVE

W hat do adults feel and perceive when suffering from a fever? And what do we remember of our feelings when we were sick with a fever in childhood? Certainly such perceptions are highly subjective and therefore can differ widely, but some similarities are frequently reported. In the beginning of a fever, during the increase of body temperature, one often experiences some psychological activation. Children first become busy, talkative, and restless, changing rather suddenly to a tired state, desiring to lie down. During the stage of increasing body temperature the child looks pale, experiences chills, responding to questions with a delay. Upon close observation one notices that the febrile child seems to hide behind a veil-like mask. Perception of Temperature The surface of our skin feels and differentiates hot and cold sensa­ tions. What we feel as cool or cold refers to that which has a lower temperature than our skin; warm or hot refers to a temperature above that of our skin. If we were to put our right hand in a dish of cold water, our left hand in a dish of hot water, wait momentarily, then plunge both hands into tepid water, we would perceive the same water as being warm on the cold hand, and cold on the hot hand. This “double sensation” fades as the skin temperature adjusts to the water temperature. There are skin areas with low and high temper-

5 6 • UWE STAVE ature sensitivity corresponding to the number and kind of nerve endings present. Our lips, for instance, have the highest sensitivity to heat. By contrast, there are only half as many nerve endings per unit area on the dorsal part of our fingers, slipping to one quarter the sensitivity on the thigh. It is also true that one’s head differentiates environmental temperatures better than one’s feet so that generally speaking, we can say there is a head-to-foot decrease of heat sensitivity in our body. On temperature regulation If one were to expose the bare skin to a cold wind or swim in cold water, the skin would first turn pale, slowly changing to a red, well-circulated condition. This is the regulatory response of our body to a cold environment. Likewise, we also know the effect of sweating, and the cooling of water evaporation on our skin. It is within our very nature to keep our body within a comfortable range of environ­ mental temperatures. In cold weather we seek refuge in a shelter or heated house, while actively creating a source of heat by building a fire. Human beings are warm-blooded and need to keep their body temperature within a rather narrow range. It is true that most children maintain a slightly higher body temperature than adults; individual levels and day/night changes (diurnal temperature patterns) must be taken into account when looking at a person’s health. Most parents have learned to distinguish between normal and abnormally elevated body temperatures in their own children. Some parents have also learned their child’s particular ability to adjust to warm/cold environ­ mental conditions. The physiology of temperature regulation has been well researched, even in infants. This research has revealed the importance of a rather small region in the brain for keeping the body temperature constant. This “temperature center” is where regulatory adjustments originate, and is responsible for maintaining the body’s temperature or changing it. The “regulating intelligence,” however, remains a secret. The morphological temperature center in the brain is also stimulated by brain diseases (encephalitis) or brain tumors. Fever in Childhood • 7 Warmth and the quality of warmth Heat production in the human body is said to be the result of burning nutrients. Biochemically speaking, the burning of organic substances begins slowly, gradually becoming a cascade-like oxida­ tion transforming matter into usable energy. Transformation of matter always involves a warmth process, heat or fire being the great transformer! However, warmth can “disap­ pear” into matter as when ice thaws, or it can be “liberated,” for instance, when water freezes. The physical sciences do not acknowl­ edge anything beyond the statement that heat is a measure of move­ ment of the smallest material particles (molecular movements). In order to go beyond that, one has to introduce the notion that warmth has qualities. Because this leads beyond measurable temperature dif­ ferences, the distinction of warmth qualities cannot occur on the physical level. Burning love, warm wishes, hot temper, and nest- warmth all refer to man’s relationship to warmth. On another level, one recognizes the spiritual realm of our existence in our personality warmth or Ego. Consciousness, creativity, and soul life rest on a functioning warmth organism. The etheric and astral world; the Ego-organization In the realm of life forces or the etheric world one speaks of “life warmth” as a quality that accompanies growth and nutrition. Under certain circumstances we may distinguish between lifeless and living warmth, but in anthroposophical terms we speak simply of physical warmth and warmth ether. The warmth of a nursed infant has a quality recognizable with a soul sense which is very different from the warmth sensation of an adult. Rudolf Steiner spoke of the “living warmth” as the archetype of warmth, and used the expression “warmth is just a fine etheric matter” (1905). On the astral or soul level, entering the domain of feelings, warmth and cold have to do with sympathy and antipathy. Here also one must realize the manifold reactions and effects that take place in the so-called psychosomatic field. A hot discussion also heats our face, anxiety easily causes cold feet, and disease follows the cold into regions of the body deserted by life warmth. The Ego lives in our warmth organism and is most intensely represented in the warmth of our flowing blood. As warmth activates and enriches our soul life, as it accompanies the movements 8 • UWE STAVE of our physical body, we gain an image of the guiding and organizing principle of our organism, the human Ego. The many regulatory processes which cannot be explained satisfactorily on a mechanistic level demand recognition of higher levels, that is, the etheric, astral, and finally the Ego levels of the human being. Elemental Beings Rudolf Steiner lectured about elemental beings and their relation to the element of warmth. Matter is transformed by warmth into another physical condition—for instance, as the candle flame trans­ forms wax to vapors and smoke, elemental beings are released out of matter. By contrast, when steam releases warmth and turns to water, certain elemental beings are locked or “enchanted” into the condensed water through a sacrificial process. In so doing, this process is linked to materialization, densification, and crystallization, which in turn are associated with growth processes and the growing child. The entire process of nutrition is related to liquidation and gasifi­ cation. These (endothermic) processes take up warmth and therefore liberate elemental beings. The processes of bone formation (minerali­ zation) and of tissue growth give off heat (exothermic); they “en­ chant” or lock in elemental beings. The sacrifice and liberation of these elemental beings—gnomes, undines, sylphs, and salamanders— occurs on a spiritual level. Physical warmth is only a weak expression or image of all that is involved in the warmth organism of the human being. The febrile child The febrile child exhibits many changes. Even its personality and temper must change. As mentioned above, fever can be experienced as a thin, veil-like mask. In some children, notably those suffering from measles, it can be as strong as a thick cover. The course of the fever can also provide a specific picture of the illness. Fever from measles, for instance, has two high points, a phenomenon that occurs almost identically in all children with measles. A child with pneumonia, however, shows a very different and more individual course. This fever either varies in height or remains on a high level. Pneumonia fever finally leads to a crisis at which the patient either shows a “lysis” (quickly reduced temperatures and recovery) or a fatal deterioration. Reading the fever correctly Fever in Childhood • 9 can provide the physician with important information about the nature of the disease and the patient’s condition. Fever attacks can affect children in quite a positive way. Even though his physical strength is reduced, the child may disclose a wealth of new interests and skills. He may find new and advanced ways to communicate, think, and handle situations, or display a refinement of his motor skills. In short, after a fever, the child reveals a spurt of development and maturation. Parents, frequently surprised, fail to mention their observation of such development to their physi­ cian. Warmth promotes and activates transitions of matter, i.e. changes of physical conditions, and thus, the elemental beings are intensively at work. The more active the warmth organization becomes during fever, the more movement and change occurs in the child’s physical organization. At such times the Ego has the wonderful opportunity to act within the child’s organism on the etheric, astral, and physical level. Causes of fever When considering therapy the physician should search for the cause of fever. Although most frequently associated with infectious and inflammatory processes, fever can also be the result of a poison, of a metabolic reaction or stimulation, such as the case of an overproduc­ tion of thyroid hormone, or it can result from external overheating, such as sunstroke or an overheated bath. Within the first seven years, children develop fever more easily and frequently than older children or adults. Hippocrates taught that fever is the helpful response of the body to overcoming disease. About 150 years ago this theory was rejected and replaced by the still-prevalent opinion that fever itself is a disease, and needs to be treated as such. For the past century, antipyrin and aspirin have been used effectively to combat fever. Effective yes, but at what price? During artificially suppressed fever the body’s defense system remains inactive. In spiritual terms, the ego forces working to reorganize the human organism are denied their opportunity, and thus the Ego slowly loses influence in the body, and cannot overcome the “alien” structure inherited at birth by the child. In reevaluating the causes of fever, we could safely say that on the physical level the examples of causes for fever cited above are correct, 10 • UWE STAVE but beyond the physical level, looking towards a child’s spiritual biography (karma), opportunities of change for the higher human members, especially the Ego, should not be hindered, and we, the parents and physicians, should guard, watch over, and even help in the process. Individualization Looking at early childhood one can observe a chain of events which indicate how the personality takes possession of the physical body and the developing organism. This entire process we may call “steps of individualization.” For example: Every three-year-old child has moments of great defiance. This is a wonderful image of the just-awakened personality: a little child stamping its feet, crying and arm-wheeling with red cheeks, in short, a picture of bursting “heat.” In that moment, the child’s Ego strongly opposes its environment and he feels, “I am a person.” Even for adults it is sometimes a helpful experience to meditate simply on “I am I,” to internalize what the child lives fully. A child’s defiance is its first expression of the opposition between the incarnating Ego and the rest of the world. It is a struggle made with ardent zeal, sometimes thought of as “feverish activity.” The individual personality grows in the field of tension between inherited and environmental forces on the one side, and the spiritual entity, or Ego, on the other. The effects of the Ego are not easy to recognize, but they are inherently connected with and represented by the warmth organism. In preschool children this intervention of the Ego occurs predominantly during febrile illness. Fever acts by shaking and loosening up the physical body. Activation by heat will help the Ego form and reshape the physical organization of the young child. In addition, the physiological and biochemical functions of organs and systems are assisted in the maturation process through febrile illness, and inner forces gain strength and become more differentiated. Al­ though the pediatrician often shares parental concern that repeated feverous infections overstress the young child’s fragile organism, fever most often supports development and individualization, al­ though it is sometimes a warning signal, indicating weakness in the child’s defense against his environment. As children grow older and learn how to control the will, gradually an “inner fire” replaces the “developmental fever” of a young child. Fever in Childhood • 11 Summary Fever can activate inner forces of the personality. In infants and young children the Ego forms and reshapes the physical body and during states of an activated warmth organism, the incarnating Ego has a chance to overcome inherited forces. Such an understanding of the febrile condition is important for the advancement of therapeu­ tic treatment. Fever is a part of the healing process, and although it might require control, it is “the great transformer” and ought not to be suppressed.

In Thought for a Child

In thy breath the light of the sun In thy bread the salt of earth In thy ears true words of love Sustain thy growing, changing life; That thy spirit’s will may work That thy soul be warmed by joy That thy body’s world be built.

— Adam Bittleston From Meditative Prayers for Today 12

[Image: Giotto’spainting] fresco “The Adoration of the Magi” in the Scrovegni Chapel, Padua, Italy. The fresco was probably completed in 1304 A.D. Hailey’s comet had appeared in 1301 and may have served as the model for the star of Bethlehem.

One who can investigate these things [comets] spiritually is able to indicate quite definitely the different fu nctions of the separate comets and how each one has something spiritually new to introduce into the world. Thus, Hailey’s comet, in its periodic appearances, always introduces something specially new into the life of man. Whereas things otherwise recur in the ordinary way, this comet brings about a new birth in human life and culture. — Rudolf Steiner March 9, 1910 The spring issue of the Journal for Anthroposophy will probe more deeply into the significance of our celestial visitor, Halley’s comet. Nourishment and Education Physical Development as the Foundation for a Free Unfolding of the Child’s Soul-Spiritual Nature†

UDO RENZENBRINK

In the Waldorf Schools, the curriculum orients itself along the de­ velopmental stages of the child. There are certain laws according to which the child’s growth and development take place. Through his science of the spirit, Rudolf Steiner investigated these, and upon them he founded his approach to education, adapted to the growing faculties of the child. Here, body, soul and spirit are to be seen in connection. The body is the instrument of the soul-spiritual nature. A harmonious bodily development forms the foundation on which the soul-spiritual being of the child can unfold freely. If the child is overtaxed on the. intel­ lectual side, the physical make up is damaged, and it is said: school makes the children sick. However, the development of the intellect can be impeded when the organs grow too coarse and crude, or too hard and brittle, and therefore cannot be finely tuned, or are function­ ally weak, as instruments of the spirit and soul nature. Therein lies the task of proper nourishment, of nutrition. Quite often it has been found that in behavioral disturbances, some role is played by improper nutrition, and that learning ability is improved markedly after a change to a wholesome diet of whole foods. Foundations for Food Choice The only measure for the value of a foodstuff can be Man himself. In order to decide which product is suited to meet the genuine needs ---- †This essay is based on many years of research and practical testing conducted by the Arbeitskreis für Ernährungsforschung (Working Group for Nutritional Re­ search), Bad Liebenzell-Unterlengenhardt. ed. 13 14 • UDO RENZENBRINK of the child, we seek in our work to win and apply insights that can be developed out of Rudolf Steiner’s science of the spirit. This makes it possible to move beyond the boundaries existing in purely natural- scientifically oriented science. We are then able to approach a realm that evades the direct grasp of our senses. Our view is opened unto a world which continually interacts with the sense world that stands in the forefront of our experience. To be able to perceive it, Rudolf Steiner developed a path of inner exercise which can be followed by any serious seeker. Then such concepts as life, soul, and spirit become realities that stand in connection with one another, and become acces­ sible to conscious experience in a new knowledge of man. In this way such a knowledge of man achieves scientific status for everyone who acknowledges this method of research. In the present article, only a bare summary of a few results can be given. In the body we see the stamp of the whole man. Even from the outward forms, much of the characteristic quality of the individuality can be recognized. This also holds true for the way in which the inner organs and the cells take form, for the behavior of the various functional spheres, indeed for the metabolism as a whole. Everything is individualized, receiving its stamp from the “I,” the ego of man. And the soul realm of the human being as well engages in the physical processes and formations. For the spiritual, in fact, uses the physical body in order to realize itself in the course of earthly life. However, no connection would be possible between body and soul, were not the substances in the organism suffused with and joined together by life forces. In this regard, man is related to the plant and needs plant food to stimulate his life processes. Thus, a particular diet can be regarded as genuinely wholesome only if it has a stimulating effect on the life forces of the human being. The soul-spiritual nature of the human being is then able to express itself well in the world of organic functions, and the bodily instrument responds well. Thus, for example, a properly nourished brain can serve the process of thought formation more intensely. Cultivation, Processing, and Preparation of the Products Determine the Value of the Food The ability of plants to have such a stimulating action—their life quality—depends greatly upon their cultivation. By means of growth-inducing chemical fertilizers, products may develop quickly Nourishment in Education • 15 into voluminous and massy formations, but they are incompletely ripened and sluggish in their life dynamics, so that they insufficiently activate the life processes of the human being. Consequently, the bodily instrument is poorly tuned and hinders the soul-spiritual de­ velopment of the child. Further processing of the products, their storage, and preservation determine the food value. For example, cereal breeding and cultivation, milling practices, and the baking industry are to a great extent oriented towards white flour products, although it is known that with the outer layers one loses by far the greater part of the vitamins, minerals, and especially the trace ele­ ments. No other foodstuff can replace these losses. Thus, seventy percent of school children suffer from lack of vitamin B1 (aneurin), the so-called nerve vitamin. No wonder, then, that we are seeing an increase of weak nerves among our children and adolescents! Beyond this devaluing of the grain, modern baking procedures make extensive use of chemical baking additives, colorants, and mold preventatives. Additionally, the methods of preservation are often questionable. Foundations for the Judgment of Food Quality In order to stimulate all the organ systems of the child by a diet, it must contain the basic nutritional elements of protein, fats, carbo­ hydrates, minerals, trace elements, and vitamins in sufficient quantity. (Such, in any case, is how the nutritional science of the university judges. And, in its way, it is right, too.) Nevertheless, no more than a half truth is expressed in these analytic data. For it is only through the forces of the living that the single substances are joined to a particular organic structure. Thus we cannot understand the form and functional spheres of plants merely out of their material make up, but only out of the life realm as a whole with its own proper nature. Therefore let us turn our attention to the formative forces in the realm of the living itself. These, as mentioned earlier, are not directly perceptible, belonging as they do to a dimension which initially remains closed to our senses; and yet their action continually manifests itself in the growth and development of plants. Here, phenomena present themselves to us which must be apprehended within the life stream of the whole. By studying them, we can awaken organs in our soul which will enable us to observe the living in itself. 16 • UDO RENZENBRINK Differing Nutritive Qualities of the Parts of the Plant By the practice of perceiving the plant in this manner, we become able to distinguish realms having differing life-qualities. The root gives the impression of quite another quality than the blossom or the fruit; the leaf region evokes experiences of yet another kind in our soul. These, however, are not to remain in the subconscious, but must be apprehended with the alert waking consciousness. Thus, in the root we encounter a life quality that is related to a salt principle; the medieval alchemists designated it as the “sal-condition.” This expression of life has a relation to a definite human organic realm. The head, to be precise, as representative of the sensory-nerv- ous system, is related to the sal-principle: nerve activity is based on a fine precipitation of salts. Thus if I wish to choose a food for a school child that will stimulate the functions of the brain, I will give him root vegetables or root salads. This should not be thought of too narrowly, for the root principle is also strong in the cereal grain, although it is a fruit. This can be recognized by the rich mineral content of the grains. The formative forces work in another way in blossom and fruit. Here, processes push towards solution. An intense metabolism holds sway, led by warmth, without the strongly defined, hard forms that we find in the root, which is determined by the salt principle. The kind of activity found in blossom and fruit corresponds to a principle which the alchemists designated as sulphuric, because it is of the same nature as sulfur. Once again we can find a correspondence in the human being: the sulfuric predominates in the metabolic organs and quite generally wherever movement is performed, thus in the limbs as well. For our nutritional science, the conclusion is this: fruits serve to stimulate the function of abdominal organs and limbs. Once again, the grains must be counted here, as fruits of the field. There still remains the third part of the plant, the stem and leaf region. It is in this part that the circulation of fluids is centered, and here it is that the plant breathes. From stem and leaf, the connection is maintained both to the earthy root as well as to the other pole, to blossom and fruit. This function was called by the alchemists the mercurial. It mediates between above and below, within and without. To find the corresponding mercurial organs in man, we must look towards the chest cavity, heart, and lungs. The heart is the center of Nourishment in Education • 17 blood circulation, and with the lungs the human being breathes. Again we can derive a nutritional connection from these relationships: the lettuce family and vegetables from the green leaf region have their prime stimulating and anabolic action on the human organs of the chest cavity. This completes the picture of the three fold plant in its archetypal relation to the three fold man.

[Image: drawing] Figure 1: The formativeforces of the plant and their effective areas in the human being.

This is no abstract theory. Indeed, this system of relationships has proven itself widely in practical use. On the basis of such a discussion it is now possible to answer the question as to a genuinely complete and wholesome diet. Here we take connections of life as our starting point—and not analyzed numbers which are gleaned only after the plant’s life forces have been deadened. What answer is the result of our considerations? A child’s meal is full in value when it contains all parts of the plant—root, leaf, and fruit. At the same time, grains must be accorded an important place, as they represent a basic food that “nourishes us in head and limbs. ” 18 • UDO RENZENBRINK Further Nutritional Elements A child’s food is of course not complete without some additions. The first to be named is fat. For spreading, we recommend butter. For raw salads and for vegetables, and grains we will choose high- grade oils. Another easily digestible form is sour cream. The amount depends on the individual, but not too generous! Remember: 30 percent of all children are overweight. The blame for this may also be put upon sweet-eating and the consumption of white flour prod­ ucts, as well as fatty meats. M ilk and milk products are welcome, so long as they are not expressly rejected. Nevertheless, good quality should be a matter of concern here. With protein, to be sure, we are cautious: it is difficult for the child’s organism to manage high concentrations of protein. One example of this: A child in his first school year showed a strangely inhibited way of moving, reminiscent of the period preceding pu­ berty. The interview with the mother revealed that the child was given an egg each day. After this was omitted, the child’s manner of moving normalized itself. And what about meat? Here as well there is a massive protein component, easily leading to robustness and hardening. Rudolf Steiner sees an excessive intake of protein as the cause of sclerosis. In our time this is no longer a disease of the aging, but is already observed in twenty- to thirty-year-olds. Furthermore, nowadays no foodstuff is as questionable in its quality as is meat. The usual products on the market come from intensive “mass production” systems such as food lots, batteries, etc. What these entail ought to be generally known, and should keep the responsible consumer from buying meat whose origin he does not definitely know. Do our children really need meat at all for a diet of full value? Without doubt, the answer is no. Their protein requirement is covered with certainty by the vegetarian food we have described. All the same, some children ask for meat, especially in puberty. In this case one should not be too strict and—of course within limits—grant it. A problem is posed by sugar. The warnings we hear today about a “sugar addiction” are by all means justified. Let us be quite clear: the child needs sweetness, but we should leave it in its living context: in fruits or fruit concentrates, honey, malt extract, syrup, or in the thickened juice of the sugar cane (Sucanat). There is a great variety to choose from. On the other hand, we must decisively reject indus­ Nourishment in Education • 19 trially processed, refined sugar and the sweets prepared with it—espe­ cially considering their high consumption today. For they evoke an addiction and in this way hinder ego development. They use up great quantities of vitamin B1 and disturb the mineral metabolism. Observation of the sugar metabolism casts a clear light on what we described as our main concern in this essay: the connection of the spiritual with the bodily nature of man. The spiritual needs ma­ terial to enable it to be fully present in the body, to incarnate. As Rudolf Steiner reports from his spiritual scientific investigation, it is the sugar in our blood that makes this incarnation possible for the ego. The transition from the one form of being into the other occurs in the warmth of the blood, in which sugar continually volatilizes (correct! it combines to form a gas) and, in equal measure, crystallizes. Here, the amount of sugar, to so-called blood sugar level, remains constant within certain limits by virtue of an endocrine regulatory system. If the blood sugar level decreases even slightly, sleepiness and poor concentration set in. With a greater decrease, as can be observed with large doses of insulin and insufficient intake of car­ bohydrates, the result will be unconsciousness and death if sugar is not quickly injected: the ego can no longer hold itself in the body. The consumption of processed sugar also causes variation in the blood sugar level. After a breakfast with jam, white rolls, and a drink sweetened with such refined sugar, for example, the blood sugar level rises considerably, but falls again below normal in an opposite phase after two to three hours. In the school child, this brings with it a flagging and tiring in the second school period. Usually, sugar is taken in again at this time. How different after a breakfast in which the sugar is consumed in its organic context, as in whole grain muesli with fruits and natural sweeteners. Then, though the blood sugar level shows only a minor rise, it maintains itself above the norm for hours. The tired phase does not appear. The sugar metabolism in the human organism is so disposed that the ego properly involves itself in the forming of sugar out of starch. As Rudolf Steiner says, the ego wishes to form its sugar for itself. If we give the isolated refined product, this engagement is omitted, and the ego does not fully take hold of the further process in the blood. This is evident from the variation of the blood sugar curve, which irritates the activity of the brain. If, on the other hand, sugar is left in its natural context, the ego is challenged to form its own sugar, and it holds the sugar 20 • UDO RENZENBRINK level stable in the blood for quite a long time. This has a great significance for the human being’s state of consciousness.

[Image: graph] Figure 2: Blood sugar curve in dependence on different forms of breakfast and sugar intake inform of sweets. The example of sugar can serve to illustrate how closely questions of nutrition are bound up with the problems of education. Yet just particularly with this question of sugar, in practical life it is not easy to guide children into a proper way of dealing with sweets. It is both a nutritional as well as a pedagogical problem. The precondition for a beneficial solution to all these questions is that those who educate and nurture the child achieve an awareness of what wholesome nourishment is, and draw the consequences from this. Nourishment, after all, is a part of the world order and wants to be integrated into human striving, as does any aspect of moral life.

— Translated by Peter Luborsky Grace before Meals The plant-seeds are quickened in the night of the Earth, The green herbs are sprouting through the might of the Air, And all fruits are ripened by the power of the Sun. So quickens the soul in the shrine of the Heart, So blossoms Spirit-power in the light of the World, So ripens Man’s strength in the glory of God.

— Rudolf Steiner translated by George Adams.

21 Psychology, Anthroposophy, and Self-Transformation: Transition to a New Age DAVID SCHULTZ

T oday we are confronted by tremendous signs of social upheaval and unrest. Traditional science, technology, religion, economics, and government no longer seem to offer viable solutions to our pressing social concerns. While many of us agree that new initiatives are needed, we no longer know where to turn for inspiration. New creative approaches to modern social problems are possible in every field and endeavor. Such changes require a careful and thorough reexamination of our beliefs about what a human being truly is. Popular beliefs about what constitutes a human being, however, remain limited by the psychology, science, and religion of the early 1900’s. While psychology has made great advances since the turn of the century, it nevertheless needs to be further enlivened and trans­ formed. Anthroposophy can provide the catalyst for new advance­ ments in psychology and social life. Both psychology and An­ throposophy are fields of knowledge concerned with the study of the human being, human evolution, and the conscious transformation of the individual and society. Unfortunately, psychology and An­ throposophy have traditionally approached these concerns from dif­ ferent perspectives. Psychology has been limited by its origins in natural science whereas Anthroposophy has largely been ignored and poorly understood due to its connection with the so-called “spiritual movement.” Until recently, psychologists and anthroposophists have had little or no contact with each other. The time is now ripe for psychologists and similarly trained, experienced anthroposophists to collaborate in order to develop a new psychology which can bring us to the eternal in human nature. In what follows, I will try to clarify some basic misunderstandings about psychology and Anthroposophy, discuss how psychology and Anthroposophy have advanced since the early 1900’s, and give some 22 Psychology & Anthroposophy • 23 indications of how psychologists can work creatively with physicians, social workers, nurses, teachers, and therapists—how we can collabo­ rate in an interdisciplinary manner when fructified by Anthroposophy to develop a true knowledge of the soul, to transform ourselves, to transform society, and to build a transition to a new age of humanity. Misconceptions about psychology and Anthroposophy abound. They have persisted for decades. Some people view psychology as a narrow, rigidly-scientific discipline without any true knowledge of the human psyche or soul nature. Others view Anthroposophy, like all other aspects of the modern spiritual movement, as an all-en­ compassing, pseudo-scientific, quasi-religious mythology. Although these viewpoints represent extreme caricatures, neither is totally un­ founded. Psychology is both a pure science and an applied discipline within the field of mental health. Anthroposophy is a truly unique spiritual creation within the larger “spiritual movement” of our day. Many of the misconceptions about psychology and Anthroposophy, however, appear to stem from attitudes and beliefs related to the turn of the century. Let’s review what was taking place in the late- 1800’s and early 1900’s. History of Science, Psychology, and Anthroposophy Materialistic thinking dominated spiritual conceptualizations and emerged as the leading world view. Natural science replaced religion as the dominant architect of human life and society. “Scientific” became synonymous with accuracy and truth whereas “religion” was viewed increasingly as imprecise, superstitious, and passe. Natural science was the one and only science. The natural world was real. The spiritual world was imaginary. Psychology became biology. Spiritual life became, for some, a matter of faith, for others, a fairy tale, and for a few, a malicious hoax. Such conceptualizations were the inevitable result of the Kali Yuga or Dark Ages. We know, however, from Rudolf Steiner that the Dark Ages ended in 1899. In the centuries just prior to 1899 the spiritual world was essentially closed to man. Since 1899, however, humankind is once again more readily permitted access to the spiritual world. During his lifetime Rudolf Steiner was the principal harbinger of knowledge of the spiritual world. In so doing, he has brought a completely new creation to humanity: Anthroposophy or Spiritual Science. Unfortunately, humanity is usually slow to understand and 24 • DAVID SCHULTZ accept that which is truly innovative. Humanity knew only natural science. Thus, among those who became acquainted with An­ throposophy reactions were widely divergent. Many people viewed Anthroposophy skeptically as they had come to view all that is spiritual. Some lost interest rapidly and disregarded Anthroposophy. Others became ardent opponents, distorting Anthroposophy and defaming Rudolf Steiner. Among those who became committed to Anthroposophy some believed Anthroposophy dogmatically, thereby risking sectarianism. Others were truly interested but lacked proper initiative. Few were able to develop the proper balance be­ tween openness and sound judgment. Rudolf Steiner understood this. It concerned him deeply. He, therefore, discussed very openly and repeatedly his concerns about the attitudes and beliefs of humanity in general and natural scientists and anthroposophists in particular. Rudolf Steiner’s criticism of the psychology of the late 1800’s and early 1900’s is known to many. His concerns focused primarily on three specific aspects of psychology and mental health: behaviorism, psychoanalysis, and hypnosis. Wilhelm Wundt and other behaviorists were criticized by Steiner for the narrow, rigid view of man implicit in behaviorism, a view which blurs the distinction between human beings and animals. He also disagreed with Sigmund Freud and other psychoanalysts about the mechanistic nature of their models of intra­ psychic life, for reducing child and adult psychopathology solely to unresolved or poorly resolved early life experiences, and for failing to recognize and appreciate the continuity of soul life from incarnation to incarnation. Furthermore, Rudolf Steiner warned against the then widely popular use of hypnosis because the hypnotic procedure used at that time failed to respect the human ego and individual freedom. Yet one should balance Rudolf Steiner’s criticism of psychology against his concerns for the well-being of his own anthroposophical movement, especially just prior to and after the Christmas Foundation Meeting in 1923. He was especially anxious about “would-be active anthroposophists” who either failed to take initiative in an active inner and outer manner or who took initiative in a rigid, preconceived way without the proper guidance and involvement of himself and the Vorstand. Yet he remained deeply committed to transforming the Society and the School of Spiritual Science into a dynamic source of guidance, renewal, and inspiration to humankind. Countless hours Psychology & Anthroposophy • 25 were spent by him counseling individuals and groups as well as giving numerous lectures to the public, to the Society, and to the First Class until he collapsed in September, 1924. Likewise, we in psychology can work energetically for the growth and proper de­ velopment of our discipline. Much has changed outwardly and inwardly since Rudolf Steiner’s death in March of 1925. Were he writing and lecturing today, we all might be surprised by the way he might view different aspects of contemporary life. Is the psychology of today the same psychology with which he took issue in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s? Are anthroposophists, the Anthroposophical Society, and the School of Spiritual Science keeping pace with Rudolf Steiner’s vision and hope for the future? Both questions are complicated and challenging, re­ quiring thoughtful, and sometimes painful, self-examination. By struggling with these and similar questions, however, we may build a bridge between ourselves, ultimately to make further progress towards building a true sense of community on earth. Modern Psychology How has psychology as a scientific field changed since the early 1900’s. As we examine this question, we first recognize that modern psychology is neither simplistic nor monolithic but is a very broad and highly diversified field of scientific knowledge. Currently, most major universities offer doctoral degrees in the following psycholog­ ical specialties: • general psychology, • developmental psychology, • social/personality psychology, • experimental psychology, • cognitive psychology, • industrial/organizational psychology, and • clinical psychology. Most of these specialty areas have traditionally been primarily pure sciences, emphasizing scientific research and theory construction rather than focusing on how to apply or utilize the knowledge once it has been discovered. Clinical psychology and industrial/organizational psychology, however, are the major specialty areas which have stressed the importance of 26 • DAVID SCHULTZ applying psychological knowledge in specific real-life situations. As an applied science, clinical psychology is the most well-known psychological specialty area and is, therefore, what most people are referring to when using the term psychology. Furthermore, clinical psychology is a complex discipline within the mental health field, which encompasses numerous psychological theories to explain psychopathology and to offer treatment approaches. The major clinical psychological theories are usually grouped into four categories: biological, behavioral, psychodynamic, and existential. Each theory has solid scientific evidence and competent adherents who are able to utilize their theoretical knowledge to help people improve their lives. No theory, however, is effective for all people or for all types of difficulties. Why is this so? Why is there no unified psychological theory? How do we understand this shortcoming? The lack of a universal psychological theory is understandable because modern psychology still lacks, as does modern science and humanity in general, that which only Anthroposophy has to offer: a unified, comprehensive concept of the human being. With An­ throposophy as a guidepost, David Black was able to recognize a relationship between the four major clinical psychological theories and the four fold nature of the human being.* Biological theories appear to be effective when the primary dysfunction is physical, whereas behavioral theories are more helpful when the dysfunction is habitual and, therefore, etheric in origin. Psychodynamic theories seem to be useful whenever the dysfunction involves primarily anti­ pathies and sympathies which are related to the human astral nature. Existential theories are relevant whenever concerns central to a sense of self and the purpose and meaning of life are dominant. Such concerns are intimately connected with the human ego. Recognition of this relationship between the different levels of psychological dys­ function and the four fold being of man can ultimately lead to im­ provements in diagnosis and treatment and to the formulation of more meaningful questions and relevant psychological research. The relationship between clinical theories and the four fold nature of the human being is just one example where psychology and An­ throposophy can form a meaningful connection. Another fruitful example is the relationship between Piaget’s stages of cognitive de­ velopment and the innovative changes in childhood education

----*David Black, “On the Nature of Psychology,” Towards, vol. 1, no. 7, Winter 1980-81. Psychology & Anthroposophy • 27 brought about by the Waldorf Education movement. Clearly, Piaget’s sensorimotor and preoperational stages of cognitive development parallel the active movement of the first seven years of life during which children are egocentric and live primarily in their limbs. During the second stage of concrete operations, children are able to coordinate two perspectives simultaneously, a capacity which corresponds to the second seven years of life during which children live primarily in their rhythm sphere which relates inner and outer, self and other. Finally, beginning with the stage of formal operations, children develop the capacity for abstract thought which occurs during the third seven years of life (approximately 14 to 21 years of age), when adolescents start to live for the first time primarily in their head sphere, when they can reason abstractly and work systematically in terms of all possibilities. There are many practical implications of building a bridge between Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and the educational approach in the Waldorf Education movement. The crisis in modern education could, in part, be meaningfully addressed by taking seriously the stages of cognitive development rather than try­ ing to disregard, circumvent, or accelerate them. Increased mutual respect for the value of each of these maturational stages and the teaching approaches which each stage requires could permit children, parents, teachers, administrators, and taxpayers to function less as adversaries representing their own special interests and more as human beings united together in a common endeavor to help all children unfold their capacities to the fullest, whether they be specially gifted or specially challenged. During the past fifty years, numerous scientists have recognized and attempted to resolve some of the problems Rudolf Steiner found in science in general and psychology in particular. Von Bertalanffy’s general systems theory has influenced all the life sciences through em­ phasizing the subsystems which underlie and the suprasystems which encompass all organic phenomena. Humanistic psychology has em­ phasized the importance of counterbalancing the fragmentation stem­ ming from scientific subspecialization by recognizing the whole per­ son in all his complexities as of central importance in every human scientific endeavor. The integration of general systems theory and humanistic psychology has resulted in viewing the whole person within the context of the various suprasystems and subsystems which affect, and in turn are affected by, their functioning (e.g., biological, 28 • DAVID SCHULTZ psychological, and spiritual subsystems; whole person; nuclear family and extended family; interpersonal field, reference, groups, commu­ nity at large, and cultural society; national and international govern­ ments and agencies; and the nonhuman ecosystem). Recently, such organizations as Psychologists Interested In Religious Issues and Psychologists Interested in Transpersonal Phenomena have formed to in­ vestigate and to develop a deeper understanding of the higher souls and spirit nature of human beings and the rest of creation. Clearly, there are numerous psychologists who are trying to move beyond the rigid concepts of the individual and of ordinary consciousness which have limited science in general and psychology in particular for decades. There has never been a better time than now for interested psychologists and other interested mental health professionals to work actively in a collaborative fashion with similarly trained and/or simi­ larly experienced anthroposophists. For example, Rudolf Steiner em­ phasized long ago that psychological disorders will increasingly be found to have a physical basis and that physical disorders will increas­ ingly be recognized as having a psychological basis. The whole realm of psychosomatic and behavioral medicine offers exciting new chal­ lenges for anthroposophically oriented psychologists to improve the health care and rehabilitation of patients suffering from heart disease, lung disorders, cancer, and other life-threatening illnesses. Similarly, the realm of biological and medical psychiatry sorely needs transfor­ mation and integration with other critical aspects of holistic health care. Anthroposophically oriented psychiatrists can make important contributions in this field. Thus, the importance of an interdisciplinary approach to holistic health care, involving anthroposophically oriented physicians, psychologists, social workers, nurses, teachers, and therapists is greatly underscored. Modern Anthroposophical Initiatives Since the early 1900’s, anthroposophists have taken great strides in four areas relevant to mental health: education, curative education, medicine, and social development. The Waldorf educational movement is very widely known, with nursery, elementary, and secondary schools in Britain, Europe, the United States, and elsewhere through­ out the world. Waldorf education seeks to provide a comprehensive, holistic education for normal school children based upon sound prin­ ciples of human, intellectual, moral, and spiritual development. The Psychology & Anthroposophy • 29 connection between Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and some basic aspects of the Waldorf educational approach has already been indicated. Much more could be said about Waldorf education, but suffice it to say that Waldorf education represents a truly preven­ tive approach to physical and mental health care by providing children a balanced, human, educational experience. Curative education is a related but relatively new discipline which seeks to utilize primarily pedagogical approaches to treat intellectual deficits, sensory-nervous defects, and emotional disorders in children and adolescents. Curative education attempts to integrate psychiatry, pediatrics, psychology, social science, and education and is, therefore, truly interdisciplinary. There are numerous curative education schools based in Anthroposophy for retarded, maladjusted, and developmen- tally handicapped children throughout the world. There are also curative group homes for retarded and handicapped adults and also for emotionally and/or psychiatrically disturbed individuals. In each of these curative centers, specific educational and remedial measures, usually of an artistic nature, are provided. Therapies for specific difficulties have been developed in the fields of music, color painting, colored light, play, drama, storytelling, acting, and movement. Physiotherapy, hydrotherapy, diet, and medicinal remedies are also utilized under the supervision of physicians. Physicians interested in Anthroposophy have attempted to integ­ rate the modern scientific-technological approach to medicine with a renewal and extension of the traditional practice of medicine as a healing art. In so doing, they strive to emphasize the fuller picture of the human being provided by Rudolf Steiner as a basis for new developments in medicine. They not only recognize the importance of the physician’s continued intellectual development but are also committed to the medical practitioner’s continued moral and spiritual development. They realize that the proper understanding of illness and therapeutics must also be integrated with a true sensitivity to the interhuman process taking place between the physician and pa­ tients. Medical practitioners committed to these principles have founded the Anthroposophical Medical Association and the Physi­ cians Association for Anthroposophical Medicine and are active in Britain, Europe, the United States, and elsewhere. They may practice privately, in schools and curative centers, or in modern hospitals and clinics. In Germany, Holland, and Switzerland increasing numbers 30 • DAVID SCHULTZ of hospitals, clinics, and medical centers have been founded which utilize the anthroposophical approach to medicine. International med­ ical conferences are held each year. Signs of social unrest have been rampant for decades contributing to widespread concern and a clamor for social renewal. Unfortu­ nately, few creative solutions have been found. While a connection between the materialistic striving of modern science and technology and the improvement of the human spirit has been recognized tor years, something crucial to social renewal remained lacking. In the late 1940’s, several Dutch industrialists turned to Dr. Bernhard Lievegoed to help solve problems between generations and conflicts between labor and management which were arising in their com­ panies. Dr. Lievegoed visited these organizations and recognized that a solution to these conflicts could arise out of a comprehensive knowl­ edge of human development, the newly emerging human relations movement in the United States, and the work of Rudolf Steiner. His successful assistance to industry led eventually to the creation of the Netherlands Pedagogical Institute (NPI) in 1954, which sought to promote human and social development within modern organiza­ tional life. By seeking to integrate the goal of economic efficiency with the human need of finding psychological and spiritual fulfillment in work, NPI staff have successfully consulted schools, hospitals, companies, and governmental institutions in Britain, Europe, South Africa, and the United States. Most recently, the Asten Group, a major supplier of felts for paper machines, has become a modern example of a multinational corporation which has entered a process of organizational and social renewal by decentralizing its leadership and creating divisional management teams with considerable au­ tonomy, united in a shared corporate philosophy: “The purpose of the Company is to render services, second to none, to its customers.... A further purpose is to provide an oppor­ tunity for people engaged in the operation of the Company to develop their greatest potential and to gain a satisfying sense of accomplish­ ment in doing so.” While organizational and social renewal remains in its infancy, the example set by the Asten Group is inspiring. Thus, in only thirty years the impact of the NPI has already been far-reaching. Psychology & Anthroposophy • 31 The Renewal of Psychology Clearly, these anthroposophical contributions towards the renewal of education, therapeutics, medicine, and social life are striking exam­ ples of what can be achieved when a comprehensive understanding of the human being and human development form the basis for approaching the challenges of modern life. Many psychologists have now reached the frontier regions bordering Anthroposophy. The time is now ripe for a renewal and transformation of psychology. By working together, psychologists and anthroposophists can strive to advance psychology as Rudolf Steiner envisioned, “into a meditative experience leading to the eternal in human nature.” In so doing, psychologists and anthroposophists must put all preconceptions aside. We must come to appreciate our varying backgrounds and strive to overcome our previous shortcomings. We must take all that has proven to be viable and useful in our experience and unite in an endeavor to discover the eternal in our human nature, to rediscover the human entelechy of ages past. To achieve this we must develop a sound meditative life to further our own development and thereby to become keen observers of psychological experience. It is only through such inner spiritual activity that we can understand the psychological and social needs of our fellow human beings and offer creative, truly curative solutions to the human and social struggles of modern life. Some Practical Examples It is through such spiritual activity as reading, study groups, work­ shops, conferences, and meditation that Anthroposophy has a positive impact upon our personal growth as human beings and our profes­ sional development, whatever our vocation may be. As a psychologist, Anthroposophy has greatly enriched my personal and professional life. Since the time of the ancient Greeks, mankind has been reminded of the importance of self-knowledge through the dictum “Know thyself.” The most important aspect of any endeavor is self-development. The psychologists who understand this and are fructified by Anthroposophy can embark on a relatively well-charted course of spiritual self-development. They can thereby develop or­ gans of perception and spiritual capacities which can not only enhance their sensitivity to others but also call forth different aspects and 32 • DAVID SCHULTZ capacities of others. Thus, the psychologists’ increased self-knowl­ edge and self-development will constructively influence the quality of their relationship with others. This beneficial influence is of particu­ lar importance because the quality of the relationship which develops between the psychologist and his clients is the most crucial aspect of any psychological endeavor. Furthermore, by understanding the exis­ tence of reincarnation and karma, psychologists can recognize that important connections may link them with various clients. A greater openness and respect for the client can develop, which is especially important when strong antipathies and empathies arise during the course of psychotherapy. Psychologists can develop a greater appreci­ ation for how they can grow both personally and professionally through the various challenges which meeting with a particular client may entail. It is through such experiences that we come to understand an important Goethean principle about openness to the phenomenal and allowing phenomena to teach us: in psychotherapy our clients teach us how to help them, and if we as professionals are sensitive to what our clients present to us, we learn from them how to help them, how to guide them to make changes in their lives, to discover new potentials and new capacities. What we learn from Anthroposophy can and should be integrated with other teachings. The work of Martin Buber on the “I-Thou relationship” is particularly relevant to the quality of the psychotherapeutic relationship. It truly underscores the importance of psychologists trying to relate to the higher self in ourselves and in our clients. When we steadfastly strive to relate to our clients in this manner a new realm of possibilities emerge. We give up, and help our clients give up, illusions of controlling others and forcing outcomes. Instead, we help our clients to begin a quest of self-discov- ery and self-development. We then take seriously the admonition of both Steiner and Buber never to thwart the free will of another person. This respect for the free will of others does not, however, restrict us to being passive, disengaged, or nondirective. Instead, we can consciously use our influence and the openness of our clients to help each person transform him or herself, to become a new creation, to discover and realize the higher self within. We can help our clients to accomplish this by not trying to control them, by not trying to force specific outcomes. In so doing, we can help our clients to change their attitudes about various obstacles thrown in their paths. Psychology & Anthroposophy • 33 We can help them to see that apparent obstacles can teach us some­ thing very important. Through developing a Goethean attitude to life, individuals can learn to transform obstacles into stepping stones. A very active, energetic child rather than being a “problem” may be a blessing in disguise, teaching a rather rigid, self-centered parent to strive to better balance discipline, patience, and self-sacrifice. Simi­ larly, chronic, recurrent, stress-induced tension headaches may not indicate the need to use ever-more-potent pain relief medicine but may instead be a message to a very driven, over-striving workaholic to slow down, to reevaluate life priorities, to learn to relax, and to develop creative hobbies. Our clients can learn to recognize that various patterns of life problems can indicate an important life task which we have chosen by destiny to try to master. A change in attitude about our recurrent life struggles can open new realms of possibilities for change and growth. Instead of trying to avoid these struggles or begrudgingly tackling them, our clients can learn to confront these struggles with courage and new-found strength and can discover new capacities and potentials as they conquer these challenges. A competent, hard-work­ ing, hot-tempered man who has left numerous responsible positions after heated arguments with his boss may begin to recognize how this behavior is related to unresolved adolescent authority struggles with his dominant, imposing father and his successful, better-edu- cated, older brother. As he resolves these issues he will be better able to control his temper and not react to his boss as if he were being put down by his father or brother. Ultimately, he will not only be able to hold a responsible position but will also be able to advance to positions of greater authority and responsibility. Similarly, a de­ pressed, disillusioned woman who is dissatisfied with the quality of her relationships with others, who feels she has always been taken advantage of and unappreciated, and who feels unable to trust others can learn to pay attention to whether a person actually does what he or she agrees to do. She begins to differentiate between those people who honor commitments and those who don’t. She learns to alter her expectations towards those people who don’t honor commitment, to be clear with them about what she wants and what she won’t accept. As she learns to trust some people more than others, the quality of her relationships improves. She no longer feels passive, powerless, depressed, or disillusioned. Rather, the disappointment 34 • DAVID SCHULTZ she feels is accepted when it happens and she goes on with her life and interests. Psychologists who have become well-acquainted with An­ throposophy will also change their attitudes about serious clinical problems. For example, as a psychologist with a long-standing in­ terest in Anthroposophy, I cannot accept the position taken by some professionals and laypeople that suicide is inevitable, even acceptable in some instances. While I agree that the reasons for suicide are in many cases understandable, I do not think that it is ever an inevitable or acceptable solution to life problems and circumstances. I agree that professionals, family members, and friends cannot ultimately prevent someone who seriously wants to commit suicide from so doing. However, we should make every effort possible to keep a person safe until the actual intent to commit suicide subsides, during which time we need to try to help that person to find a purpose in life, to develop a renewed interest in life, to find new reasons for living. Many people who attempt suicide believe that death leads to a peaceful afterlife or to a reunion with loved ones or that death is followed by nonexistence. Since such beliefs seriously increase the risk of suicide, it is helpful to explore them and to challenge their veracity. It is common psychological practice to ask people struggling with suicide to consider how their children, spouses, friends, and other relatives would feel if they were to commit suicide. It is also important to point out that suicide is contrary to their religious beliefs. In some instances where people have neither close personal ties nor significant religious beliefs, something more is needed. In such instances, I have found it important to cite evidence indicating the likelihood of a continuity of consciousness after death and the possibility that suicide may offer no escape from their troubles but may instead actually complicate their difficulties by creating additional problems which must eventually be faced. Rather than leaving people with no other choice than to take such a risk, I offer them an alter­ native. I challenge them to pick the most important aspect of their lives which if it could change would make life worth living. We then explore this together and gradually develop a realistic, worthwhile goal to strive for and a step-by-step plan to work towards achieving that goal. This process is difficult and challenging. Goals often need to be modified, even drastically changed. Even success may result in new challenges. Eventually, however, each individual can develop Psychology & Anthroposophy • 35 an improved sense of self, better relationships with others, and most importantly, a new relationship with the rest of creation. Although these kinds of human services are greatly needed at this time, no one who is truly seeking should feel that there currently is nowhere to turn for guidance. There are increasing numbers of an- throposophically-oriented clinicians trained in psychiatry, psychology, and social work and increasing numbers of anthroposophically- oriented therapists skilled in psychotherapy, family therapy, psychological counseling, clay modelling, color painting, colored light therapy, music, dance, eurythmy, gymnastics, and other move­ ment therapies. Religious and spiritual counseling is also available through the Christian Community. Such human services are helpful not only for those suffering from serious physical and psychological disorders but also for those who need assistance with various life concerns, developmental stages, stress reduction, reevaluation of life goals, and consideration of the meaning and purpose of life and other related existential human concerns. The availability of such therapeu­ tic opportunities is especially important for adults, for we can no longer remain passive and allow the spiritual forces of youth to carry us forward. Instead, we must direct our own spiritual development through our conscious initiative. It is important to know that we can seek guidance and assistance for our concerns from kindred souls. Thus, some psychologists, health care professionals and an­ throposophists can now truly unite to develop psychology into a meditative experience which can bring us to the eternal in human nature. This recognition of the higher nature in ourselves and in others can lead to new possibilities for self-transformation, for holistic health care, and for service to others. It can help us to recognize the Christ within us and the Christ without, the Christ in each and every human being. It can help us to transform society, to build a true human community on earth, and to develop a transition to a new age of humanity and social life. An Interview with Andrei Tarkovsky

O v e r the decades the anthroposophical movement has attracted a vast array of individuals ranging from farmers, factory workers and owners to politicians, lawyers, and artists. Filmmakers, by contrast, appear to have been absent from the ranks. Recently, the Russian film director Andrei Tarkovsky made it known that Steiner’s writings were the inspiration for his next film, The Sacrifice. Under the scrutiny of the camera Andrei Tarkovsky’s face seems carved from stone. Only the wiry moustache and deep-set inquisitive and sad eyes soften the sinews that frame his mouth. His jaws appear clenched together. History and inner struggles have chiseled him. He was born in the Soviet Union in 1932, too young to be a soldier but old enough to be conscious of the wrath of World War II. As a young man his interests ranged from geology and prospecting in Siberia to the study of music, painting, and Arabic. He finally settled in the field of cinema where he has remained for the past twenty-three years. Tarkovsky scored his first major film success in 1967 with the screen adaptation of the life of the 15th-century iconographer Andrei Roublev. On the basis of that film, French critic and author Georges Sadoul placed Tarkovsky in the pantheon of Soviet filmmakers alongside Sergei Eisenstein and Pudhovkin. Since Roublev, Tarkovsky has established himself with Solaris (1972), The Mirror (1974), The Stalker (1980), and most recently Nostalghia (1983) for which he won Cannes’ Golden Palm award. Like some of his filmmaking colleagues, (Zefirelli and the late Visconti), Tarkovsky has also been active in theater and opera, directing a Covent Garden production of Mus­ sorgsky’s Boris Godunov in November, 1983. 36 An Interview with Tarkovsky • 37 Some have called his films depressing; others have commended them for their mysterious, dense, rich, and poetic qualities. There is no doubt however that Tarkovsky’s films have consistently side-step­ ped the dictates of Socialist Realism, resulting in only cool support from Soviet administrators. Cold shoulder treatment came to a head in Cannes where, after being urged to present Nostalghia by the minister of culture, Tarkovsky found that the Soviet jury member was none other than Bondarchuk, his archenemy! On July 11, 1984, at a news conference in Rome, he announced that he was not returning to Russia. His defection was ironic. In an interview three months earlier, he had spoken of Nostalghia (nostalgia) as a “fatal illness” that strikes those who leave behind their homeland and sever their roots. This individual scenario he sees also in global terms: It is not normal that this planet is divided into two sphere of influence. It is abnormal because it is not the human being who created this earth. Man has no right over it. His only right is to live on earth and cultivate its spirituality. And not to divide our planet with barbed wire and to protect the division with nuclear weapons. That is inhuman. And this situation has engendered other problems: nostalgia, confrontation, civilization. Tarkovsky’s preoccupation with the human condition in the broadest sense and his perception of established philosophies as providing little opportunity for changing or ameliorating the human condition led him in his search for a fresh path, whereby he came upon An­ throposophy. The following is an interview of Andrei Tarkovsky by Nathan Federovsky. ★ ★ ★ ★ Nathan Federovsky: Andrei Tarkovsky, what is it that fas­ cinates you in the personality of Rudolf Steiner? How do you explain the fact that interest in the anthroposophical outlook is growing? Andrei Tarkovsky: How can one explain the uncommon interest in Steiner? No one today can deny the fact that mankind has taken the wrong road. Everyone from the school child to the head of state knows that we are stuck at an impasse, in a crisis. Also, it is no secret that human evolution has progressed asynchronously—by which I mean that the material and spiritual aspects of this evolution have more often than not had little to do with one another and have 38 • NATHAN FEDEROVSKY reached different levels. The material aspect has remained at the forefront in every respect, philosophical, technical, and cultural, whereas the spiritual aspect has been treated in a perfunctory manner or else completely ignored. Some even believe that man possesses no spiritual being at all! On the other hand many have come to the conclusion that it is erroneous to think that a human being’s life is bound to his brief physical existence. Steiner offers a world view that explains everything, or at least almost, everything, and gives appropriate space for the evolution of man in the spiritual realm. This outlook has attracted many followers in Germany, but not only in Germany: today there are anthroposophi­ cal schools in Sweden, France, the USA, Israel—everywhere, and that is not surprising—while in earlier times one could seriously adopt a materialistic position and explain the meaning of life and society on a material basis, today this is no longer possible. Today we need other perspectives: we must develop our spiritual existence and then ask the question what is the meaning of life. For when one says that life evolves according to the rules of matter, it implies that life has no meaning. No one who has thought of it even a little can agree with the view that life in and of itself is without meaning. For example, when someone tells me: “No, your life is not mean­ ingless because you are sacrificing yourself so that future generations can live better,” it is absurd and improper, since it implies that those who physically sacrifice themselves have no right to live for a higher goal. To sacrifice oneself in the name of someone else is wonderful, but it does not suffice. It is far more important to develop oneself spiritually than to become the fodder for future generations .... Of course if one does not believe in the soul’s immortality the question is irrelevant and it becomes pointless to speak in such categories. However, when this halfheartedness, this material side of existence, no longer satisfies, we must think further and grasp that the crisis of the modern world is rooted in the conflict between the spiritual and the material. Without any harmony between these two one cannot grasp the meaning of life. Steiner dedicated his whole life to the task of speaking on the meaning of human existence, of revealing what a spiritual person can achieve in this life, what he should strive for and what offers him perspective and hope. To come back to the initial point. The flowering of Anthroposophy shows the crisis of bourgeois values in the West, of security, of affluence, A n Interview with Tarkovsky • 39 of conformity, of perpetual consuming. It would be ridiculous to state that everything is best here. Steiner not only criticizes those who conceive life in materialistic terms but also opposes, as few have, the material wealth that Western democracy has spawned. I do not want to imply that Western democracy is bad: it’s the best this planet has to offer, but it nevertheless does sometimes lead to tragic conflicts and places us in hopeless situations.

[Image: photograph] Andrei Tarkovsky during the filming of Nostalghia. NF: We’re approaching the problems you treat in your new film. Your camera will soon roll in Sweden. The title The Sacrifice has to do with some of the things we just spoke about. AT: The film I want to make now centers on the fact that modern man can make no decisions in life. In simpler terms, he casts his vote and chooses for himself the people who will be in government, who then act primarily in the interests of their party or social stratum. In general then—this applies to intellectuals as well—we surrender con­ trol over our own lives to some professional politicians who have usurped the right to care for the well-being of the masses. Even if he makes some claims to individualism, the life of modern man depends entirely on others. Not to speak of the ever-worsening East-West conflict, in which no ordinary person has any influence. 40 • NATHAN FEDEROVSKY In the film I tell of a person who attempts to participate in life, to influence the destiny of those close to him, even the destiny of a nation: this person wants to be involved in life and alter its course. This is only possible if he understands that no one can do anything for him as long as he does not do something himself. That is what my film is about: if we do not want to live as parasites on the body of society, nourished by the fruits of democracy; if we do not want to become conformists and consumer-idiots, we will have to renounce many things—and we must begin with ourselves. We are always quick to place blame on others, society, our triends ... but not ourselves. On the contrary, we especially enjoy lecturing and advising others on their behavior; we want to be prophets and have no right to it because we pay the least attention to ourselves and fail to follow our own advice. There is some tragic misunderstanding when one says: That is a good person! What is a good person today? Only when one is ready to sacrifice oneself can one claim to influence the overall life processes: there is no other way. Otherwise the massive lead ball of events will gather such momentum and speed that it will be impossible to stop. Only then will one be allowed to say, “We can influence life but we must also settle scores.” As a rule the price we will have to pay is our material well-being. At the very least one should live what one preaches so that principles are not just babble and demagogy, but realities. This is Tolstoy’s famous conflict. All of his life, Tolstoy suffered because he was a wealthy landowner who earned money from his books. It was the terrible conflict between him and his wife, Sofia Andreyewna. Today something similar is taking place. We are all decent people keeping up good appearances. We heap condemnation and praise on others, and we each forget ourselves. That is why our society lacks perspec­ tives. They can only be found when each person understands that everything depends on him in spite of the fact that he is one among billions. That’s what the film is about, even though the plot is not linked word for word to this theme. Whoever hears or reads this interview might wonder about the subject matter. NF: The title of the film, The Sacrifice, suggests that the hero carries out a specific deed although a life in and of itself can be a sacrifice if one has renounced something. An Interview with Tarkovsky • 41 AT: In the film it is a deed. The sacrifice is in fact always a deed. Even if you settle down somewhere in the lotus position, close your eyes and starve, that is a deed although one could say that you are distancing yourself from life. On the other hand I do not believe in the noble convictions of the politician who babbles on about hunger in Ethiopia and then goes off to a champagne breakfast. For me that is a crime. It would be better not to talk at all. I will believe the person who owns virtually nothing and who gives his last possessions to the beggar on the street without telling anyone about it: he is saving the world. And he is doing much more than someone who organizes a meeting as a result of hunger in Ethiopia. That is where I see a difference between word and deed. We suffer from the fact that our words have lost their meaning. Steiner wrote about that too, that our language is not yet a real language. It does not express anything and to a certain extent we are at the same level as animals. Demagogy is the worst sickness of the present time: trickery, empty talk. People’s deeds are the deciding factor, not their words—my hero’s deed is so absurd that the average person simply cannot decide what the deed consists of. For my part, it consists in the fact that babble alone already disgusts him, that he goes from words to deeds. NF: And it makes no difference whether or not society records this? AT: That makes no difference. That is precisely the issue. You are aware of the notion of charity in the gospel. If you give alms, nobody should see it or learn of it if at all possible. Even though pride could also play a role in that. You could think, “Look, I am giving you alms, nobody knows it, but it puts me to rest, I am a morally superior being.” So it’s not at all easy to be good ... to appear good is easy, but to be truly good is incredibly difficult.

Translated and introduced by Marton Radkai. [Image: painting][Image: Goethe in the Campagna, Wilhelm Tischbein

42 Goethe’s Philosophy of Science Facts as Theory: Part II†

ARTHUR G. ZAJONC

Goethe’s M ethodology

A l though his own thought evolves in this matter, especially under the influence of Schiller, the main features remain clear. In his essay “Experience and Science,” sent to Schiller in 1798,47 Goethe maintains that one begins with ordinary “empirical phenomena,” the simple ordinary observations any attentive observer might make. From these we can rise to data of a higher type by varying the conditions under which the phenomenon appears and noting the essential preconditions necessary for the effect to arise. These he termed “scientific phenomena.” Some would suggest that one rest content with these, writes Goethe, presenting the instances of appearance and nonappear­ ance.48 But he would seek a still higher logical level on which to experience phenomena; this he termed the “pure phenomenon,” later to be called the “archetypal phenomenon.” In writing of “scientific phenomena,” Goethe probably has in mind Francis Bacon’s tables of presence, absence in proximity, and degrees that are to act as the basis for induction to intermediate and general axioms. That Goethe owed a great deal to Bacon is certain. Yet he is also highly critical of Bacon’s inductive method and the sterility of any approach based on pure classification. Bacon captures a highly important aspect of the enterprise but, according to Goethe, his ------†Part I of this article was published in issue 40/41 (Spring/Summer, 1985) of the Journal for Anthroposophy. A version of this paper was given at the Harvard symposium, “Goethe’s Science Reconsidered,” and is forthcoming in Goethe and the Sciences: A Reappraisal, ed. F. Amrine, F.J. Zucker, and H. Wheeler. Reprinted from Teachers College Record, vol. 85. Winter. 1983 with permission of the publisher. 43 44 • ARTHUR ZAJONC position is unbalanced: “He [Bacon] still has an excellent influence, so long as we appreciate that his doctrine is one-sided and allow the mind to exert its influence also.”49 The mind too must play its part, not in the reduction or representation of phenomena by hypothetical entities, but rather in the search for pattern and constancy in the phenomena. “The constancy of the phenomena is the one important thing; what we think about them is quite irrelevant.”50 From these scientific phenomena one mounts to a still higher class of phenomena—Goethe’s well-known pure or archetypal phenomena. Such primordial phenomena stand as the ultimate goal and end point of any field of Goethean research. With this the pattern stands fully before one as experience: In order to describe it [the archetypal phenomenon] the intellect fixes the empirically variable, excludes the accidental, separates the impure, unravels the tangled, and even discovers the unknown.51 By thus moving from one logical level of phenomena to another, Goethe successfully meets an important criterion for explanation. As N. R. Hanson points out, it is impossible to express causal relation­ ships, or in any sense “to explain” through language, if all words are on an identical logical level.52 There must exist a hierarchy allow­ ing certain words, or in Goethe’s case phenomena, to exhibit mean­ ingful theoretical content when experienced in a particular context. They become “theory loaded,” to use Hanson’s term. If Goethe wishes to refrain from reducing “observation to mere notion, to substitute words for this notion,”53 that is, if he wishes to remain within the phenomenal, then phenomena too must be theory loaded. I hasten to add that by this I do not mean that nature is seen in terms of a theoretical model such as is very often the case in orthodox science. Rather, through the process of investigation itself, certain otherwise ordinary phenomena become representatives or symbols of very general relationships or principles which manifest themselves within a finite phenomenal realm. We should recall that the simple process of “seeing” is not an uncomplicated one. Consider Duhem’s lovely example of someone walking into an electrical laboratory and innocently asking the scientist present what he is doing.54 We see the bits of copper, batteries, vessels of mercury. Our eyes register accurately the forms and colors of all objects in the room. Yet the surprising answer is, “I am measuring the electrical Goethe’s Philosophy of Science • 45 resistance of a coil.” Implied in this simple statement is a huge body of electrical theory of which we may be unaware. Scientists often “see” phenomena—meter movements, a flickering light, and so forth—in terms of the dominant theory. It becomes the language and conceptual grid onto which all raw experience is projected. The collection of rods, batteries, and other paraphernalia is “seen as” an ohmmeter. Seeing is obviously more than opening one’s eyes. In like manner the recognition of a pattern or ideal form is the prerequisite for any further analysis and is often based in “tacit knowl­ edge.”55 For the craftsman or artisan the recognition is sufficient in itself; for the scientist it is usually merely the beginning. Hanson puts it this way: Perceiving the pattern in phenomena is central to their being “expli­ cable as a matter of course.” ... This is what philosophers and natural philosophers were groping for when they spoke of discern­ ing the nature of a phenomenon, its essence; this will always be the trigger of physical inquiry. The struggle for intelligibility (pat­ tern, organization) in natural philosophy has never been portrayed in inductive or H-D [hypothetico-deductive] accounts.56

What Hanson describes as the “trigger of physical inquiry” becomes for Goethe the goal and end point of scientific inquiry. The moment of discovery, of seeing a pattern in the phenomena, falls outside of inductive and H-D accounts.57 The Aperçu is, for Goethe, the expla­ nation. Therefore when Goethe “explains” the phenomena of prisma­ tic colors, he does so by tracing them back to an antecedent and simpler one, namely the archetypal phenomenon of light meeting darkness within a turbid medium. The archetypal phenomenon is a natural form in the Aristotelian sense. Light, darkness, and the turbid medium are parts of an organic unity or form that also includes the warm colors on the one hand and cool colors on the other. When light, darkness, and a semitransparent medium configure themselves, or are configured by an experimenter, in the proper way, the form is complete only when the requisite colors appear. It is never a question of efficient or mechanical causality. The division of the monochord into two equal parts entails the octave. Likewise, if the “conditions of appearance” are present for certain colors, they will manifest. 46 • ARTHUR ZAJONC The physicist might wish to formalize the discussion by modeling turbidity in terms of scattering from dispersion electrons sited on regularly spaced atoms or from randomly spaced particles in the atmosphere. Light and color then become suitably weighted integrals of the spectral intensity over a large wavelength range, and so on. One might ask: Has the physicist through this program actually increased our understanding of light and color? Goethe writes in a letter of 1823 to Soret: “In science, however, the treatment is null, and all efficacy lies in the Aperçu .”58 The moment of insight expands into genuine understanding for Goethe. Any subsequent reconstruc­ tion of the perceived regularity in terms of hypothetical or abstracted constructs is gratuitous and distracts from the phenomena themselves. Seeing, the highest sense, becomes when fully developed a metaphor for the much rarer faculty of intuition: “Ordinary vision (Anschauen), correct inspection of earthly things, is an inheritance of general human understanding; pure vision of the outer and inner is very rare.”59 The manner of scientific inquiry, then, that Goethe proposes is one that begins by thoughtfully exploring and arranging the cir­ cumstances and facts of experience. From these, knowledge of essen­ tial relationships arises. They are not to be expressed abstractly by such rules as: If these conditions prevail, then such and such occurs. Rather, the elements light, darkness, turbidity, and color are all seen as a unity. Only our intellect breaks them down into cause and effect. In his late nineteenth-century study of Goethe’s science, Rudolf Steiner connects this with Kant’s distinction between Verstand, under­ standing or intellect, and Vernunft, reason: Let no one be deceived on this point, the [mathematical] unit is an image created by our Intellect [Verstand] which separates it from a totality just as it separates effect from cause, and substances from their attributes.60 Goethe was well aware of Kant’s distinction and interpreted it in his own manner. After a full empirical investigation, the highest faculty of the mind, reason, may grasp, the newly perceived unity in a moment. In so doing it reaches beyond pure sense data; it reaches beyond the visible pattern to be discerned in nature itself. It reaches, for Goethe, to the ideal. The felt kinship between prismatic and atmospheric colors is possible only because reason has given us, through the archetype, a perception of the ideal. In conversation with Eckermann, Goethe says: Goethe’s Philosophy of Science • 47 The Intellect [Verstand] cannot reach up to her [Nature]; a man must be able to rise up to the highest plane of Reason [Vernunft] in order to touch the Divine, which reveals itself in archetypal phenomena—moral as well as physical—behind which it dwells, and which proceed from it.61 The divine idea stands behind the archetypal phenomenon. It may manifest through natural phenomena or in the mind as concept. It quietly structures our very seeing and speaking: The idea is eternal and unitary. . . . All that of which we become aware and of which we can speak are only manifestations of the Idea; concepts, we express, and in as much as we do so the Idea itself is a concept.62 The archetypal phenomenon is also unitary. Its impact can be so powerful that in the heat of discovery one meets it not so much with wonder as with fear and the faculty of analysis: Before the archetypal phenomenon, when it appears unveiled before our senses, we feel a kind of shyness bordering on fear. Sensible people save themselves through wonder; quickly, however, comes the busy pimp Verstand and would procure in his way the most precious with the commonest.63 The unitary idea can, however, manifest and be left unmolested if we use reason in place of the intellect. Then we will also not be tempted to treat the archetype as just another theory from which to make deductions and predictions or draw conclusions. Five years before his death, Goethe wrote to Christian Dietrich v. Buttel: Moreover an archetypal phenomenon is not to be considered as a principle from which manifold consequences result; rather it is to be seen as a fundamental appearance within which the manifold is to be held.64 Thus the archetypal phenomenon is neither to be arrived at by pure induction, nor from it are we to deduce consequences. It can, I think, be more fruitfully understood as akin to Aristotle’s doctrine of forms, so dreaded by seventeenth-century philosophers. By this I mean that the seeming independence of empirical phenomena actually reveals an organic or unitary form after one rises to the level of archetypal phenomenon. Certainly one can go on to the model of the individual elements and establish mathematical relationships. In so doing one is not “explaining” phenomena but only reexpressing selected aspects 48 • ARTHUR ZAJONC in a theoretical language. Much is lost in the translation, although doubtless the procedure is highly useful, and even harmless, if under­ taken with philosophical maturity, or as Goethe says, “with irony.” It one were to follow Goethe, the archetypal phenomenon would be left in its native purity and simplicity. For the natural scientist should forbear to seek for anything further behind it: here is the limit. But the sight of an archetypal phenomenon is generally not enough for people; they think they must go still further and are thus like children who after peeping into a mirror turn it round directly to see what is on the other side."65 Heinrich Henel characterizes Goethe’s attempts as ones which “wished to gain universals without abstraction.”66 Goethe, with Schiller’s help, came to realize fully the boldness of this attempt. To bridge the gap between the real and the ideal, between the universal and particular, to bring these two worlds closer together, seemed an unavoidable necessity: We live in an age when we feel ourselves more compelled every day to regard the two worlds of which we are a part, the upper and the lower, as linked; to recognize the Ideal in the Real, to assuage our occasional discontent with the Finite by an ascent into the Infinite.67 In his essay “Indecision and Surrender,” Goethe wavers before the task and “takes flight into poetry.”68 Yet the next day we find him composing his little essay “Intuitive Judgment,” confident that he in his science had embarked on the “adventure of Reason” that Kant reserved for the intellectus archetypus, that faculty of the mind “which proceeds from the synthetically universal and advances to particu­ lars. ”69 The cognitive status Goethe affords his “theory”—the behold­ ing of archetypal phenomena—is then quite other than that associated with instrumentalist or positivist positions. Goethe is no nominalist. The ideas of which he writes are real and potent and are not to be confused with their sensible reflections in nature, nor with their mental image as concept. He is searching for the True and not just the fruitful. If he finds the former, he is confident the latter will follow. We do not have direct access to Truth: “The True is god-like: it does not appear unmediated; we must guess it from its manifesta­ tions.... Only in the highest and most general do the Idea and the Appearance meet.”70 In the archetypal phenomenon we may hope to unite what arises within as concept with that which confronts us Goethe’s Philosophy of Science • 49 as percept so that the Idea itself stands in experience. Clearly Goethe’s science strides far beyond the normally accepted bounds of strict scientific inquiry. About this one must be utterly frank. He is expanding the horizons of science to include the ideal in reality, to place spirit back into nature. He embraces metaphysics, but his is a perceptual metaphysics in which the ideal, Schiller’s criti­ cisms notwithstanding, does become experience. In this undertaking Goethe stands in a long tradition, as Ernst Cassirer mentions;71 one that surfaces periodically and at times even dominates Western intel­ lectual history. Goethe recasts the tradition in a unique and highly sophisticated manner. In his scientific investigations he seems everywhere to move patiently to and fro in the sense realm, rising from empirical through scientific to archetypal phenomena. The phenomenal world thereby becomes transparent for a supersensible reality: “We cannot escape the impression that underlying the whole is the idea that God is operative in Nature and Nature in God from eternity to eternity.”72 Goethe in his studies of that whole is seeking his God not so much “behind the scenes” as through, or even within the scenery of Nature. One final important question remains: How are the boundaries of natural science or, more generally, of human cognition to be ex­ panded? If Goethe is indeed hoping to rise to the ideal while remaining within the perceptual, through what means can such a development take place? The answer will be through the transformation of man. The very method of investigation Goethe has chosen may give rise to new faculties or organs of cognition. Bildung When confronted by any group of raw sense impressions, how is it that we come to “see” them? It is a rich and complex question, one beyond our means to summarize, but we need a few results from cognitive psychology for a proper understanding of Goethe. The notion that we receive raw sensory reports and subsequently sort and order them according to a master algorithm leading to cognition has been discredited for the most part by vision research itself.73 Even a minimum of experience with ambiguous figures like the Necker cube leads one rapidly to the conclusion that sight at least is far from a simple linear process. Studies of subjects surgically healed from lifelong blindness support the conclusion that there is a great 50 • ARTHUR ZAJONC deal more to seeing than a properly functioning eye. Phenomenologists have taken Brentano’s concept of “intentionality” as a basis for the discussion of the mental activity operative in vision. In that view the confused, swarming, chaotic field of colors and forms is structured unconsciously by the individual. From this standpoint we can ask whether one ever sees anything without seeing it as something. The central question of interest to us here is, if we do in some sense “intend” our own reality, then is it perhaps possible to develop that faculty of intentionality so that reality is restructured in another and perhaps more illuminating way? This turns on its head the usual view that the goal of clear headed research is to free oneself from all preconceptions and prejudices. Hans-Georg Gadamer was perhaps the first to point out that while there are indeed bad prejudices, we must recognize “the fact that there are legitimate prejudices, if we want to do justice to man’s finite, historical mode of being.”74 To use the metaphor developed by Rorty,75 we must free ourselves from the idea that the mind is a mirrorlike glassy essence to be polished and freed of all imperfections. If we were truly to succeed in this undertaking, we would with the moment of success banish cognition or seeing from the psyche as well. Obviously this is not to imply that we may entertain prejudices without consequences. Quite the contrary. As we now realize that prejudices are, in fact, “the biases of our openness to the world,”76 we appreciate the power of “bad” prejudices to create misunderstand­ ing. Still, a “tabula rasa” registers nothing. In this view, it is through our prejudices that we know the world at all. But let us drop Gadamer’s dramatic use of the word prejudice and focus rather on man’s “historical mode of being.” That we see is due to our historical mode of being. In other words, that we have lived as sentient beings in this world twenty or thirty years is not without its consequences. In this facet of our nature, memory certainly plays an important role. But by memory different capacities can be meant. I may remember, for example, that the sum of any sequence of odd integers is a perfect square (1+3+5+7=16). Certainly, at one time at least, I thought about this fact even if it was only to puzzle over what my mathematics teacher said. I may also remember that my wife has red hair, but to do so presupposes that I noticed the color of her hair. Very few of us possess the faculty of eidetic imagery, photographic memory, which Goethe’s Philosophy of Science • 51 would allow us to recall details we have not thought about. Things thought about, whether percepts or concepts, are then one class of memories. They form one aspect of our historical mode of being. They do not, however, by any means exhaust it. Here we come back to the concept of “tacit knowing” developed by Polanyi. When I sit down at the piano struggling to remember a two-part invention, I am certainly not calling forth a score into memory. I am not sure what happens, but musical memory translates immediately into ac­ tions, into will, without ever rising up into full consciousness. Exam­ ples can be multiplied easily: language learning, bike riding, writing, and even more subtle abilities such as oratorical skill. Each of these faculties arises with practice, that is, from work in or amongst the elements of that field. This is then a second aspect of our historical mode of being. It is like memory in that it connects past actions with the present but is unlike memory in that it need not rise up into consciousness. To do so may in fact be fatal, as any good sports car driver will tell us. It may be somewhat bolder to maintain that our normal faculty of sight arises in a manner analogous to this second aspect, but this has been cogently argued. What is of most importance for this dis­ cussion is the light it throws on the practice of Goethean science. From the preceding discussion we may recognize a concept familiar to us from the Romantic Period, namely that of Bildung, or the cultivation of faculties. The travels and apprenticeship of Wilhelm Meister provide him with much more than a head full of memories. The protagonist of a Bildungsroman deepens and matures through his travels. He sees the world differently for having passed through countless struggles. Odysseus returns home profoundly changed and it is that change, more than his specific conquests, which is of first importance. Likewise for Goethe in his scientific writings, neither the eye nor the mind is viewed ahistorically. Rather, each can be understood only in the context of historical development. Organs and faculties are shaped by their corresponding natural elements. The eye is shaped by the light: The eye owes its existence to the light. Out of indifferent animal organs the light produces an organ to correspond to itself; and so the eye is formed by the light for the light so that the inner light may meet the outer.77 52 • ARTHUR ZAJONC Very revealing in this regard is Goethe’s uncompromising position taken in a conversation with Schopenhauer concerning the active nature of light: “What?” he [Goethe] once said to me, staring at me with his Jupiter eyes, “Light should only exist in as much as it is seen? No! You would not exist if the light did not see you.”78 The active character of light or of phenomena more generally is central to a proper understanding of Goethe’s Weltanschauung. Al­ though in a distant past light may have called forth from passive animal organs the organ of sight, in the present day we must be active ourselves in the development of new faculties. We may possess innate talents, but these must be developed and schooled. The organs of human cognition so created move through the world as a magnet drawing forth from isolated natural phenomena their hidden unity: The faculties [die Organe] of man freely and unconsciously combine the acquired with the innate through practice, teaching, reflection, successes, failures, challenge and opposition, and always again re­ flections, so that they bring forth a unity which astounds the w orld.79 The development of such organs of cognition demands profound transformations of the human psyche. Such transformations are ef­ fected precisely through scientific investigation. Goethe stands in awe before the magnitude of the change. In a letter to F. H. Jacobi he writes: To grasp the phenomena, to fix them to experiments, to arrange the experiences and know the possible mode of representations of them—the first as attentively as possible, the second as exhaustively as possible and the last with sufficient many-sidedness—demands a moulding of man’s poor ego, a transformation so great that I never should have believed it possible.80 The transformation of the human psyche occurs through concourse with natural phenomena. Just as the eye as “sunlike organ” is created by the light, so organs of the mind may be created by each and every object about us. “Each new object, well contemplated, opens up a new organ within us.”81 Moreover, the pedagogical task which nature constantly enacts can be imitated and furthered in human creations. The formulation or cultivation of human sensibilities becomes then the task of the arts, as Shelley will argue in his essay “Defense of Poetry. ”82 Goethe’s Philosophy of Science • 53

TO P P L A T E [Image:woodcut] : Eye vignette. Woodcut after a drawing by Goethe. BELO W[Image: facsimile] : First fair copy o f Goethe’s verses, in his own hand. The poem reads: If the eye were not sunlike How could we perceive the sun; If God’s own strength lived not in us, How could we delight in things Divine? 54 • ARTHUR ZAJONC Hence the boundaries of natural knowledge are pushed back to Goethe’s science not by prosthetic devices such as telescopes, micro­ scopes, photo-multipliers, and the like, but by the transformation of the individual human psyche. The most important business of edu­ cation then becomes the schooling of faculties, not the mastery of information.83 Long after facts as explicit knowledge have disap­ peared from active memory, we will continue to perceive patterns, solve problems, and make discoveries by means of the faculties we have acquired. Polanyi will go so far as to declare that “all knowledge is either tacit or rooted in tacit knowledge. A wholly explicit knowledge is unthinkable.”84 The profound similarity between perception and scientific discovery that I have attempted to elaborate with regard to Goethe’s struggle towards archetypal phenomena has been developed at great length in an independent context by Polanyi: I maintained that the capacity of scientists to perceive in nature the presence of lasting shapes differs from ordinary perception only by the fact that it can integrate shapes that ordinary perception cannot readily handle.85 The recognition that scientific discovery proceeds by cognitive acts essentially similar to perception opens up a new route for the under­ standing of Goethe’s archetypal phenomenon. It is what Polanyi would call a perceived coherence. Goethe would perhaps go further and call it the universal in the particular, the ideal in the real. The German poet Novalis—who, we must recall, was also a min­ ing engineer—writes eloquently concerning the organs needed for a full and profound vision of nature: But it is vain to attempt to teach and preach Nature. One born blind does not learn to see though we tell him forever about colors, lights and distant forms. Just so no one will understand Nature who has not the necessary organ, the inward instrument, the specific creating instrument, no one who does not as if spontaneously recognise and distinguish Nature everywhere in all things, nor one who does not with an inherent lust of Creation mingle himself by means of Sensation in manifold relationships with all bodies, and feel his way into them simultaneously.87 Although atrophied, the needed organs can be developed so that one may become “a sentient instrument of nature’s secret activities” be­ cause, as Novalis writes, “association with the forces of Nature, with Goethe’s Philosophy of Science • 55 animals, plants, rocks, stones, and waves must of necessity mould man to a resemblance of these objects.”87 With the refusal to translate seen phenomena into a hypothetical or abstract theory, the full value and content of the phenomenal world remains. The Ideal is not projected onto a limited conceptual grid that stands ready to hand. Rather, faculties adequate to the Idea are formed by reflection, practice, and observation in the phenomenal field itself. The retention of the full value or content of phenomena was essential for Goethe, who, we must always remember, comes to the arena not only as scientist but also as artist. For the artist is interested not only in “conditions of appearance,” but also in the psychological value of colors, their effect on the soul, both individu­ ally and more especially in combinations. The seen archetype still possesses that value. It is a phenomenon and as such we need only shift our center of interest from the sensory to the “moral” (sittlich) aspects of color. The dynamic polarity of light and darkness then becomes an expression for the vacillations and struggles of the soul. In this sense the final chapter of Goethe’s Theory of Colors connects with the introduction in which he tells us that “colors are the deeds and sufferings of light.” That Goethe’s vision of science possesses educational implications seems obvious. I have discussed a few of them elsewhere as they pertain specifically to science teaching.88 But I think it is clear generally how arid and desiccative our approach to education has become when compared with the rich and vital self-education Goethe provided for himself. Every aspect of a child’s education should be brought into life. There is geometry in movement, arithmetic in rhythm; history lives in folk tales, national and religious traditions, legend and epic. In place of pale blue mimeo worksheets, the child should create its own texts and school books with color and imagination. Canned audiovisual instruction should make way again for the noble profes­ sion of teacher. It is the teacher whose gifts and failings stand as symbol of what each child may become, and whose ideals and con­ cerns may warm the hearts and enliven the minds of those in their charge. If we would provide an education for the full child, then the classroom and teacher must stand as exemplar for the whole earth. The forces that shape and mould may reside within the child, but they are brought into movement and activity by its surroundings. First through pure imitation and gradually by more conscious reflec- 56 • ARTHUR ZAJONC tion and judgment, the child unfolds its native gifts, establishes an emotional balance and a moral discernment. Each of these demands an environment worthy of imitation. Such educational ideas can be embraced in any school, but they have established themselves most successfully in the Waldorf or Rudolf Steiner schools.89 That so little is known about these schools or their educational philosophy within the academic community is astonishing. With over 300 schools worldwide, 35,000 students in West Germany alone, and fifty schools in the United States, Waldorf education is certainly, after sixty-four years, one of the most signifi­ cant educational experiments in this century. If education departments would present a survey of educational philosophy, theory, and prac­ tice, then certainly Waldorf education must find a place in that ac­ count. Steiner’s ideal of “education as an art” would, I think, be embraced by Goethe. For art entails the creation of the beautiful through faculties and gifts schooled on the beautiful. In the dialogue between teacher and pupil both become artists: the teacher as re­ creator of the world, the child as creator of itself The intellectual vision, the emotional balance, and the moral strength that arise from their joint work is the foremost concern of education.

NOTES 47 Goethe, HAXIII, 23; also included in Goethe’s Botanical Writings, p. 228. 48 Goethe, HAXIII, 317 or Theory of Colours, p. xl. 49 Goethe: die Schriften zur Naturwissenshaft. Leopoldina Ausgabe, ed. G. Schmid et al., 1. Abteilung, X (Weimar: 1947-70), p. 295. 50 Goethe, WAII:13, 444. 51 Goethe, HAXIII, 25 or Goethe’s Botanical Writings, p. 228. 52 Hanson, Patterns of Discovery, pp. 59-60. 53 Goethe, HAXIII, 482; or Theory of Colours, p. 283. 54 Duhem, The Aim and Structure, p. 145. 55 Michael Polanyi, Knowing and Being, ed. Marjorie Grene (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969), part 3. 56 Hanson, Patterns of Discovery, p. 87. 57 N.R. Hanson “The Logic of Discovery,” Journal of Philosophy 55 (1958): 1073-89. 58 Goethe, quoted in Rike Wankmüller, “Farbenlehre: Goethes Method, ” HAXIII, 616, as in a letter to Soret 30 December 1823. 59 Goethe, HAXII, 398, No. 243. 60 Rudolf Steiner, A Theory of Knowledge Based on Goethe’s World Conception, trans. Olin D. Wannamaker, 2nd ed. (New York: Anthroposophic Press, 1968), p. 62. Goethe’s Philosophy of Science • 57

61 J. P. Eckermann, Conversations with Goethe, 18 February 1829, trans. Gisela C. O ’Brien (New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing, 1964), p. 144; Vernunft and Verstand are translated differently here. 62 Goethe, HAXII, HA12, No. 12. 63 Goethe, HAXII, 367, No. 17. 64 Goethes Briefe, HAIV, 231, letter to Christian Dietrich v. Buttell 3 May 1827. 65 Eckermann, Conversations with Goethe, 18 February 1829, p. 147. 66 Heinrich Henel, “Type and Proto-phenomenon in Goethe’s Science,” PMLA 71 (1956): 651. 67 Quoted in Karl Victor’s Goethe, the Thinker, trans. Bayard Morgan (Cam­ bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1950), p. 156. 68 Goethe, HAXIII, 31, or Goethe’s Botanical Writings, p. 219. 69 Goethe, HAXIII, 30, or Goethe’s Botanical Writings, p. 223. 70 Goethe, HAXII, 366, Nos. 11 and 14. 71 Ernst Cassirer, Platonic Renaissance in England, trans. James P. Pettegrove (New York: Gordian Press, 1970), pp. 198-202. 72 Goethe, HAXIII, 31; or Goethe’s Botanical Writings, p. 219. 73 Paul Tibbetts, ed., Perception: Selected Readings in Science and Phenomenology (New York: Quadrangle/New York Times Book Co., 1969). 74 Hans-Georg Gadamer, Truth and Method, trans. Sheed and Ward Ltd. (New York: Seabury Press, 1975), p. 245. 75 Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Princeton: Princeton Uni­ versity Press, 1979). 76 Gadamer, Truth and Method, quoted in David Linge’s translation of Gadamer’s Philosophical Hermeneutics (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1976), p. 77 Goethe, HAXIII, 323; or Theory of Colours, p. liii. 78 Goethes Gespraeche (Leipzig: Biedermann, 1910-1911) II, 245 (1813-1814). 79 Friedrich Hiebel, Goethe (Bern: Francke, 1961), p. 246. 80 BriefU’echsel zwischen Goethe und F. FI. Jacobi, hsg. Max Jacobi (Leipzig: Weid­ mann, 1846), p. 198. English translation from Fritz Heinemann, “Goethe’s Phenomenological Method,” Philosophy 9 (1934): 79. 81 Goethe, HAXIII, 38; or Goethe’s Botanical Writings, p. 235. 82 Percy Bysshe Shelley, “The Defense of Poetry, ” in The Complete Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley, ed. Roger Ingpen (New York: Scribner, 1930), II: 109ff. 83 Harry S. Broudy, “Tacit Knowledge as a Rationale for Liberal Education,” Teachers College Record 80, no. 3 (February 1979): 446. 84 Polanyi, Knowing and Being, p. 144. 85 Ibid., p. 138. 86 Novalis, The Disciples at Sais and Other Fragments, trans. F.V.M.T. andU.C.B., (London: Meuthen and Co., 1903), pp. 137, 108. 87 Ibid., p. 141. 88 Arthur G. Zajonc, “Goethe’s Theory of Color and Scientific Intuition,” Amer­ ican Journal of Physics 44 (1976): 327-33. 89 For an introduction to Waldorf educations, see “Special Section: Waldorf Education, an Introduction,” Teachers College Record 81, no. 3 (Spring 1980): 322-70; A. C. Harwood, The Recovery of Man in Childhood: A Study in the Educational Work of Rudolf Steiner (Spring Valley, N.Y.: Anthroposophic Press, 1958); and M. C. Richards, Towards Wholeness: RudolfSteiner Education in America (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1980). Joy, Healing and Community in Singing

DINA SORESI WINTER

T h e importance of singing as a health-giving activity is becoming increasingly recognized. People sense that there is more to singing than the pleasant feeling one gets from it. Yet I have often heard the comment: “You know, I would very much like to sing, but I’m afraid I have no talent.” Or “I would like to sing, but I can’t carry a tune.” It seems very sad indeed that the very people who would enjoy the activity, and might benefit from it most, don’t feel they can even participate in a singing group. These individuals are almost always mistaken. In truth, everyone should sing, even those who think they can’t—in fact, especially those who think they can’t, because these are just the people, who, by using a right approach to singing, could free themselves both in the realm of singing and in other aspects of their lives as well. Nowadays, we are beset by so many tensions that it is almost necessary consciously to make our way back to a “natural” approach to singing. To some degree, learning how to sing is not so much a matter of learning what to do, as learning what not to do. At an exhibition of Rodin’s work an elderly lady, who greatly admired his work, said to the sculptor: “But I do not see how you can possibly carve such a beautiful figure out of a shapeless block of marble!” To which Rodin replied: “Madame, it is very easy. The figure is there. All you need to do is cut away the unnecessary parts.” This can also be said of singing. Learning to sing consciously is finding the inner coordination and balance which are necessary to allow tones to sing themselves. It is learning to discard obstructing elements which prevent a freely flowing tone. It is, in fact, learning not so much how to make things happen, as how to allow certain 58 Community in Singing • 59 processes to occur. This is the task. Gracia Ricardo, an American singer active in the early years of this century, expressed it well when she said, you must “try not to try. ” In looking at the professional singing world, one finds many refer­ ences among singers and singing teachers to the “free voice,” or the “natural voice.” One hears people talk about such things as “placing the voice” and “breath support.” One also sees in many modern approaches to the study of voice, very detailed charts of the “singing organs”: the larynx, the diaphragm, and the lungs. With these charts many teachers try to teach their pupils how to sing. If students exposed to this latter method do learn how to sing, it is more than likely in spite of this approach than because of it. The truth is that often, many students are ruined for life by such methods, and are made so conscious of the vocal organs and apparatus that they can hardly produce a free and joyous sound again, unless they find a way to unlearn the unfortunate results of these approaches. Despite all the obstacles beautiful voices do, however, emerge—there is no doubt. Many finally come through by “teaching themselves.” Birgit Nilsson, the famous Swedish soprano who is still producing glorious tones in her mid-sixties, is said to have been totally disillusioned with her singing teachers, and completely desperate, when she ex­ perimented on her own with a few high “yelps” and “found her own voice.” This method is not recommended for anyone without Miss Nilsson’s experience. Yelping may be hazardous to your singing health. Stuart Burrows is another extraordinary example. Although he possesses one of the most beautiful tenor voices today, he never took formal singing lessons. In general the teachers who tamper the least with the vocal apparatus of their gifted pupils are the most successful. Some know instinctively what not to do and how to lead a talented singer to his or her own true and free voice. Of course it is not enough to know what we should not do; we also need to know what positive actions we must take in order to sing. We have to know what will set the process going, what can help. In her excellent article, “The Singer as Instrument,” which appeared in the Spring 1981 issue of Journal for Anthroposophy, Theodora Richards suggests some of the things one can do, describing several steps which she developed based on study with her aunt, Gracia Ricardo. “First of all,” she writes, “one must find the calm to enter 60 • DINA SORESI WINTER into a new dimension of reverent receptivity in order to experience the ‘universal tone.’” She speaks of her aunt’s repeated comment, “Erwartungsvolle Ruhe”—expectant calm, as a basis for singing. One of the most helpful suggestions in this article is the description of the “Embouchure,” which is a centering or focusing of the tone at an imaginary point of the lower lip. If done correctly in an unforced, well-formed manner through an articulated speech sound, this gives the voice a “free, full, ringing quality.” The “Embouchure” approach makes full use of the resonances of the head without physically locking the tone into any one of the different resonators: nasal cavity, hard or soft palate, pharynx, or throat. To my knowledge, this is the first time that the “Embouchure” idea has been described in this way. Yet when it is used, it does indeed help bring about a free, ringing tone which, at the same time, provides a basis for the tones that will follow. As one soars and as one descends, provided the rest of the instrument (the body) is pliant and balanced, it offers a flexible anchor for the full gamut of the singing voice. Breathing, Coordination, Tone “How do you breathe to sing?” someone once asked Rudolf Steiner. “You breathe,” he said, somewhat wryly,1 then making it clear that the diaphragm must be involved. He even suggested that the teacher place his hand on the pupil’s diaphragm to see if it were, in fact, working properly. The question comes back again and again: “How do you breathe for singing?” Nowadays, more than ever before, stress and the general pace of life contribute to our breathing very superficially—only with the upper part of the lungs. This makes for strain and tension in the voice. We have lost that inner serenity which allows for a natural deep breathing. And so we must reacquire it. When breathing, one should feel that the bottom of the lungs is also filling with breath. Observe how you breathe while you are lying in bed, and about to fall asleep, or when you awaken in the morning. You will notice the natural rise and fall of the diaphragm and even of the abdomen. When you are in an upright position the same breathing activity should be at work. (You can place your hand on your diaphragm to see if this is actually happening.) Sometimes it helps to think of breathing in through the soles of the feet. By means of certain exercises one can achieve the healing, natural coordination and balance in Community in Singing • 61 breathing which leads to an ever greater freedom in singing. Although deep breathing is necessary for good singing it is by no means sufficient. All the breathing exercises in the world will not assure good “tone production.” No matter how developed the breath­ ing becomes, we will still not be able to make the transition from breathing well to singing well, unless we learn how to “breathe artistically,” in conjunction with singing. Having understood this, we must realize that it is not so much a question of how much breath one has but rather how it is used. It is not so much the capacity, but the intensity of the breath that is necessary for tone. Capacity of breath can be achieved through breathing exercises alone, but the intensity of breath can only be achieved through exercises together with singing. High superficial breathing, Olga Hensel points out, cannot achieve this intensity.2 Indeed, people who have such superfi­ cial breathing do not even experience movement in the area of the diaphragm when they breathe. The tone has a life of its own. It is a spiritual essence. It comes through the body, not from it. It is as if a Being offers it to us, and we draw it in. It resounds through us, if the body is pliant and ready. With each note a number of subtle adjustments will take place—even in the throat. The singer must not make these adjustments, but must allow them to happen. It is as if each tone were a child which is born into the world through us when we sing. If we are too tight, we hinder the tone—it will come out forced or pinched; if we are too relaxed, the tone will be faulty, breathy, or off pitch. The proper balance alone will allow the tone to emerge freely. The aim is to learn what the tone wants of us and to allow the natural coordinated movements to come about which will allow the tone to enter. In this way one learns what is meant by the seeming paradox: Singing is a balanced combination of freedom and restraint. In this process balance, coordination, and all that is acquired in singing often begin to manifest in other aspects of one’s life. When one sings in the right way, the whole person is actively engaged and the feeling is one of wholesomeness, balance, integration, and of being in command of oneself. A Journey Singing is a journey which pupil and teacher take together. A journey in which the student discovers unexplored spaces within and 62 • DINA SORESI WINTER around him. Rudolf Steiner has described the singer’s experience in terms of learning to find what “the air in him and around him is doing in its movement.”3 Tone is not air. Its essence has in fact nothing to do with the air. When we sing we transform breath into tone. Rudolf Steiner tells us that air is for the tone what the ground is for the person who stands upon it. The tone needs the air for support. “Tone itself, however, is something spiritual.”4 When we sing we activate the air around us. Singing is movement. When tone resounds, forms are created in and around us. When we sing together, forms are created between us. Singing is almost always an exciting journey, rich in self-discoveries of various kinds. One can hardly make the journey without returning with some nuggets of self- knowledge as well. Fear of Singing As Hilda Deighton and Gina Palermo pointed out in their unpub­ lished manuscript, “Singing Technique of Gracia Ricardo”: “Each voice is unique and is a reflection of the inner being.” They mention that Socrates said, “Let me hear his voice that I may know him.”* One often encounters a reluctance to sing for fear that in doing so, one will reveal too much of oneself. Yet in spite of this fear the desire to sing is there. This fear can gradually be overcome by approaching the singing in a particular way—usually with a teacher in a kind of conversation in tone. At first the student always sings in unison with another voice, then gradually gains the courage to sing a few tones on his own. Fear gradually diminishes as he realizes that this is a path he can follow. The more one can immerse oneself in the music or simply in the tone or interval, the more one can forget oneself in the process, and a step in freedom is achieved. As a child learns to walk, so can some adults learn to sing. Singing O ff Pitch The question concerning the inability to sing on pitch requires a meditative approach. One must listen very carefully to a tone—then immerse oneself in it, become one with it, so to speak. When fully within the experience of that tone, one joins or blends with it. As Rudolf Steiner points out, the ear and larynx must be considered together for they form a totality.5 They cannot be separated from ------*Socrates was (most likely) referring to the speaking voice, but these words are just as true—perhaps more so—for the singing voice. Community in Singing • 63 each other in one’s understanding of singing and speech, nor even in physiology. Sometimes the work requires infinite patience, but it is always worth the effort. If the problem is severe, the only way to deal with it is in private sessions with a teacher. As the singer becomes stronger and more confident, he or she can return as a real asset to the group. Imagine the experience of being able to match in pitch what you hear, when you thought you could not trust yourself to do this. A student once said, “The most important thing I have learned from my singing lessons is how to listen.” And, she might have added, “how to coordinate what I hear with what I sing.” The words of Rudolf Steiner: “Ear and larynx form a totality,” become a matter of one’s own experience. The above-mentioned singer was unable at the outset to distinguish one tone from another in pitch, but learned through her lessons to sing rather difficult intervals and simple songs with ease. An enormous sense of confidence was the result. Rudolf Steiner and Singing Among some of the very interesting references Rudolf Steiner makes to singing is the comment: “The singer must acquire a con­ sciousness not so much for the motion of his own physical organs as for what the air does in its movement in and around him.” He speaks of “leading the tone into the etheric.”6 One begins to sense the meaning of these words when a tone which a student has sung is heard reverberating from elsewhere in the room—or “shimmering” in the air around one. Singers have told me that they “feel” certain tones somewhere above the head, like a sparkling “point,” or elsewhere around the head. If one feels the tone in the throat in an uncomfortable way, or with any sense of pressure, it is not free. One should stop immediately and seek another approach. Sometimes movement—eurythmy gestures are often best—can help free a person from physical tensions as a prelude to singing. Several students of Rudolf Steiner who worked intensively with Anthroposophy have contributed interesting and helpful insights into the question of liberating the tone. The above-mentioned Gracia Ricardo, her niece, Theodora Richards, Maria Führmann,7 Olga Hen- sel, Madame Werbeck-Svärdstrom, her devoted pupil, Jürgen Schriefer, and Karl Gerbert8 are some of the dedicated “seekers after truth” in the realm of singing. 64 • DINA SORESI WINTER Madame Werbeck entitled her book The Uncovering of the Voice. This image is quite a true one. The voice must be uncovered, or even discovered, in each of us. When a beautiful voice emerges, it is not that it was “created” by the teacher. No teacher can make a beautiful voice. But a teacher can help remove all that which stands in the way of true tone, and can thus help make a voice beautiful— much like the uncovering of a diamond. It is sometimes a true source of wonder where diamonds lurk! I remember in particular the uncovering of one sparkling gem, where no indication of such an instrument was there to begin with. Such an experience fills one with wonder and gratitude. Sometimes our sense of tonal memory must also be discovered. This requires patience, extreme concentration, intensive listening, matching of tones. But organs of tonal perception can also be de­ veloped, and in so doing one opens up many other faculties of hearing and perception which were not available to us before. It is a discovery on many more levels than one at first realizes. Singing With Children Singing for and with children requires a particular kind of approach. Here an easy, flowing sound is imperative. Easy, not in the pop singer sense, but in a pure, unforced, pleasant way, and above all, joyful. For little children the sound must be joyful, not somber. It must be pure—pure, above all, of adult emotions. If one chooses the right songs and sings them simply, giving attention to the mood of the song, the songs will sing themselves in the right way. The choosing of songs for children is in itself an art. What is right for the child at a particular age is a study worth undertaking, if one is to do justice to one’s job as a teacher and as a parent. Rudolf Steiner in his suggested curriculum for Waldorf teachers has given many indications concerning the type of music and songs which are appropriate for the child at various stages of his development.9 For instance, Dr. Steiner tells us that up to the age of nine the child lives primarily in the mood of the fifth. Pentatonic songs reflecting this mood are for the most part the ones that should be sung with the children until the ninth year.10 From the tenth to the twelfth year the child should be brought to the experience of the major and minor thirds beginning with simple two-part rounds. Care, however, should be taken that each part is learned well before the two parts Community in Singing • 65 are put together. Later, two-part songs may be taken. As the child grows, three-part rounds of increasing difficulty can be added, as well as folk songs which can be sung by children of all ages, but which should be carefully chosen to suit the different ages. At age twelve the experience of the octave should be brought in. Songs with octave leaps can now be given. Mozart, Beethoven, and Bach can be introduced to the child of thirteen and fourteen either in unison with accompaniment, or in parts of varying degrees of complexity, depending on the musical ability of the class. Through such works they can be led to appreciate the beauty of music. And what they sing should be “well sung,” according to Rudolf Steiner’s suggestions. He points to the importance not only of choosing the right songs but also of singing well for the children. Children cannot be “taught” to sing in the same way as adults. As you sing, so will they. If you are free and joyful in your singing, they will be also. If you are fearful, out of tune, breathy, or cloudy in your singing, chances are that the children through their natural predispositions for imitation will pick up at least some if not all of these characteristics. It is, in fact, as important to sing well for the children as it is to speak well for them. Sloppy speech, where one can hardly make out the words spoken, is harmful to the formative speech organs of the child; sloppy and careless singing, especially with regard to intonation, is also harmful. The inner ear of the child cannot but be damaged by inac­ curately sung tones. Whether you sing pentatonic songs, simple folk songs, or even one or two intervals, the intonation should be com­ pletely accurate. In music, to be almost on pitch is not enough. If a teacher has difficulties singing simple songs on pitch, then either the teacher is not listening attentively enough to the tones he is singing or he is having vocal problems which are preventing the necessary freedom that allows the tones to be naturally on pitch. It is important that teachers take the time and effort to learn to sing as well as they can, so that ease and joy, but also accuracy, can prevail in the sound. Olga Hensel, who studied singing in the light of anthroposophical thought, pointed out in her book Die Geistige Grundlage des Gesanges (The Spiritual Basis of Singing) that the use of the “full-blown” voice, which describes the fullest emotions of the human being in passionate song, is tactless when singing for children. Children do not have the faculties yet to comprehend these emotions. This is why they some­ times make fun of the singers. It is their way of shrugging off some­ 66 • DINA SORESI WINTER thing which is totally foreign to them, which is, in fact, too much for them to absorb. Is Singing For Everyone? No! If by singing one means a glorious voice and a professional career. Yes! If by singing we mean joyful, healthy song which lifts the spirit and brings people together in a community of sound. If everyone would sing in Congress before the day began; if teachers would gather for a song at the start of the day; if factory workers would do the same, interweaving their tones into the spaces between them for fifteen minutes, and then go about their day’s work, it would introduce an element into daily life which would foster healthy, social feelings in a simple and unaffected way. Singing is a creative activity which when done with others brings about a harmony, unforced and joyous. It is hard to dislike another person when you are singing with him or her. It is as if a higher being descended into your midst to make peace during those mo­ ments, and whatever may have occurred before, whatever may occur later, in that moment our souls vibrate in unison. Given enough such moments, we may gradually wear down the barriers of hatred, of envy, of discontent. When we sing together as a group, these feelings have no place. The heart warms when people sing together. I remember an incident in which two teachers had quarrelled just before a rehearsal. The atmosphere was heavy with irritation, even anger. The rehearsal began, and as we all sang, something seemed to dissolve all those negative feelings. It was as if an aura of forgiveness had taken their place. Everything else just seemed unimportant. What wondrous thing is this that can happen when people make music together, especially when they sing? It was as if the singing could unite souls, could dissolve irritation and impatience—could, in fact, heal souls. Singing can have a healing effect on our personalities and help us to attain a feeling of wholeness. Done rightly, it is, of course, also a skill which will enable us to sing songs well, clearly, on pitch, and with a pleasant sound. Important too is the fact that if we have achieved the proper freedom, this wholeness will communicate itself to the listener as well and will have a healing effect there, too. Correct singing helps lead one to an awareness of inner coordina­ tion, inner balances, the inner and outer world of tone, the connection of the upper and lower—the heights and the depths in one’s own Community in Singing • 67 being. Singing is such an intimate matter, bound up with one of the most intimate aspects of ourselves—the voice—that one can hardly enter this realm without touching upon the deepest realities. It is almost a holy path. The student does well to take care that it be trodden only with those who are aware that the task goes far beyond the mechanistic and materialistic. Singing enriches, ennobles and strengthens the soul and contributes in large measure to the search for one’s own sense of self in its highest form. Yet when all is said and done, it is also the simplest form of joy that one can experience.

NOTES 1From conversations with Olga Hensel, author of Die Geistige Grundlage des Gesanges, in Stuttgart; and from Hilda Deighton’s and Gina Palermo’s yet unpub­ lished manuscript on the singing technique of Gracia Ricardo. 2Olga Hensel: Die Geistige Grundlage des Gesanges (The Spiritual Basis of Sing­ ing), Stuttgart. Baerenr ter Verlag, 1952. Not available in English. 3Rudolf Steiner, Wege der Geisigen Erkenntnis und der Erneuerung Künstlerischer Welt- enschauung, Dornach: Rudolf Steiner Verlag, 1980 GA 161, Lecture 1, January 1, 1915, Paths to Spiritual Knowledge and to the Renewal of the Artistic World View; not yet published in English. 4Rudolf Steiner, “The Inner Nature of Music and the Experience of Tone,” Lecture IV, December 2, 1922. 5Rudolf Steiner, The Light Course (First Scientific Lecture Course), Lecture 8, Dec. 31, 1919. Translated by George Adams. 6Rudolf Steiner, Paths to Spiritual Knowledge and to the Renewal of the Artistic World; not yet published in English. 7Maria Fuhrmann wrote Die Praxis des Gesanges unter geisteswissenschafilichem Gesichtspunkt (The Practice of Singing in the Light of Spiritual Science). Freiburg, i.Br: Verlag Die Kommenden, 1959. Not available in English. This study includes a description of the connection between planets and tone. Her book is greatly influenced by the research of Anny von Lange. 8Karl Gerbert wrote a pamphlet called “Das ABC der Stimmbildung” (The ABC of Voice Development). Stuttgart: Freis Geistesleben, 1970. Not available in English. 9Rudolf Steiner’s Curriculum for Waldorf Schools by E.A. Karl Stockmeyer and Curriculum of the first Waldorf School assembled by Caroline von Heyderbrand, trans­ lated and with additional notes by Eileen Hutchins. 10Among other studies, the work of Elisabeth Lebret is most helpful for children up to the ninth year: The Shepard’s Songbook for grade I, II and III of Waldorf Schools. Private Edition, copyright 1975. The Reunion of Human Knowledge and Values: On Douglas Sloan

DONNA MARIE TROSTLI

“A movement which is today one of the largest independent edu­ cational movements in the world, and one with its own unique understanding of the child, a comprehensive and detailed cur­ riculum and more than sixty years of teaching practice and institu­ tional experience deserves the informed consideration of those genuinely concerned with education and the development ot whole­ ness. That few American educators know about Waldorf education, and often then on the flimsiest of heresay, is something of a profes­ sional scandal.” Douglas Sloan in Insight-Imagination

T h e Waldorf School movement is spreading rapidly throughout America. There are now schools in nearly half of the fifty states, and new schools are being founded every year. However, there remains a widespread ignorance of what makes Waldorf schools fundamen­ tally different from other schools. Communities in which Waldorf schools exist are often unaware of what the school is striving to accomplish, and it is not uncommon for even supportive parents of Waldorf students to have little or no knowledge of Rudolf Steiner’s educational work. That some well-established Waldorf schools in America are in fact under-enrolled while newer schools struggle as initial enthusiasm wanes is perhaps a reflection and a result of this ignorance. To begin to alleviate this problem, the Waldorf school faculties and teacher training institutes devote a great deal of time and energy to bringing an awareness of this unique education to their com­ 68 On Douglas Sloan • 69 munities through lectures, workshops, and study groups. There are also individuals outside the mainstream of Waldorf education who are devoting themselves to bringing Rudolf Steiner’s work to the fore. One who is working with particular energy towards this goal is Douglas Sloan. For nearly two decades, Douglas Sloan has occupied a position of respect and prestige in the mainstream of American education—as Professor of History and Education at Teachers College of Columbia University and Adjunct Professor of Religion and Education at Union Theological Seminary in New York City. These years of observing, studying, and teaching the history and development of education in our country, together with a nearly equal number of years of personal study and investigation into the work of Rudolf Steiner, have given Dr. Sloan a unique vantage point for perceiving and understanding the overall trends in educational thought and theory and the changing views of man that underlie them. These years of work, and most especially the past seven years, during which he has also served as editor of the Teachers College Record, a scholarly journal which addres­ ses issues of interest to educators and whose readership is worldwide, have also enabled Douglas Sloan to begin to bring Waldorf education more to the attention of the educational community, to promote the process of “informed consideration” of which he speaks in his book Insight-Imagination. His efforts have been tireless; the flowering of these efforts—in the form of symposia, articles, and lectures—has been prodigious and exciting.

Douglas Sloan, who was raised in a Methodist family in the Mid­ west and who was himself ordained a Methodist minister, came to the ideas of Rudolf Steiner in the late 1960’s. Having left the ministry in disillusionment, he was studying and teaching at Columbia Uni­ versity and had become a self-described “19th century rationalist,” believing only in what his senses revealed to him as true, having cast aside his belief in, and commitment to, the spiritual. His studies in education, however, led him to the work of Owen Barfield and M. C. Richards, authors whom he read with great interest, and a sense of recognition and sympathy. When he realized that behind the work of these writers stood the work of Rudolf Steiner, he began the study of Anthroposophy. In the following years, Dr. Sloan be­ came actively involved in the work of the New York Branch of the 70 • DONNA MARIE TROSTLI Anthroposophical Society and the Rudolf Steiner School in New York City, and by the late ’70s he was ready to take up the task of working within his own professional sphere—that of Columbia Uni­ versity and the world of academia—to bring Rudolf Steiner’s work in the field of education to the attention of the academic community. In March 1979, as part of the 50th Anniversary celebrations of the founding of the Rudolf Steiner School in New York, Dr. Sloan helped to organize a conference on the theme of Waldorf Education, which was hosted by Teachers College. Participants included students and faculty from Teachers College as well as parents and teachers from Steiner schools throughout America. Speakers included Henry Barnes, Alan Howard, and John Davy; the texts of their addresses were printed in the Spring 1980 edition of the Teachers College Record under the title, “Waldorf Education: An Introduction.” This first major effort to bring Waldorf education to the attention of the greater educational community met with mixed success: On the one hand, there appeared in the libraries of colleges and universities throughout the country a scholarly, respected educational journal containing ar­ ticles on Waldorf education; and those attending the conference came away with a much clearer idea of what Waldorf schools are and the philosophy of education that underlies them. On the other hand, to quote Sloan: “The scandal continued.” Most professors in the field of education—as in most fields today—are so ensconced in their own specialized niches of study that work outside those interests, especially work of such an apparently generalized nature as Waldorf education, simply does not interest them. The following year Douglas Sloan was the main organizer of a symposium entitled: “Knowledge, Education, and Human Values: Towards the Recovery of Wholeness.” Held in Woodstock, Ver­ mont, in June of 1980 and sponsored by the Kettering Foundation, the symposium brought together fifty participants including philosophers, anthropologists, sociologists, physicists, biologists, and foundation executives to discuss human values in the field of educa­ tion. Again an open forum was created in which Rudolf Steiner’s work, among others, was discussed by professionals concerned about the fragmentation of modern life, and the denial of the spiritual realities which underlie the scientific and technological progress of the modern world. As conference participant Arthur Zajonc later On Douglas Sloan • 71 reflected, "...the greatest issue remained unsolved. Although Rudolf Steiner’s work was openly discussed, it seemed that few were willing to engage themselves with the concrete spiritual realities which he presents and that must be understood if insight is to guide civili­ zation through the next centuries. One sensed a faltering at the trans­ ition from altruistic, philosophical discussion to knowledge of those concrete spiritual realities which can act as the basis for specific re­ forms.” An entire issue of the Teachers College Record was devoted to this conference, thus disseminating the thoughts and concerns of the speakers and the conference organizers far and wide. Also bom out of this conference was Mr. Sloan’s book, Insight-Imagination. Pro­ posed by Robert Lehman of the Charles F. Kettering Foundation, this book is Mr. Sloan’s own, deep investigation into the themes of the conference focusing on the work of physicist David Bohm of the University of London, and of author Owen Barfield. In his book Mr. Sloan first examines the “fragmented thinking, broken world” of today, where qualities are nonexistent and in which wholeness and unity are dissolved away, a world in which the knower is an onlooker, removed from his study, analyzing ever smaller and smaller parts, seeking control over nature.” Mr. Sloan then explores ways of reconnecting human knowledge with human values and meaning, ways of reachieving wholeness. The healing must come through a recovery of Imagination and of Insight—terms which at a certain level are interchangeable. Imagination is “that participation of the whole person—in logical thinking, feeling, and willing—in the act of cognition.” Insight is David Bohm’s term: “A dimension of intel­ ligibility previously inaccessible, a breakthrough in which old thought patterns and categories dissolve and are reordered at a higher level of intelligibility, in which there is something new that was not present before.” A love and reverence for language and for words, a recog­ nition of the traditional wisdom and teachings of civilization and of the development of consciousness, a “renewed appreciation of the technical instrumental reason as the indispensable servant, but not master, of the creative potentialities of the human being”—all are necessary for a return to wholeness, for Insight and Imagination. An education which allows for and fosters the development of these two ideals will have as its goal not simply intellectual achievements but will involve the “participation of the person as a total willing, feeling, 72 • DONNA MARIE TROSTLI valuing, thinking being. It will have as its prime purpose the complete harmonious realization of the full capacities and potential of the indi­ vidual as a whole person.” Mr. Sloan speaks, in his final chapter, about Rudolf Steiner and Waldorf education, and although he is careful to make clear that he is not giving an exposition of Waldorf education nor portraying its educational theory and practice, he speaks of Steiner’s educational work with clarity, understanding, and devo­ tion. Rudolf Steiner spoke of Anthroposophy as arising in man as “a need of the heart, of the life of feeling: only they can be Anthroposoph­ ists who feel certain questions about the nature of man and the universe as an elemental need of life, just as one feels hunger and thirst.” It is perhaps not so surprising then that Waldorf education, based as it is upon the foundation of Anthroposophy, remains largely ignored by educators at large. Without an openness to and interest in a spiritual understanding of the child, a true recognition of Waldorf education is impossible. Yet work such as Douglas Sloan’s is of immeasurable value. In each article, lecture, and discussion that Mr. Sloan has initiated, Anthroposophy has “peeped in through little windows. ”†

[Image: photograph][Image: Douglas Sloan speaking with Houston Smith. †The phrase is Rudolf Steiner’s, used in the series of lectures printed as Human Values in Education. TO LOOK ON EARTH WITH MORE THAN MORTAL EYES by Marjorie Spock. St. George Publications, Spring Valley, N.Y., 1984; 105 pages, paper, $5.95.

Readers of Marjorie Spock’s books will be delighted that yet another of her volumes has appeared in print. In style similar to her preceding In Celebration of the Human Heart, this work is more specifically an intro­ duction to the life and work of Rudolf Steiner. It is formed into twelve chapter/musings, the initial two of which are introductory and offer a vivid portrayal of our times and of the human soul condition that prevails. Ours is characterized as an age of seeking, in which not to understand has become intolerable to millions. In man’s urgency to know, “he is prepared to run any necessary risks. He chances blowing the earth to bits ... and fares forth undaunted into the unimaginable loneliness of cosmic space.” It seems likely, the author concludes, that the search for knowledge will turn out to have been the main concern of the 20th century. “The tyranny of the old doctrine that ‘we cannot know’ is being overthrown by a generation that insists on knowing.” She goes on to examine some of the obstacles looming between seeker and sought, namely attitudes and outlooks, one of which she calls the “man-merely-of-his-time mentality,” an outlook “limited to the thought- patterns or opinion of the period.” Consisting of “an odd mixture of conceit and prejudice, it conditions its victims to look down on all pre­ ceding epochs as benighted while embracing current dogma as the gospel truth.” It is an unbelievably naive and childlike attitude, she points out, in an age otherwise so sophisticated, leading to a narrow (and dangerous) complacency. As a complementary picture, she then describes the polar opposite current of esoteric schooling, concerned with educating heart and will as much as with training thinking and thus nurturing a quite different power of understanding from the “cold, sharp, cutting edge of intellect.” Further, “In keeping with this goal, all subject matter is so presented that its human relevance comes to the fore to touch the student at the center of his being and engage his will in responsible, creative action. ... To call such schooling Anthropos-sophia is to come as close to describing it as word can do.” The introductory chapters continue with a well-described image of an amnesiac, in whom “memory, which the self-aware carry through their experience as a continuous thread of light, is . .. an extinguished candle.” An entire age can suffer from such a condition, “lacking the long perspec­ tive that alone makes sense of a progression.” Providing a polar alterna­ tive, the author gives a contrasting picture: “An evolutionary outlook that discerns man’s place in a sense-making perspective is an orienting 74 • MARJORIE SPOCK force . . . an effective therapy for those who suffer from the time’s am­ nesia. ...” At this point, Rudolf Steiner’s contributions are presented as an antidote for the conditions of our times, and a brief summary of his life and work is given. Along with some biographical details, he is described as a man “as approachable as he was inspiring, as concerned with the welfare of those about him as with the progress of his impersonal work, as careful to be clear in presentation as he was artistic in his touch. He was modest and undramatic in his bearing, a man who loved people and laughter, who knew in depth and honored with the most respectful attention what others near and far were doing, thinking, and creating.” The remainder of the book is devoted to presenting main themes of Rudolf Steiner’s Anthroposophy, those “perhaps most relevant to the needs of modern seekers.” The book does not, however, attempt a thorough, detailed characteri­ zation of Anthroposophy. On the contrary, the author emphasizes that these chapters are only sketches of major themes. Further, the themes are not enumerated in a factual, diagrammatic manner, but are a nexus in which one theme is woven into preceding and following themes. The tone is conversational throughout. Touched on are evolution and growth rhythms; spirals and reversals (Umstuelpungen)\ pain, Christ, evil, Lucifer and Ahriman; process, change, and freedom; sleep, death, destiny, and reimbodiment; the hidden realm of the spiritual world, the quest, and the pilgrimage; thought, will, and feeling, round and linear forms; the path of esoteric training. As always, much is to be gained from reading one of Marjorie Spock’s books, whether as novice or as experienced student. Her language is of a rare quality, and certain passages could be called incomparable. These are sentences that can jog us, awaken us, expand us, and stimulate our own musings. Such sentences, livingly crafted in sound, contain worlds within them. In them, basic anthroposophical concepts have been taken hold of and recreated by the writer. Since the presentation is not factual in style, a certain responsiveness and activity are required of the reader. These musings are also not directed to the more technical aspects of Anthroposophy. Like the earlier In Celebration, this work is thus a good general book suitable for the newcomer to Anthroposophy or for the open-minded non-anthroposophist. Included in the text are three “illus­ trations” in words: the poem by James Stephens was for me particularly moving, as a conclusion to the discussion of evil and its necessity and purpose in the world. While the author’s intent has been to single out essentials rather than to develop the book’s themes in great detail, too brief a treatment can Look to Earth • 75 run the risk of leaving an oversimplified (and thus potentially fixed or one-sided) impression. The experienced reader can of course round out the picture for him- or herself. In a couple of instances, a bit more development would have been appreciated by this particular reader: al­ though the will is described as enlivening thinking, it would be a pleasure to see what Marjorie Spock could do in presenting more specifically the interworkings of light and darkness, of thought and will, so that the earthly, substantial will-nature could be more emphatically portrayed as a working partner in the creation of both wisdom and love. Perhaps the author will turn her attention to expanding this topic in a future work. Another point, perhaps also for a future work, would be a clarification and expansion of something that Marjorie Spock assuredly understands very well herself: the relation between what are characterized as “passive” senses and the imagination. For the Goetheanist, of course, it is just the senses that can open to door to “real” imagination rather than to idle fancy, in the study of the manifestations and transformations of supersen­ sible forces in nature. A word about the format, which is a great improvement over the preceding volume. The book is a comfortably held standard size (5 -1/2 x 8 --1/2 inches) and is printed on high-quality off-white paper in a very pleasing type. The cover lettering is by Peter van Oordt, and there is a frontispiece photograph of Rudolf Steiner. Many thanks are due to St. George Publications for making another of Marjorie Spock’s rich works available to her growing circle of readers.

—-Jeanne Bergen ART AND HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS by Gottfried Richter. Translated by Burley Channer and Margaret Froelich, An­ throposophic Press, Spring Valley, N.Y., 1985; 271 pages with + xvi pls. 78 Figs. 13, $30.00

This remarkable book, originally published in 1937 (but since revised), appears with an eloquent preface by Konrad Oberhuber of Harvard and an enlightening introduction by the author dated 1976. It presents in eight rather loosely connected chapters an interpretation of the history of European art (including its origins in Egypt) as the unfolding of human consciousness regarded as a suprapersonal phenomenon. Three of the chapters concern Egypt, one Greece, one (short) Roman and Early Chris­ tian times, one Medieval times, one the Renaissance and a final sweep “From the Baroque to Modern Times.” The emphasis is largely on ar­ chitecture, obviously the author’s specialty, although sculpture and then painting are introduced at certain strategic points. A fundamental feature of Richter’s method is to examine the consciousness of each period in the light of its sustaining myths (e.g., the Bird Bennu and the Sphinx, Apollo, the Virgin Mary). Richter’s concern with widest philosophical verities couched in a poetic style relates his work to several contemporary books, notably Ernst B uschor’s On The Meaning of Greek Statues (1942) and Henri Focillon’s The Life of Forms in Art (1934). All three of these works were, in their various ways, wrested from the cataclysmic destructive forces of their time through an implicit, if not explicit, faith that artistic creations of the past give evidence of what Richter calls “this visible-invisible human being” who is more than an abstraction for the countless individual human beings who materialize and vanish in ages, epochs, cultures, groups. In short, these authors dared to speak about meaningful goals, rhythms, and recurring stages spanning centuries and millennia. Despite some earlier precedents for this (e.g., Riegl and Wölfflin), these authors were departing from the already-established practice of treating art history as a discipline which studies works of art strictly as objects which reflect human activity: documents to be investigated impersonally for their value in reconstructing an externally conceived, largely discontinuous record of civilization (at present this is increasingly done by interdisciplinary teams). Aesthetic considerations are left to aestheticians who usually have the same ideal of impersonality (but cf. recently T. H. Martland, Religion as A rt). The titanic forces of positivistic materialism emerging after WW II have crushed under tons of scholarly facts the thoughts of the above- mentioned writers and their few followers and also related insights from 76 Art and Human Consciousness • 77 early twentieth-century theosophical inspiration, such as a painting’s iden­ tity as a living being (Kandinsky) and works of art as symptoms for the history of spiritual evolution (Steiner). The major task of the next gen­ eration is to reconnect with these traditions without losing regard for knowledge assembled by positivistic methods. All three of the authors mentioned were trained art historians but made use of what might best be described as the extended essay rather than the traditional scholarly book heavily ballasted with footnotes. Thus they pointed the way for what Albert Steffen never tired of demonstrating as a new belles lettres essay: a free artistic means of communicating with wider circles than merely colleague-specialists (under the strict tabu of revealing any spiritual orientation). Richter, however, as a priest of the Christian Community, differs from the others in relating art history without reservation to Rudolf Steiner’s Christological concepts. His book was, apparently, originally destined for use in Warldorf schools and remains nonexistent to the monolithic “scientism” of contemporary Ger­ man art history. If the intention of the translators, who have obviously devoted great pains to their task, was to make it available to English- speaking W aldorf schools, then their choice of a title hardly matters. But for other purposes they might have done better not to reject a more literal translation of Richter’s unpretentious title: “(New) Ideas on Art History” or something similar, for it defines exactly what the book is about and its method (no claim to comprehensiveness). In the first place, by no stretch of the imagination does “art” have the same set of conno­ tations as “art history.” Secondly, their title sounds too much like one of the currently stylish books which treat art (music, etc., not excluded) on assumptions of contemporary social sciences far from the rigorous spiritual methodology of Richter. Indeed, Richter presents monumental ideas on art history in more senses than one as he demonstrates his thesis—that art reflects the descent of man into the grave of the physical body—largely by analyzing a monumental architectural type characteristic of each age: the Egyptian tomb, the Greek temple, the Roman “triumphal arch,” the medieval cathedral, the Baroque architectural complex. After this he suddenly shifts to painting to get the measure of our age—his privilege, of course, but one wonders whether the Crystal Palace as the first world exhibition building could not have represented the nineteenth century and the first Goetheanum the initial statement of the true Consciousness Soul age (after recapitulation of the previous epoch). The possibilities given here of a meditative recreation of human history as a path from outwardness to conscious inwardness in the experience of spirituality are virtually unlimited. Yet, even granted the license of the essay form, the casual, 78 • GOTTFRIED RICHTER almost condescending, treatment of the genius of Roman architecture seems to me a distortion of the thesis. This attitude towards the Romans is a “culture-bound” phenomenon of the later nineteenth century which Steiner himself did not entirely escape. A reinterpretation/rehabilitation of Roman art has begun recently in the academic world and it will not behoove anthroposophic circles to remain aloof from it. In regard to the esoteric content of Richter’s book, it must be pointed out that Ernst Uehli wrote a series of scholarly books (without footnotes!) covering much of the same material in great detail: on cave painting (1957), on Egyptian art and myth (1955), Greek art and myth (1958), and other more specialized studies on the art of Ravenna and the High Renaissance. These, like other studies by anthroposophic writers on art (e.g., E. Bock, H. Krause-Zimmer), remain untranslated and surely largely unknown to the general public. This is an important book, a true pioneering effort. Its originality is obvious and its fecundity is opened to extension through this translation. Exactly because it may be looked at critically by nonanthroposophists, I felt it important to mention some reservations I have about particular matters: the interpretation of the royal Egyptian pose as only striding; omission of reference to the KA, particularly in relation to false doors; dismissal of all value in the traditional divisions of the Egyptian kingdoms; omission of the tombs at Beni Hasan in the discussion of rock-cut tombs; niggardly discussion of contrapposto (even the word is not used); lan­ guage of Minoan Crete called Greek; equation of Apollo with the Christ (p. 141)—if this is intended. It is not always clear to me when Christ is used as collective mankind and when as a separate prototype for individual men. The translation reads well, although I have not considered the German text, but is not without a few infelicities and Germanisms. The publishers are to be congratulated for a well-illustrated volume exhibiting high professional standards. — J. Leonard Benson[Image: photograph,unattributed] RUMORS OF PEACE by Ella Leffland. Harper and Row, New York, N.Y., 1979; $10.95. Suse, the protagonist of Rumors of Peace, grows up in California during World War II, a time that raised questions and fears that touched sensitive children as well as adults. As she matures from age eleven to fifteen, her soul awakens to themes of good and evil; she discovers thinking and knowledge as central to the human spirit, and she wrestles with the meaning of life. All this is sensitively and humorously portrayed against a backdrop of turbulent friendships, colorful family life, and time in school. On the first page, Suse remembers: “In the dark I plagued my sister with questions. She had metal curlers in her hair and lay with her back to me. ‘Karla. Who’s God?’ She would drag the pillow over her head. I would stick my head under the pillow. ‘Tell me.’ Karla was a kind and generous sister, but at night she wished to sleep. And it was then that my questions came to me. ‘Tell me.’” Until Pearl Harbor, Suse was happy, except for school, where “the cold, busy squeak of chalk on the blackboard, George Washington’s pale eyelids drooping at us from the wall—all this inspired me with a hopeless sense of wasted time, my object in life being to climb and swing from trees and other high things.” The attack on Pearl Harbor shocks her town into wakeful wariness and she begins to read all the news about the war. Headlines and articles about battles, advances, retreats, surren­ ders, and domestic preparedness are woven throughout the book. Suse succumbs to an irrational prejudice fed by the propaganda against the enemy, a prejudice alien to the rest of her family and friends. She meets a schoolmate, Peggy, who at first is as unmotivated as Suse regarding school. Peggy feels overshadowed by her older sister, Helen Maria, a brilliant, witty, scholarly genius who matriculates in college years ahead of her age. It is Helen Maria who challenges, stimulates, and sometimes mocks Suse in her rigid opinions. At one point, Suse grows upset to read that Italian delegates met with the Allies in Lisbon after the fall of Sicily. ‘“They discussed the terms of Italy’s surrender,’ (Suse) said. ‘They discussed. They were enemies, and they sat there politely discussing!’ (Helen Maria’s) brow dropped. ‘What do you want them to do? Shoot one another?’ 79 80 • ELLA LEFFLAND ‘Yes! Or why should the soldiers? If those big ones don’t hate each other, why should the soldiers?’ ‘I believe I once explained to you that war is an economics-based phenomenon. Those in charge have nothing against each other on an emotional level.’ ‘That doesn’t make any sense.’ ‘What’s more, soldiers don’t hate each other either ... Take Ver­ dun . . . On Christmas Day the Allied soldiers climbed out of their trenches, and the Germans out of theirs, and throwing their rifles to the mud, they proceeded to have a jolly game of soccer.’ ‘You don’t expect me to believe that.’ . . . ‘Go to your history books if you don’t think I’m serious. Read about war, if you’re so interested in it. Read about Verdun.’ ‘Verdun wasn’t an important war,’ (Suse) said defensively.” Helen Maria quickly corrects that error, then later continues: “‘Why do you insist that everyone burst with hatred? Isn’t it more practical not to hate, since the enemy will more than likely become the ally afterwards, and vice versa?’ ‘You make it sound like a game.’ ‘Because that’s what it is.’ ‘It is not . . . They hate us, and we hate them. We hate them, and we’ll always hate them.’ ‘Ah, ... hatred as something to hold it all together. To give it point. Since nothing else does.’” Peggy first discovers the joy that scholarship brings and describes with excitement to Suse how many different ideas fit together—the words vassal and feudal from history lessons shared the same Greek root hypo, meaning ‘under,’ with hypothermal which described molten rocks under the earth’s crust that had just been covered in the science lesson. “‘I guess that’s interesting,’ I (Suse) said. ‘You mean it makes sense.’ ‘Absolutely,’ said Peggy. ‘You mean it really does. It’s all connected up.’ ‘Of course,’ said Helen Maria. ‘That’s what learning is all about. I have been trying to tell you that for ages. From ignorance and confusion, learning leads out.' ‘Out where?’ I asked. A sudden glimpse of the black, starless sky. ‘To more learning, greater understanding. One fact unfolds another. Liken it to a great flower opening.’ ‘The flower of knowledge.’ I could see it. A big golden rose, with petals fitting smoothly together and opening one by one to release its light, until the whole flower blazed like the sun.” Rumors of Peace • 81 Suse’s own quest for knowledge is not inspired out of love of learning, but from crushes on various teachers in her school. Her learning alleviates none of the prejudice she feels towards the enemy nations of World War II. Only the report of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima shakes Suse to her foundations: “What did it mean, a city that had ceased to exist, ... the basic power of the universe? A new epoch of push-button warfare? . .. A whole city of people, ceasing to exist. And who had done it? Not the Nazis or the Japs themselves, but us, the good ones, the ones we were supposed to have faith in, who talked of constructive thought, creative­ ness, cooperation, drawing the good out of people. They themselves were the black beetles.” The book ends with a reaffirmation of life on the earth when Suse, distraught by the bombing, seeks comfort from Egon, a Jewish friend who was the only one of his family to escape the Nazis in Berlin. He was preparing to leave for Nuremberg, where he hoped to serve as translator for the trials. Suse laments, “' ... I’ve waited for all these years, just for it (the war) to be finished! I thought it would be such a wonderful day—’ ‘It is. It’s finished. And it’s a wonderful day,’ (replied Egon, who then pulled Suse over to a window). 'Are you looking out there? Do you see what’s there? Hills and trees and houses, a blue sky! How much do you want? ... It’s a beautiful day. And the war is over. You say that you have waited all these years,—well I have waited too. And now I want to be glad that it’s over.... Are you looking (out the window)? Then remember it.’” Later, Suse reflects, “How much do you want? he had asked, and the true answer was everything, peace, glory, love, life everlasting, and all he had shown me was a window, a summer day, and what he meant I didn’t know, but I would remember it, I would remember it and keep it. ” This is a book worth reading, for despite all the grimness of the war and the sufferings that serve as its backdrop, it awakens a renewed com­ passion for all people, and especially for souls growing up in this century who struggle with overwhelming world dilemmas. But above all, this book, in the story that it tells, sings of the joy of the human spirit.

— Sandra Doren THE INNER NATURE OF MUSIC AND THE EXPERIENCE OF TONE by Rudolf Steiner. Seven lectures on the subject of music, translated by Maria St. Goar. Anthroposophic Press; Spring Valley, N.Y., 1983; 144 pages, $14.95.

Conventional wisdom, inspired to a great extent by the positivism of the past century, holds that music consists of random sounds organized into a semblance of order at the discretion of certain persons genetically predisposed by Nature’s well-oiled machine to accomplish such a teat! O f course there are and have been challengers to this view, and anyone seeking a different outlook on the subject of music should read the seven lectures given by Rudolf Steiner, three in 1906, one in 1922, and three in 1923. The edition is free of excessive footnoting, and the mix of clear English and of the original language and Steiner’s turn of the phrase seems perfect. Nowhere during the lectures does Steiner mention any specific musical composition; composers are hardly mentioned at all—Bruckner surfaces on a tangent and the Bach family, together with the Bernoullis, a clan of mathematics wizards, only appear to illustrate how certain indi­ vidualities seek specific bodies in which to incarnate, to fulfill their des­ tinies. Yet the essence of these lectures is music. The details of its physical manifestations take a back seat, allowing the spiritual processes and the evolution of music and Man through the ages to rise to the fore. In 1923, Rudolf Steiner gave a cycle of lectures on tone eurythmy. A cycle on music was planned for 1924 but the onset of his last illness prevented this from taking place. If Steiner in his many writings appears to have neglected music, these seven lectures demonstrate that he found it to be the most exalted of the arts. It commands a special position by virtue of its incorporeality, tone being the fabric of the spiritual world, Devachan. Music is an earthly revelation of that world. In his 1906 lectures he points out, that just as the painter recollects, unconsciously perhaps, his sleep experience of the colors of the astral world, the musician is able to reproduce the tones of Devachan. The painter and sculptor moreover fashion their work after a mental image: Music, on the other hand, the melodies and harmonies of tones, is nature’s direct expression. The musician hears the pulse of the divine will that flows through the world; he hears how this will expresses itself in tones ... Music is the expression of the will of nature, while all the other arts are the expressions of the idea o f nature.

8 2 The Inner Nature of Music • 83 The listener is not immune to this close link to the spiritual world. “From the soul’s primeval home, the spiritual world,” says Rudolf Steiner,” the sounds of music are borne across to us and speak comfortingly and encouragingly to us in surging melodies and harmonies.” The 1922 and ’23 lectures elaborate on the theme of music as a link to, and archetype of the spiritual world. Lectures five and six in the book were given to Waldorf teachers in Stuttgart and treat the evolution of music and Man, and the application of this knowledge to pedagogy. Music in the Atlantean age, Steiner tells us, was “arranged according to continuing sevenths.” On experiencing that particular interval, the Atlantean “felt free of his earthbound existence and transported into another world...’’ As the soul descended into a more corporeal state, the interval grew smaller and the experience changed. In the experience of the fifth Man became aware of his earthly existence while simultane­ ously feeling membered into the language of the gods. Music making was an objective world-process. As the gods withdrew from Man, the experience of the fifth became empty, and was ultimately replaced by the experience of the third, in which “Man began to relate the feeling for his destiny and ordinary life to the musical element.” Along with it came the major and minor modes which are expressions of sentient soul (major) and the sentient body (minor), Steiner tells us in 1906. Harmony (thinking), also issued from the experience of the third, and can be tem­ pered to an extent by melody (feeling) and rhythm (will). These obser­ vations are vital for those in the teaching profession: Just as the child should comprehend only fifths during the first years of school—at most fourths, but not thirds; it begins to grasp thirds inwardly only from age nine onward—one can also say that the child easily understands the element of harmony only when it reaches the age of nine or ten. In the same breath Rudolf Steiner warns against pedantic applications, for “pedantry must never play a role in the artistic.” The fourth lecture, given after a recital by the Svardstrom sisters at the Goetheanum in 1922, focuses mainly on language and its relation to art. The vowel element, associated with exhalation and the song-like language of the spiritual world, weaves itself around the more material, sculptural element experienced in consonants. If one therefore extracts from the human being the consonants, the art of sculpture arises; if one extracts from the human being the breath, which the soul makes use of in order to play on the instrument in song, if one extracts the vowel element, the art of music, of song, arises.” 84 • RUDOLF STEINER Finally, lecture seven is an expansion of the outline of the spiritual evolu­ tion of Man and music. The musical experience in the Lemurian age remained outside the octave and therefore outside the self. Major and minor thirds could be experienced as objective, as “the god’s cosmic sounds of joy and lamentation.” Steiner adds, “What today we know as an inner minor mood experience, man perceived in the Lemurian age as the overwhelming lamentation of the gods concerning the possibility that humanity could fall victim to what subsequently has been described in the Bible as the fall into sin, the falling away from the benevolent driving-spiritual powers.” To rediscover what was lost Man will have to become conscious of how that “which has become inward can once again find the way out to the divine spiritual.” In the experience of the prime, life within a single tone, we will be able to experience the “I” both as an earthly manifestation and as a spiritual one in the octave.

— Marton Radkai

[Image: painting][Image: Angel Musicians; detail of panels for an organ gallery by Hans Memlinc (c. 1430-1494); Musee Beaux-Arts, Antwerp Notes on Contributors

J. Leonard Benson is professor of art history at the University of Massachusetts in Amherst. Jeanne Bergen is a naturalist, writer and has for several years been a member of the Journal’s editorial staff. Sandra Doren has been a class teacher at the Waldorf schools in Harlemville, NY, and Amherst, MA. Marton Radkai is a freelance writer and music critic. Dr. Udo Renzenbrink is a physician in Bad Liebenzell, West Ger­ many. His article is based on research and practical tests of The Working Circle for Nutrition Research. David Schultz is a clinical psychologist at Yale’s Waterbury hospital. He also teaches at Yale University. Dr. Uwe Stave is a physician at the Gemeinschaftskrankenhaus Herdecke, and the University Witten/Herdecke. For many years he directed research in pediatrics at the Fels Institute in Yellow Springs, Ohio. Donna Marie Trostli has been a class teacher at the Rudolf Steiner School of Great Barrington. She presently lives in New York City. Dina Soresi Winter a former opera and concert singer, directs sing­ ing workshops in the United States and in Europe. She is responsible for the singing program at the Waldorf Institute of Mercy College in Detroit, MI. Arthur G. Zajonc is associate professor of physics at Amherst Col­ lege with research interests in modern optics and the history of sci­ ence. He is editor of the Journal for Anthroposophy.

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