The Routledge Companion to Biology in Art and Architecture Biology In

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The Routledge Companion to Biology in Art and Architecture

Charissa N. Terranova, Meredith Tromble

Biology in Architecture

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315687896.ch2 Anna P. Sokolina Published online on: 08 Sep 2016

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Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 15:54 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315687896, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315687896.ch2 ming ofdecorative styles. natural shellsforgrowth ortheprogram andtransformation, offorms ratherthanthemimicry individual modelsas knowledge ofstructural logistics ofthearchitect andthesenseofinternal tal improvement from by nature. learning ofpracticeddesignpatterns Suchholismprioritizes of aimed holistic at livingthe advancement and toward in the service of technologies fundamen experience.philosophical andspiritual From thisperspective, anthroposophical architecture is and construction. Ievaluate architecture asaculturallystructured, sociallyrooted matterof the restoration andpreservation ofthenaturalbalanceenvironment by creative design architecture.influence oforganicthoughtoncontemporary intheGoetheanum analysisofanthropomorphism opensacross-cultural debateonthe torical of lightandcolorastherevelation ofuniversal ofmindandsoul. mysteries Ultimately, thehis responding tobio-cyclesofnaturallifeandtheperceptionrooted ofmetamorphoses inatheory phy, awareness. whichcombinedhumanphysicality andspiritual Designfrom thisperspective is living insustainable balance.material Itwas built topogra onthenotionofanthropomorphic functionalism,and utilitarian evolution theGoetheanum emergedasthevisionofspiritual of revolutionary paradigms culture progress modeledonindustrial based ontheideaofmaterial tive philosophicalstrainwithinmodernism. Distinctfrom thedominantrationalistnarrative of of theGoetheanum projects aneven strongerdesign initiatives. impulseoncontemporary Goetheanum, withremarkable individuals involved initsdesign-build history. tragedies, itwas presented intwo consecutive physical andtheSecond appearancesastheFirst hate andmagnifiedlove from around theglobe. cataclysms andpersonal Asa result ofhistorical ofnaturallifecyclesandstudiesin biology.theory Over theyears, the building hasunleashed the anthroposophical sciencedeveloped onthefoundationofJohann Wolfgang von Goethe’s Dornach, ofthetwentieth asaphysical Switzerlandatthebeginning century manifestationof throughration of global harmony people creating their living environment. It was erected in innovative basedarchitectural biologically form, embodiedRudolfSteiner’s ideaoftheresto The Goetheanum isapublic withauniquechronology structure andcharacterthat, inan Rudolf Steiner’s PhilosophicalModernism The approach toanthroposophical architecture isconsidered through thelensofecology: In thischapter, thephenomenonofGoetheanisticarchitecture isexplored asanalterna Biology inArchitecture The GoetheanumCaseStudy 3 Anna P. Sokolina 1 Today, theculture 2 2 ------

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 15:54 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315687896, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315687896.ch2 itual essenceof the term: “Anthroposophy isapath ofknowledge aimingtoguide thespiritual meaning “wisdom.” definition, Intheoriginal RudolfSteiner(1861–1925)stressed thespir The term “anthroposophy” comesfrom theGreek roots The GoetheanumandAnthroposophy creating sustainable spaces. streaming andfloatingoflifeprocesses incoordination by design, of grounding istheprinciple tive the unity and complexityof the whole. Therefore, holism as such withinarchitecture, the structures, identifyinperspec relations withinitsparts asmuch asthesenseofplaceandinternal ture andintegrative design. The environment definesthemessageandlanguageofindividual based ontheliteralimitationofnaturalshapes, but isaresult ofthecareful attunementtostruc evolved over timeaccording tobothitsenvironmental andsocioculturalmilieu. Itsshapeisnot that thebuilding andsitebeaholisticone. The building must respond uniquely toitscontext: it the the universe. by This thinking is informed Aristotle’s definitionofholism, in whichhe described connection withthenaturalenvironment. Holisticallyspeaking, itisincommunication with ism withitsown soulandspirit, abreathing entityindevelopmental aninternal process bearing ofunitywithrootsdiscourse inclassical Antiquity. The building isaliving socioculturalorgan Marianne Schubert. Source: Courtesy of the Goetheanum Archive, Dornach; image provided for publication in 1992 with support by 1921 Figure 2.1 By referring to the Goetheanum in terms of totheGoetheanum interms By referring “holism,” I situate thebuilding inaphilosophical Metaphysics

The FirstGoetheanum,architect RudolfSteiner, 1913–1920.Southview, photograph as “the wholeislargerthanthesumofitsparts.” anthropos , meaning “human,” and 4 For Steiner, itwas important Biology inArchitecture sophia 53 - - - - ,

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 15:54 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315687896, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315687896.ch2 54 impulse. national community revealed Steiner’s practicalintentionofcreating astrong bio-architectural cultural, social, oftheanthroposophically inspired andeducationalcenterforgatherings inter mankind asawhole.” from ofhumanity…were theoutset interests ofoneportion placedabove theinterests of Society.” that caused Steiner to leaveKrishnamurti the movement, the and to form Anthroposophical had always inspiration, looked to the Eastforspiritual and “it was Theosophy’s of endorsement Steiner’s thinking by way philosophies. of Eastern She argues that the Theosophical Society messiahfigure, ofanew Christ incarnation amongotherissues.” Anthroposophy afterbreaking with Theosophists over asthe therecognition ofKrishnamurti perception sincechildhood, andhelaterdeveloped hisown ‘supersensible’ scienceof spiritual things, twentieth-century agreat mystic.” Steiner “claimed tohave hadclairvoyant powers of Michael Brennan underscores Steiner’s critic Art by arguing that he was, spirituality “of all was inflected by theholisticdevelopment knowledge. ofnaturalscienceshaped by spiritual say, inthesametransformative way thatGoethe’s naturalsciencewas rooted inthephysical world. and aesthetichuman-centered awareness rooted inthe narrative oftheGoetheanum, that isto observation following themethodsofnaturalscience.” on Western hisinsightsastheresult of philosophicaltraditionsandhedescribed “introspective essence,internal whereas anthroposophy advocated Christianity. Steiner’s approach was based fied terms, theosophy theHinduconcept ofdivine descents, asserted i.e. avatars deprived from theosophical teachingsevolving philosophy. religious toward ofEastern thequarries Insimpli ofthe formation Anthroposophical from Societyanditsdeparture thetheosophicalmovement. branchofthe oftheGerman Secretary Theosophical Society. In1913Dr. Steiner announcedthe personality, broad scopeofknowledge, talent. andrhetorical In1902hewas appointedGeneral ences, literature, attheBerlin andhistory Workers’ School, andwas renowned forhischarismatic the Goethe Archive in Weimar, andlaterasapublisher inBerlin. There healsolectured insci phy in1891attheUniversity ofRostockinGermany. Steinerworked aseditorandscholarat the Alps. Hestudiedatthe Technical University in hisdoctorateinphiloso Vienna andearned in inhumble circumstances,Austria heretained hisawareness ofnature from hischildhoodin cine, Waldorf education, Eurhythmy art, as new performance and biodynamic agriculture. ous remarkable creative endeavors, including Goetheanistic architecture, anthroposophical medi educator, socialreformist, andlecturer, prolific writer artist, extraordinary andinitiatorof numer century. trailblazing philosopher, Hewas Renaissanceman: a scholar, atrue literary scientist, universe.” “as anessentialneedoflife,” anevolutionary naturalexperience “of thehumanbeingand technical advancement as a means of human survival. awareness Steiner identified bio-spiritual as a core valueitual organic learning of socialdevelopment, anthroposophy opposes soulless intheuniverse.”element inthehumanbeingtospiritual Anna P. Sokolina site, while thesitecouldreciprocally actback. inworking withthe This vitalcomplementarity time, architecture agency ofresistance hegranted inthatitcould push upagainstthe acertain order naturevaried impersonal controlleddesign. andnot the by factory-based At thesame envisioned landscapesworking inconjunctionwithbuildings thatwould follow of therules ited diverse identities. Heinsistedthatarchitecture needs, responds notonlytosheltering and Steiner’s philosophy ofhumanhabitats was unconventional. Itembracedarchitecture’s unlim The conceptoftheGoetheanum integrated Western monotheismandRussiancosmism, and science,As aspiritual anthroposophy confronted meditative dominating thefatalist doctrine Steiner foundedanthroposophy asaschoolofthinkingintheearlyyears ofthetwentieth 11 6 Steiner insisted that: “the reason why Blavatsky’s Steinerinsistedthat: “the Theosophy went astray was that 12 The fundamentalideaofbuilding theGoetheanum asacontemporary 8 Steinerdeveloped ideasoftheethical 5 Bymanifestingtheideaofspir 10 Carole M. Cusack frames Carole M. Cusack 7 Born Born ------9

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 15:54 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315687896, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315687896.ch2 Central tothiswas impulseoftheGoetheanum, thebiological whichsignifiedtheuniversal idea developing rooted inthecreative incontrastaparallelmodernity ofearlycivilization. beginnings side theprofession ofarchitecture, modernism, Steinerresisted thedominantideasofutilitarian and communal undertaking.an enlightenedpersonal talentedindividual fromA uniquely out any politicalforce, architecture naturally, would rise asaresult ofcraftandtransformation, andas ture was intended as a meaningful connection between and the sky. the earth Unaffiliated with oftheBauhaus. alist principles landscape liberatedarchitecture from codeofstandards imposedby theprescribed thefunction the physical manifestationofthe idea, but a real building containingaliving potential of the macrocosmic universe. naturecesses ofliving asthehuman bodydoes nature itselfwhile atthesametimemirroring Therefore, his buildings didnotslavishly imitatenaturalforms, but exhibitedtheorganic pro like asheaththatprotects thehumanbody. For Steiner, architecture was aliving integument. the natural “third skin” by providing environments harmonious forcommunities, functioning to beaplanetary, oftheliving organism. part matterandanintegral earthly Itwas toserve as developed anideaofinhabitable spatial tice ofarchitectural designand the anatomy ofthehumanbody. From thisperspective, Steiner and intuition, perceived of art. through forms varied couldnotbeexclusivelyrules explainedby rationalistscientificmethods but also by emotion ofnature,reading ofthehiddenrules cannotexplore otherwise.” whichthehumanspirit other means. In this vein, he quoted Goethe, maintaining architecture should be based on “a any art, ofarchitecture, includingtheart reveals thetruth, whichisimpossible todepictthrough dogmas foranarchitectural vernacular. Hisapproach was insteaduniversalizing. Hebelieved that astheFounder ofaNewtion: “Goethe Scienceof Aesthetics.” Society was dedicatedtoGoetheasanartist, anemphasisonholisticintegra thetitleoffering science andhiswork asanartist. Steiner’s lecture first delivered in ViennatotheGoethe color definingthenew aestheticsinspired by Goethe’s teachings. Goetheanum, presented andthescienceof constructive insightsintotectonicmetamorphoses lectures “Ways toaNew Stylein Architecture,” thebuilding givenoftheFirst in1914during would embodythisnew approach after him, callingittheGoetheanum. Steiner identifiedGoetheasthefounderofa “new aesthetics,” andnamedthe building that ofaesthetic,gration moral, perceptions oftheworld andspiritual inorganicarchitectural form. EnlightenmentJohann scientist oftheGerman Wolfgang von Goethe, andemphasizedtheinte tectural style” anda “new aesthetics,” hereexamined theideasofphilosopher, poet, and impetus formassive practicalendeavors. cism. considered Others himavisionary, seeinginthisunique combinationofassetsthecreative and Gropius. later Wagner’sand liberalsociety,integrated intheunifyingideasof whichsimultaneously materialized Trahndorff’s itual knowledge. Hisanthroposophical architecture emergedfrom radiantaestheticdreams ofan of hisliving environment, driven by astrong forscientific andspir socialimpulseandstriving of building forhumanity. Nature architec rooted andarchitecture balance: his forSteinerexistedwithinaspiritually In designingtheGoetheanum, Steinerdid not intendtocreate merely anarchetype, or An anthroposophical teachingonarchitecture was notabstract, prac but read inthematerial Steiner examined Goethe’s ideas in totality, rational to modern reflecting on his contribution Steiner calledforaradicalrethinking ofarchitecture. ofaquestfor As part “new archi Steiner restoredtheEuropean modeloftheRenaissancemanascreator andmodernized 14 Some of his colleagues expressed disappointment, accusing Steinerof esoteri Gesamtkunstwerk 21 13 , andofvibrant “Cathedrals oftheFuture” conceived by Taut shells asplacesforliving. 18 17 There, hedidnotrecapitulate 20 Heconsidered architecture Biology inArchitecture 16 The sequenceof 19 These 55 15 ------

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 15:54 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315687896, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315687896.ch2 56 as a “new impulse” that would inspire a “metamorphosis” andfosterawareness of “the threefold identified thisapproach asamodeof “new construction,” advancement namingtechnological while anactualbuilding hasaliving essence thatevolves the process ofconstruction. during He forms.assembled material He believed form, that a plain object simply possesses an external communication withthepeople.” the bondofbiology andspirituality, claiming, “A building isasacred latter hummedwithenergywhenfilledthecollective lifeofacongregation. Heexplored wereThe former silentwithemptinessasthey were tohigherentitieswhilethe vacant shrines theemptinessofGreeksacred bytemplestothefullnessofGothiccathedrals. centers comparing is baseduponasensible beliefsystem. Heemphasizedtheenergyofhuman presence inthelifeof just as it is necessary tosituatetheSistineMadonnawithinChristianity.just asitisnecessary itsart,art. scienceasameansofunderstanding ofstudyingspiritual Heoutlined theimportance spirit.” breathes vertically metaphorically practices,based on pre-Christian the medieval that brought structure to bear a concept of form collective revelations spiritual ofthecommunity. Dramaticallydifferent from otherinfluences Steiner referred to the Gothic cathedralas a profound of the spatial inspirationandrepository togodsconceivedist ancientGreek andRomanshrines of asforces ofnature. At thesametime, which celebratesthedesignconceptofopennessdirected from tomedieval prehistoric cultures. spatialteaching, Itembodiesanancientpre-Christian stability intheGoetheanum ofarchitecture, draws ofmomentsinthehistory uponavariety of one’s withnature asexhibited inarchaic harmony structures. The combinationofpoiseand The anthroposophical andisrooted perception ofbalancegoesbackmany inideas centuries his cosmicphilosophy. of thephysicality ofSteiner’s humanisticesotericism: here, architecture gave shapeto material world.”organs …ofthespiritual oftheGoetheanum asthoughthey werethe forms ofaliving entity, that asserting “they are abstracted conceptsandideas, nothingofvalue willensue.” inthatitwas connectedtocraft.sense ofmaterialism Heexplained, “if you create onthebasisof ethereal force Goetheanisticinspiration. asthetangible Steiner’s thusbore adeep spiritualism meaning “building impulse.” thought, Lightimpliedthephysical instantiationofspiritual the living architecture thoughtessentialtothe represented thespiritual eight lectures he gave Goetheanum, the building of the First during Steiner argued that light in constituted a unified whole. In hisbook insisted thatarchitecture must berooted incraft. Steinercontendedthatcraft, mind, andcosmos from theconceptofhumanlife. ago,A century substantiatinghisdrive toward holism, Steiner landscapes ofrare upliftingpower. that a design”“strategic shapednew nestledinnaturalsurroundings physically andspiritually ofmassandshapethat transformation “creates ‘the appearanceofconsciousness.’ Rex Raab (1914–2004) also applied Goethe’s to architecture idea of metamorphosis as the building isbecomingandinmetamorphosis. of life: a product butmaterial aconstantwork-in-progress. Architecture approximates thetransformations evolve following organicprinciples. nature ofthebuildingThe true was perceived notasafinal consciousness. The building was intendedtoimpress uponandcultivate humanmindandto Anna P. Sokolina Biological lifewasBiological thebasisforSteiner’s senseofarchitecture’s distinctionfrom mechanically In hislecture inLiestal1916, scienceto Steinerconnectedthe combinedforce ofspiritual ofthemanmadeandnaturalindesign.Unity andwholenessalsoconstitutedanequilibrium I believe thatarchitecture would becomeanemptyvessel ifprofessional craftisuntethered 28 27 26 30 24 from theinsideout Therefore, IarguethattheGoetheanum istheembodiment Architecture asa Synthesis of the Architecture Arts , asamatterofthe communicating to “earth 22 British architect andanthroposophist British from theoutsidein 25 describes Bobby Matherne Writer Bauimpuls organ 29 Thus, science spiritual , traceable topanthe (1913), based on the whichGodusesfor , term aGerman

” 23 Hebelieved -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 15:54 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315687896, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315687896.ch2 enlightenment andimprovement. oftheworld andthepresencespirit ofhighercreative forces unveiling theprospective forinner tion to soul of the universe and the manifestation of motion. And third, architecture is alive in connec building must befilledwithcolorthatcreates an emotionaldynamism. Colorisperceived asthe the properties ofarchitecture’s corpus. Second, itisviewed through thelensof functions like a nature ofarchitecture.” First, architecture ofitsmatter. ispresent interms content Itsmaterial Sophia inConstantinople. As inSteiner’s spiritualism, Sophia’s material theHagia large dome idea of Bogdanovic shape to a through“larynx which deities speak.” ity andspirituality, andendless. theterminal Steinercompared theirinterconnected organic a dynamic set of overlapping spaces, which signified the unity of body and mind, material Two domes of unequal size floated above intersecting the stage and auditorium. This created fromevery nature, hasapotentialforlearning person arguing: conveying form sioned as an art the limitless possibilities of a opened architecture ofnature. totheformative rules Reinforced free-shaped concrete was envi sibilities ofconcrete. expressive inapublic structure, forms andunlimitedpos resilient deploying materiality therich concrete groundfloor. of architecture, timeinthehistory For thefirst adesignercombined The skeleton, elevations, were built andinteriors inwood andrested onasculpturallymolded volumesconsisted oftwo ofdistinctdiameters, cylindrical cupolas. domedby interpenetrating tions, amanifestationoftheworldview oftheanthroposophical community. The majestic edifice the building was 54,000square feet. Itwas intendedasapublic centerformeetingsandcelebra pleted in1920, colony. art ofalargeinternational asaresult oftheefforts nearBaselin1913andwas com inDornach Goetheanum started oftheFirst The construction Building theGoetheanum ofmovement.”spirit defined thenew styleinarchitecture that isenlivened by declaring ofform by the “thespirit and by sensing the progress of compression andtension, concentrationand diffusion. Steiner as peopleby creatively following thelaws ofnaturalgrowth ofvegetation, andmetamorphoses plants. Hence, inthelifeofplantsare applicable ofharmony toarchitecture theprinciples aswell potential forgrowth andtransformation. These processes are similartothelifeandgrowth of point, ofabuilding were theorganic thanexteriors, more theinteriors important far bearing ing entities. They express a voluntary tendency to expand from the inside out. From that stand Steiner and his crew used bio-scientific principles and new construction technologies, andnewSteiner andhiscrew construction usedbio-scientificprinciples which processes,The walls andexternal ofabuilding exhibitinternal like thoseofliving andbreath organic forms of thehead, limbsandtorso, systemasthenexus, withtheheart then the power ofsenses; ofhumanstructure, ifonehasthevigor tocomprehend theformation inspiration, andontheother, foraspiration, are sustainedby andthatboththesefaculties If onehastheabilitytorealize how thehumanbody, ononehand, for isaninstrument the spirit total design  traced the bio-structural dispositionoftheGoetheanum backtotheByzantine tracedthebio-structural and spirituality: the windows represent andspirituality: the andreflect the mystical openingstothe physical body . The Goetheanum isthatorganicform. asembodiedinthemedieval church ofHagia domeofthesixth-century 31 : structure, foundation, framework, walls, roofing, are andmaterials 35 The scholar of Byzantine architecture Jelena 34 liquid stone . Biology inArchitecture 32 33 The totalvolume of Steiner insisted that one iscapable tocreate living soul : the 57 ------

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 15:54 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315687896, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315687896.ch2 58 spiritual content.spiritual Sheclaims: age,” tothemodern tectural languageappropriate shapedinanevolutionary process by revealing occult inanthroposophy. For Gray, Steiner’s designsmove “towards creating atotallynew archi In astudyoftheGoetheanum, FionaGray hasexaminedtherole ofthe ofancientmysteries be related toByzantinesources. Sheargues: Nevertheless Bogdanovic ofthecultural influenceasanessentialelementofformation “Russiansoul”: there are nodirect references toByzantium, ratherafew exceptions implying Greco-Byzantine unequal size. Churchin Istanbul, ofPantocrator Monastery setting oftwoconnecting theaxial of domes compellingtiesbetween Goetheanumstructurally andthetwelfth-century theFirst St. Michael’s dome isflanked by two smallersemi-domesalongtheeast–west axis.” Simultaneously, shefinds Goetheanum to of theFirst “the vaultingSophia, systemofHagia where themassive central idea hadaprofound influenceuponSteiner’s design of theGoetheanum. pher SergeiO. Prokofieff (1954–2014), ourcomparative architectural analysis reveals thatthis ancient churches intheRussianNorth. Following theinsightdeveloped by theRussianphiloso almost blinding radiancethatissimilartotheeffectsofshiny slate roofs ofthedomes of Goetheanum werebright light, finished withsilvery Norwegian slatethat reflected creating an ofByzantineroots.Russian Orthodox Christianity Furthermore, thewooden domesintheFirst bondwith on earth” basedspiritual Sophiaparallelsthebiologically assignifiedintheHagia the development ofarchitecture context.” inmodern an bears “unconventional modeofcreative andaestheticpotentialfor expression andstructural weighty divine idiomasopposedtocelestialGothicweightlessness. andearthen The building combines weight andtranscendence. theRomanesque-Byzantineconceptofa Itmaterializes Anna P. Sokolina the First Goetheanum.the First space with noinclusion He insisted on unity and fluidityof the interior larger, more ofexisting living tolerantvisionofnew environments. part building asan integral eration from progress. themyth ofindustrial However, the Goetheanum was, infact, based on a would fosterculturallib impliesthattheGoetheanistic experience That assessmentlogistically Linking organic thinking to Byzantine design, Bogdanovic Steiner’s the erection approach of the two biological domes of unfolded during intersecting of his architectural heritage ismade possible.of hisarchitectural heritage fined. Byinvestigating Steiner’sgreater understanding indebtednesstoancienttemples…a his work, hisarchitecture thusgiving agenealogy thathas, untilnow, remained largelyunde and mythological precedentsSteiner madefree asarchetypal useofhistorical references in Romanesque-Byzantine idiomasopposedtoGothic. refers toitwithinhisdiscussionofMedieval architecture, whichmany atthetimerelated to phy andtheosophy), andeven ifhedidnot explicitlymentionByzantinearchitecture, he Steiner wrote aboutarchitecture asarevelation ofhumananddivine wisdom(anthroposo there. continuation ofwhatoriginated call it Russian … for it is the culture that came over … from ancient Byzantium; it is a culture.that iseminentlyareligious Butcanitbecalled “Russian”? Itwould beabsurd to Looking over totheEastwe seeamagnificentlyfinishedphilosophy of religion, aculture 38 Steiner’s teachingsincludeinsightsonGreek andGothicarchitecture. However,  suggests that in architectural form andessence, suggeststhatinarchitectural form theGoetheanum can 39 41 36 The reference toarchitecture as “heaven 40  also compares the roof structure 37 - - - - -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 15:54 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315687896, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315687896.ch2 The larger dome of the Goetheanum with its inner diameter of 110 feet surpassed in size the The larger domeof the Goetheanum with its inner diameterof 110 feet surpassed as well as its remarkablewas engineering dimensions. unprecedented because of this pioneering each other.porting thetwomassive cupolasmutually jointlyholdingbothdomesandanchoring sup tensionring ing, responded tothechallengeby inventing ofreinforced bandsandasingle aunifyingprinciple director oftheBaselbuilding associationthatdevelopedformer theconcrete baseforthebuild conventionally oflarge-scalecupolas. implementedinconstruction ofByzantinedomes,” theintersection arches thatsupported hiddenbindings, orseparatebelts elements separating thedomes,of structural andrejected theapplicationof “massive interior strong tieswere established between Steinerand Russianintellectuals. Writers, philosophers, ment, inparticular, hadaprofound impact onSteiner. inherent bondtonature, deeplyinfluenced Steiner’s worldview. philosophy. Slavic culture andphilosophy, and rooted inorganicspiritualism “folk soul” withan shaped theoverall Goetheanistictectonics, unitingthepastandfuture ofhumanity. Man withhisDouble, Angel andCentaur” Goetheanum that ofthesmalldomeFirst of Humanity.” struction, and humanistideals. Steiner’s avisionof building affirmed “ManastheRepresentative grounding.earthen Steiner gave identity by the Goetheanum a similar earthly way of design, con andcolorfulfrescoes endowedwalls imagery withcarved spiritual thesebuildings withaheavy, older visionofecclesiasticalarchitecture from thepre-Mongolian era. Massive hand-crafted stone tive impulseoftheentire oftheGoetheanum. structure energyofthebio-spiritual colorful opaquetranslucencyandfigurative imagery performa were attunedtotheexploratory ings by Asya Turgenev, were holistic: they were building. elementofthegreater anintegral Their form. Glashaus teachings proclaiming isLight,”“Art embodiedinLyonel Feininger’s andRussianavant-gardes,strains ofexpressionism withinGerman andconnectedtoBauhaus Glass Utopia, visions of modernist shaped various “cathedrals of the future.” diverse It bridged of aluminescentutopiabasedinglassarchitecture. The idealistaspirationtolight, totheshining growth rootedmessage ofnaturalandspiritual inGoethe’s ofcolorand light. theory ofcarved wood, sorts such ascolumnsandvarious inorder toconvey atransformative organic there isnoending, nophysical obstacle.” a matter of “being limitless, thedome, to circumscribe because once a beholderstarts boundary-less elevation withcarved wooden walls, andculminatesinthecrowning dome, whichforSteinerwas transitions from therobust groundfloor, continues through thespacious “dematerialized” middle of architecture. The wall ofabuilding’s ispart becomingandamatterofarchitecture inprocess. It as “living” and “spiritual,” elementofthewall thestructural intothethreefold nature integrating the walls as “etheric,” meaningthatanintangible “ether” emanated from them, and definedthem defining the “breathing” nature ofthe spiritual walls of the Goetheanum. For instance, hedescribed Steiner emphasizedtheideaofarchitecture asaliving organism, for andusedbio-terminology domes, approach to the rectilinear opposing this utilitarian shapes of the walls of the Goetheanum. dome.tecture andnotthesymbolismofagiant (108 ft.). For Steiner, however, ofliving elementwas archi themostimportant theexperience dome oftheSt. Paul’s SophiainIstanbul Cathedral inLondon(102ft.)andthedomeofHagia The building was theresult ofbothbuilding ofpraxis—architecture truly and asexperience This idea—thata “living wall” ofthebodybuilding—restored istheorganicpart an Steiner’s inmetaphors philosophicalnotionoflightinarchitecture emergedinacontextrich Along theselines, David Adams stresses Steiner’s disavowal oftheculturalrepresentation ofthe 46 Incontradistinction, thestained-glass windows Goetheanum, oftheFirst withhandcarv that decree glass- and light-based transformation and dematerialization ofarchitectural anddematerialization thatdecree glass-andlight-basedtransformation 48 He depicted “Slavic Man” as a “mythical, archetypal” image in the fresco “Slavic 43 GoetheanumThe magnitude of the double-domed of the First structure 45 He incorporated structural anddecorative structural elements, Heincorporated 51 Before theBolshevik revolution of1917, 50 Arguably, the Tolstoyanmove 42 Local engineer Englert, Localengineer the Cathedral Biology inArchitecture and Bruno andBruno Taut’s 47 49 59 44 ------

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 15:54 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315687896, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315687896.ch2 60 resonated withinSteiner’s philosophicalmodernism. century, construction. applied inindustrial Onceagain, experimentally thepastandfuture the industry, elements and, initiallyusedin separatestructural ofthetwentieth by thebeginning Rome two millenniaago. Steelreinforcement invented revolutionized inthenineteenthcentury of thetwentieth century, thebasictechnology concrete ofaggregate was developed in Ancient worldwide inreinforced entirely constructed concrete. While aquintessentialbuilding material on glasswiththehuesfrom darktolight. Debussy, Stravinsky, Glazunov, andRachmaninov. Daylight revealed thedepthsofengravings in tune with uplifting musical compositions by Beethoven,formances Mozart, Haydn, Wagner, united inspaceasspectacularlycolored designsintintedglazingwere per tiedtotheatrical building inflexible concrete openedpossibilitiesforspatialmetamorphoses. Visionandsound the project, Steinercraftedaclay model. methodsemployed New construction forsculptingthe envisioning spacesfilledwithflowing largerairy lightandshadows. In developing thedesignsfor built in reinforced concrete. The building was conceived as a colossal structure, with Steiner properties ofthebuilding.metric Steinerexpandedtheconcave-convex “breathing” volumes Goetheanum, andthefoundationofFirst engaged thefootprint whilemodifyingthevolu 1928, theSecondGoetheanum hadbeenerected onthesamesite( politicalcontextof radicalizedbyacts ofanarsonist thechallenging Weimar Republic. By world. theevolutionary balance of lifeandthecontinuity ofthespiritual interrupted ish negligence,” “conscious dishonesty,” violatedand modernism andarrogance withinutilitarian a deadendforarchitecture. advocates ofanthroposophy modernism considered thephilosophiesofBauhausandutilitarian manufactured window engravingsfortheGoetheanum andlaterworked there asateacher. All as itrelated tohisideasondesignpsychology andbiology. Schlemmer’s studentGeorgHartmann the Goetheanum. The architect andsetdesignerOskarSchlemmerwas interested inthebuilding, ence oftheGoetheanum. Bycontrast, acceptedthemystical Kandinskywholeheartedly nature of Vasily Kandinsky, OskarSchlemmer, andGeorgHartmann, theBauhauslargelyignored theexist the debatesmeaningless, lackingrelevance nature of architecture. tothetrue With theexceptionof cation ofeitherexpressionism, symbolism, organicarchitecture, nouveau. orart within theacademy. This meantthatGoetheanisticarchitecture was superficiallytaggedasmodifi environmentally Goetheanum ultimately evolved driven bio-spiritual toward a polemics of style little outreach totherealm ofarchitecture massively prototypes. modeledonhardline modernist was reestablished inRussiaby SergeiO. Prokofieff, focusoneducation,primary witha andhad nature.” phy, fieldsofknowledge ofvarious interpretations …fordomination consistingoffanciful over outlawed. Itwas as persecuted “alien ideology,” a “mystical doctrine, amodificationoftheoso was enforcedasthesoledirection by forintellectualthought, theauthorities anthroposophy was wife, colleague, andinspiration. oftheGoetheanum inDornach,ticipated intheconstruction von Sivers andMarie was Steiner’s composers, suchasMaximilian andartists Voloshin, Andrei Bely, Asya Turgenev, par andothers Anna P. Sokolina Eurhythmy ofmovement studios forthenew art Buildings withairy designed incollaboration theGoetheanum (1914),underground pipelinesservicing theHouse Duldeck(1915), three Goetheanum were crafted(1914). Otherbuildings included theanimatedBoilerHousewith remarkable. This edifice was equippedwitha working glassstudio where thewindows for the own identity, intothenaturalenvironment. integrated By theendof1920sinDornach, Steinerhaddesignedeleven buildings, eachwithits Goetheanum tothegroundin1922, buildingThe First burned presumably becauseofthe functionalismandthe betweenThe detailedargumentswithinmodernism industrial-based 53 After thedemiseofSoviet Unionintheearly1990s, the Anthroposophical Society 56 Addressing thischasmindesign, Steinerarguedthatthe “amateur 52 From thelate1920sinSoviet Russia, where socialistrealism 58 publicThis was edifice theverymultistoried first 59 The GlassHousewas amongthemost Figure 2.2 55 Steinerconsidered ). The new design 57 54 ------

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 15:54 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315687896, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315687896.ch2 he warned against revivinghe warned archetypes orcopying andaimedat discovering historical new shapes not develop concise routines forhisfollowers. Freed from the cloud of professional knowledge, and training. Steinerdefinedtheguidelinesanddeeplysensed power ofarchitecture, yet did ods, materials, andmoderatedstrategies, makingitdifficult toadaptfor professional education mainstream architecture. Steiner’s callforliberationfrom styleandsymbollacked specificmeth of precisely modifiedfeatures, the “new aesthetics” ofthe Goetheanum hadlittleinfluenceon individualismanthropomorphic andtheoccultcomplexityofanthroposophy. Intheabsence masses. prototypes were international Prefabricated more popularthanSteiner’s designbasedin to political or socioeconomic causes, but also to the sway design for the of the industrial-based publicity. Steiner’s ideaswere neither actuallyaccessible noridentifiable. This was duenotonly In retrospect, basedconceptoftheGoetheanum thebiologically never hadthebenefitofbroad The GoetheanumChronicles dramatic shortages. developments of the 1960sdidfurther Onlyatthebeginning ofthesiteresume. oftheGoetheanum experienced declined andtheconstruction sophical community ofDornach the world culture of the 1920s–1930s was severely altered. After Steiner’s passing, theanthropo (1921), the Transfer Station(1921), andthe “Goetheanum-Child”—the Eurhythmeum (1924). with EnglishsculptorEdithMaryon (1920), thedouble-volume residence HouseDeJaager Source: Photograph,Anna P. Sokolina. Figure 2.2 The sweeping followed economiccrises by meantthat politicalregimes thetyranny ofruling

The SecondGoetheanum,architect RudolfSteiner, 1925–1928.West view Biology inArchitecture 61 60 - -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 15:54 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315687896, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315687896.ch2 62 longevity ofSteiner’s designphilosophies. sophical studio & Alberts Van HuutInternational Architects (1979–1987), shows evidence ofthe oftheINGBankin the complexstructure Amsterdam, Netherlands, designedby theanthropo forever.that theGoetheanum theperception would ofmodernism transform enced by RudolfSteiner’s Goetheanum. Inthelate1960s, Japanese architect Kenji Imaiargued (1956–1963),Berlin Philharmonie Utzon’s andJørn Sydney OperaHouse(1973)were influ of Eero Saarinen’s TWA Terminal (1956–1962)atJFK inNew York,Airport HansScharoun’s (1950–1955) inRonchamp, FranceaftervisitingtheGoetheanum inDornach. The designs ism, mushroomed across theglobe. Le Corbusier designedthechapelofNotre-Dame duHaut inspired by organicideas, aswell asinoppositiontostylisticrevivalism modern andutilitarian ofrare strength masterpiece andclarity.”“as theintegral by theendoftheircareers did Wright, Corbusier, totheGoetheanum pay tribute andSaarinen covered Giedionannouncedthedeath ofmodernism. theGoetheanum whenSigfried evaluation.” critical andthusdefiesnormal into nostylisticcategory was simplytooopaque,strangeness: it “due toitsidiosyncrasiesanduniqueoriginality, itfalls tions, collisions, ofcrystals. suchasthe formation andgrowth ofnon-organicmaterials tics, metamorphosis, anddynamicsofnaturallife, includingthestudyofgeodesictransforma and new placesenvisioned ofintenseinvestigations through theprism logis intoinnerstructural Source: Imageprovidedfor publicationbyDr. Rudolf S. H. Mees. Figure 2.3 Anna P. Sokolina that one arrives ata vitality ofdesignthroughthat onearrives architecture’s unity withitssite. According to Steiner’sAsmussen carried philosophy intothelatetwentieth ( century shapes. As co-founder of theanthroposophical center, in Sweden, theRudolf Steiner Seminary was drivenStyle modernism by aprocess reflecting onspeculative games withbeautifulabstract British scholar Dennis Sharp hasarguedthatSteiner’s scholarDennisSharp British approach was ignored becauseofits Danish architect and Steiner acolyte Erik Danish architect andSteineracolyteErik Asmussen (1913–1998)arguedthat International

ING Bank, architects Alberts &Van Huut, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 1979–1987 65 63 Bymid-century, alternative designs 61 Postwar architects redis Figure 2.4 64 More recently, ). He insisted 62 Only ------

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 15:54 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315687896, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315687896.ch2 landscape andthe organicworld inform, material, and color. Hisargumentagainsttherestraint ing toward relaxed humor; warm andtoemancipationfrom nature—toward thebondwith playful fantasy.surprising isshift Histake onconcentratedintensityofthelanguageforms versusregulations liberatingasymmetry; ofbindingsymmetry calculatedconsequences versus mysteries. Heexamines impositionsofpracticalrationalismversus faith; idealismandpersonal of theplant, andself-consciousmindsenseofreality tothedistantsphere ofdreams and his designs, tocurves andtransformation juxtaposesthefrozen ofthecrystal Andersen surfaces architect Jan-Arve reinterpretedthevernacular ofanthroposophicalAndersen connections. essential. andsuggestingdialecticaloppositions, Bylinkingnaturalformative principles Danish and are reflected inhissimple, interconnected organicshapes. to ofthelandscapeaddinnergrace The naturaltransformations Asmussen’s humble architecture, real-life experiences.holistic philosophies and a combination of folk tradition and contemporary as well asanthroposophic thought. functionalism rooted inaestheticsensibilitywithreference tolocaltraditions and vernacular, ideaoftheGoetheanum,with thebio-spiritual arguingthathedeveloped adapted regionally phy withNordic roots. about Coateswrites Gary Asmussen’sArchitectural historian vivid bond living architecture andcommunity inJärna, Sweden, take offeracontemporary onanthroposo atmosphere canactasaninspirationtojusttheactivity forwhich thebuilding isintended.” His anthroposophic architecture is … to create a stimulating environment, which through its special soul. a functionalism.”Asmussen calledthisintegrity “spiritual intheenvironment,and transformations andstrive forawholenessofhumanmind, body, and Asmussen, design shouldfollow thefunctionofbuilding, by naturalshifts beinformed Source: Photograph,Anna P. Sokolina. Sweden, completedin1992.Northview Figure 2.4 For theGoetheanum, thedynamicideaof

The Culture House of the Rudolf Steiner Seminary, architect Erik Asmussen, Järna, 67 Asmussen’s designsembodyGoetheanisticideasthrough metamorphosis as bio-spiritual transformation is transformation asbio-spiritual 66 He maintained: “the goalfor Hemaintained: “the Biology inArchitecture 68 In 63 - -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 15:54 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315687896, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315687896.ch2 64 Notes tive workmanship basedimpulseforthedesignoffuture. inthepastandof biologically The Goetheanum standsasabeaconacross time, evidence andinspirationof collabora bearing basedspiritualism. visionoffunctionalism withapassionatebiologically itsindustrial countering of humanity, as a microcosm of the macrocosm, within modernism, it emerged as an experiment design philosophy basedonaunityofthemind, body, andspirit. Conceived astherepresentation forces ofthemeaninglightandcolor joinedinaninterpenetrated unity. fortheinterpretation cept andpractice, andinsistedondialecticmethodology asthecore ofcomprehension ofdivine opposing “vertical” and “horizontal” tendenciesinthegrowth ofcon ofplantsasaninterplay tion ofthephenomenabasedonexperimentation. Heemphasizedthemeaningofbalancein the foundationforanidealisticphenomenology ofthenaturalworld, aqualitative careful descrip organic metamorphoses, isessentialforhumanity. that thesenseofinneridentificationwithnature, andempathy with concern ofdeeperpersonal philosopher Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, whointheageofRomanticEnlightenmentargued untilwe toexpress ourselves try of forms inuniversal organicmotionandincreative activity.” complexities of the universe, “but we realize that we the secrets cannot understand of the world endless metamorphoses.” templation ofshapesandmaterials. Steinercontinued, “by we creating art and explore fantasy by …playing withtheforces thatshapetheworld.” that presses, andcurves, bears tolive begin completeforms—we andmasters thatcraftssurfaces individual’s energetic interaction with the world. He explained, “when we animate everything self-reflective activity. For Steiner, withinarchitecture ofplayful impliedan anintegration forms aspiration forself-awareness andtheneedtochallengesemanticself-identificationthrough Steiner’s inspirationalwords crew tohisconstruction from acentury ago. able environment inthepresent andfuture. fortimestocome,While pertinent we lookbackto connectionspromisesof atopography auniquetake ofdynamicbiomorphic onthesustain finally tobroadening influenceonapanoramicglobalscale. Theexplorationwithin architecture of natural progression, from initiation through construction, to living conceptual maturity, and the building toapproximate aliving organismindevelopment. This isrepresented by thesense tive source of inspiration, but driven a biologically mode of design-in-process. Steiner intended paradigm forthepresent. notsimplyaforma designers contemporary The Goetheanum offers thinkingofRudolfSteiner.holistic biological Mygoalhasbeentosetinrelief an ecological In this chapter, I have recounted the architectural narrative of the Goetheanum rooted in the The Bio-ImpulseoftheGoetheanum reference andexpressiveness totheendlessvariety oflife forms. functionalismisbasedonthebio-organicideaofGoetheanum with ofutilitarian and purity Anna P. Sokolina 2 1

The Goetheanum pioneered thethreefold architectural approach: it istheresult ofaholistic Steiner’s integrative approach was ofthescientist- basedonclosereadings ofthewritings In his lecture of the Goetheanum to the builders in 1914, Steiner emphasized the human 2014), 157. Science, Design EducationandExperimental am Goetheanum, 1978); Anna P. Sokolina, “The Goetheanum Culture inModern Architecture,” in 1. Grundrisse, Schnitte, Ansichten, erstesundzweitesGoetheanum Hagen Biesantz, Klingborg Arne Rex Raab, unddaszweite“Das erste Goetheanum von RudolfSteiner,” in 70 ofthe The creative with itanunderstanding brings actofmakingart et al ., ., Das Goetheanum. DerBauimpulsRudolf Steiners , ed. D. O. Shvidkovsky 72 69 Goethe’s intuitive approach artistic formed We live mindful lives through careful con (Dornach: Verlag amGoetheanum, 1990). et al . (Russianedn., Moscow: MARKHI, Goetheanum Baublätter (Dornach: Verlag 71 ------

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Rudolf Steiner, ere M. Young,George Judith von HalleandJohn Wilkes, Frans Carlgren, “Rudolf Steinerandthe Anthroposophy,” in Rudolf Steiner, Popular yet broadly disputedtranslationfrom Aristotle, web.com/Rudolf_Steiner_and_Economics.php#_ednref22 2003), 87; StephenE. Usher, “The Introduction,”Threefold SocialOrganism: An Steiner Press, 1977), 54–55, 81; RudolfSteiner, (Great Barrington, MA: Steiner Books, 2008); RudolfSteiner, (London: Anthroposophical Publishing Company, 1922). Eastlake (Cambridge, MA: MITPress, 1982). Phenomenology (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1998); J. W. Goethe,Goethe’s ofNature Way ofScience: A Phenomenology in (Spring Valley, NY: Mercury Press, 1988); J. Steiner W.(= Gesamtausgabe2) (Dornach: Rudolf Verlag, Goethe, 2003[1886]); RudolfSteiner, “II. Abteilung: Naturwissenschaftlichte Schriften,” Verlag, 1973[1897]; RudolfSteiner, Press, 1927); RudolfSteiner, of theFirstGoetheanum1914 Wege zueinemneuenBaustil,” inBiesantz Baus von RudolfSteiner (Berlin: Maurer, 1827). Eusebius philosopher KarlFriedrich Trahndorff inhis Movement from Modern to William Morris Walter Gropius since1922 Style: Architecture and Anthroposophy BldDrn_index.html#sthash.EhvX6s7z.dpuf Rudolf Steiner Archive online: 1958, in and Anthroposophy Architecture and_Aesthetics_in_Rudolf_Steiner_s_Goetheanum Steiner’s Goetheanum,” 18–98.asp (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012). Accessed July 25, 2016. ed., A. John Wilkes, “Rudolf Steiner’s Wooden Sculpture andIts Architectural Environment,” inSokolina,Wooden Model at the Goetheanum 1990). July 25, 2016 ed. Anna Sokolina (Moscow: KMK, 2010), at 21(seemore information Ibid ἔχει καὶμὴἔστινοἷονσωρὸςτὸπᾶνἀλλ΄ἔστιτιὅλονπαρὰτὰμόρια͵αἴτιον. μέρη πλείω ὅσα γὰρ πάντων εἶναι; ἓν τοῦ αἴτιον τί ἀριθμούς͵ τοὺς περὶ καὶ ὁρισμοὺς τοὺς Accessed July 25, 2016. reads: “ The Greek original 1968), line 1045a.9, seealso W. D. Ross, trans., at translation in Richard McKeon, ed., Lecture given inNovember Steiner, of1888: Rudolf Rudolf Steiner, Rudolf Steiner, Goethe published The term For more detail, see: John C. Ermel, “Bauhaus IdealsandtheGoetheanum,” in: Sokolina, ed., Rudolf Steiner, Meaningand Aesthetics inRudolf Cusack, “And theBuildingBecomesMan: Carole M. Michael Brennan, “Rudolf Steiner.” Goethes Werke ., 13. Architecture and Anthroposophy Architecture Der Dornacher Bauals Der Dornacher Wahrziechen Geschichtlichen Werdens Umwandlungsimpulse undKuenstlerischer . Gesamtkunstwerk ); FransCarlgren, Ways toaNew Stylein Architecture. Five Lecturesby theBuilding RudolfSteinerGiven during nhooohcl LeadingThoughts Anthroposophical The Building at Dornach: Lecture III The BuildingatDornach: Lecture The InnerLifeoftheEarth. ofNature, theMysteries Exploring Subnature, andSupranature Der BaugedankedesGoetheanum. Einleitender Vortrag des mitErklärungenzudenBildern , vol. Böhlau, 4 (Weimar: Hermann 1887–1919); David Seamonand Zajonc,Arthur , 118; Johnson Hitchcock, onModernism: Philip andHenry-Russell Metamorphosis ofPlants Metamorphosis The Russian Cosmists: The Esoteric Futurism ofNikolaiFedorovandhisFollowers Futurism TheEsoteric The RussianCosmists: (Dornach: Verlag amGoetheanum, 1932), 19–26; HagenBiesantz, “Auf dem www.academia.edu/738542/_And_the_Building_Becomes_Man_Meaning_ , totalwork ofart, universal artwork, was introduced romanticist by German (New York: W. W. Norton &Co., 1932); Nikolaus Pevsner, . (London: Anthroposophical Publishing Company and (London: Anthroposophical Anthroposophic Goethes Weltanschauung Rudolf Steinerunddie Anthroposophie (London: Rudolph Steiner Press, 2011); Ake Fant, Klingborg,Arne and , 93–96; also http://wn.rsarchive.org/Architecture/GA287/English/UNK1958/ www.artnet.com/magazine_pre2000/reviews/brennan/brennan3- The Representative ofHumanity. The BetweenLuciferand Ahriman: Grundlinien einer Erkenntnistheorie der Goetheschen derGoetheschen Grundlinien einerErkenntnistheorie Weltanschauung The Basic Works of Aristotle in1790, and et al . Accessed July 25, 2016. Social andPoliticalScience ., ., (New York: Steiner Press, 2007), 12. www.rsarchive.org/RSBio.php#sthash.gnsLIlYl.dpuf Das Goetheanum , inEnvironmental SUNYSeries and Architectural (October19, 1914), trans. Dorothy in S. Osmond , 3, accessed July 25, 2016; see also Sokolina, ed., http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.html (= Gesamtausgabe 6) (Dornach: Rudolf Steiner (=Gesamtausgabe6) (Dornach: Rudolf Περὶ δὲ τῆς ἀπορίας τῆς εἰρημένης περί τε περί εἰρημένης τῆς ἀπορίας τῆς δὲ Περὶ (London: Faber&Faber, 1936). Goethe astheFounderofaNewScience of Aesthetics Theory ofColors Theory Ästhetik oderLehrevon Weltanschauung undKunst Metaphysics . Accessed July 25, 2016. Towards SocialRenewal (New York: Random House, (New York: Random 1941, , 9–19. Theory ofColors Theory (Dornach: Verlag amGoetheanum, , 350 in 1810. Architecture and Anthroposophy Architecture (London: Rudolf SteinerPress, www.iartforum.com, accessed bce Biology inArchitecture , line1045a.11. English , trans. CharlesLock www.rudolfsteiner (London: Rudolf The International The International Goethean Science Pioneers ofthe Architecture Architecture ” 65 . , . .

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Bogdanovic Bogdanovic Steiner, Steiner,

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