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Doctor of Philosophy RICE UNIVERSITY By Edward Valentin Jr. A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE Doctor of Philosophy APPROVED, THESIS COMMITTEE William McDaniel (Apr 16, 2020) William C. McDaniel (Chair) Associate Professor of History, Chair Fay Yarbrough (Apr 16, 2020) Fay A. Yarbrough Associate Professor of History Nicole Waligora-Davis (Apr 17, 2020) Nicole A. Waligora-Davis Associate Professor of English HOUSTON, TEXAS March 2020 Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................ iv Introduction “I Went Away Because I was not Treated Right”: Black Enlisted Men and Social Order in the Southwest Borderlands ....................................................................................................................1 Chapter 1 Black Enlisted Men and the Rhetoric of Reputation in Trials by Courts-martial ..........................18 Chapter 2 “Without Just Cause”: Black Enlisted Men and the Rhetoric of Rights ........................................62 Chapter 3 “On the Other Side”: Black Soldiers and Border People 1866 to 1890......................................107 Chapter 4 Black Veterans in the Southwest Borderlands: Intermarriages, Community Integration, and Claims-making ........................................................................................................................................ 156 Chapter 5 “When Is an Indian War Veteran an Indian War Veteran”: Veterans of the Indian Wars and Public Memory in the Twentieth Century ...................................................................................203 Epilogue “Are Any Survivors of that Fight Still Left” ...............................................................................240 Appendix 1 ......................................................................................................................................................244 Abstract This dissertation relies on underused sources—including court-martial records and black veterans’ pension files—to examine the experiences of black soldiers in the U.S.-Mexico borderlands during the post-Civil War era. It focuses on soldiers’ cross-cultural encounters with the racially and ethnically diverse communities that surrounded the posts they garrisoned, revealing how black enlisted men viewed and attempted to define their positions within the complex and fluid social order of the U.S.-Mexico borderlands. An analysis of black soldiers’ experiences enriches our understandings of race, ethnicity, gender, and settler colonialism by illuminating how these men both supported and undermined U.S. imperial projects. As agents of U.S. expansion, black troops actively transformed the West and secured the region for white settlements, but simultaneously undermined U.S. expansion by challenging the military justice system and building relationships that transcended the very boundaries they were charged with policing. This project thus not only sheds light on the experiences of black soldiers in the American West, but also enriches our understandings of the complicated processes associated with settler colonialism and claims to rights and citizenship in the post-Civil War era. iii Acknowledgements One of the most important lessons I have learned in graduate school is that no one writes a dissertation alone, and throughout my five years at Rice University, an outstanding group of professors, colleagues, family, and friends have supported me. I am extremely grateful to have had W. Caleb McDaniel as my advisor. His steadfast commitment to mentoring and supporting me throughout my graduate career has been essential for my development as a historian and the advancement of this project. I also greatly benefited from having Fay Yarbrough and Nicole Waligora-Davis as members of my dissertation committee, both of whom offered extremely valuable feedback as I worked to develop my project. While at Rice, I also had the privilege to work with and learn from Alexander Byrd, Sayuri Guthri-Shimizu, Randal Hall, Alida Metcalf, Jared Staller, and James Sidbury; they have all been crucial in helping me hone my teaching, analytical, and writing skills. I also wish to express gratitude to Desmond Bertrand-Pitts and Paul J. Matthews for giving me the opportunity to work at the Buffalo Soldiers National Museum. Serving as an assistant curator allowed me to gain valuable museum experience and deepened my appreciation for using my skills to engage with and help educate the general public. My museum work structured some of the fundamental questions I explore in this project and provided a welcome relief and change of pace from my doctoral work. During my time at the museum, I truly enjoyed getting to know and working alongside Mary Greene, Jacquilyn Jack-Anderson, Edward Udell, Keith Love, Marquise Gibson, Barbara Matthews, and Steven Tatum. The support of several grants and fellowships ensured that I was able to conduct the necessary research to complete this project. I am grateful for the support I received from the New Mexico History Scholars Program Research Fellowship and the Texas State Library and iv Archives Commission Research Fellowship. The Rice University History Department has also generously funded my travel to conduct research and present at several conferences. There are lots of moving pieces involved with requesting funds and completing administrative requirements for the graduate program, and I would be remiss if I failed to thank Lydia Westbrook and Bev Konzem for patiently shepherding me through these processes throughout my time in the program. I could not have completed this project without the consultation and assistance of numerous librarians and archivists during my research trip. In the initial stages of my project, Jeffrey Wilhite and Molly Murphy from the Bizzell Memorial Library at the University of Oklahoma Library assisted me in gaining access to important government documents on microfilm and microfiche that greatly aided me in narrowing my research objectives. I am deeply indebted to Danielle Ireland, Robin Penick, Lauren Souther, and Paul Harrison for answering my questions and lending me their expertise during my research trips to the National Archives branch in Washington D.C. I also appreciate Marcus Flores, Lynn Newton, and Elena Perez- Lozano for assisting me during my visit to the New Mexico State Records Center and Archives in Santa Fe. Tonia Wood and Richard Gilbreath were extremely helpful at the Texas State Library and Archives in Austin, Texas. Although I was unable to visit Silver City, New Mexico, Ken Dayer and Lillian Galloway, from the Silver City Public Library, graciously sent several rolls of microfilm that allowed me to consult local newspapers for this project. They also connected me with a team of local historians who provided valuable information about black soldiers in New Mexico during the nineteenth century. I would also like to acknowledge the staff at Fondren Library for being invaluable resources during my time as a student. I had the opportunity to work closely with Rebecca Russell and Amanda Focke at the Woodson Research v Center and learned a great deal from them about some of the archival resources available at Rice. I would also like to thank Anna Shparberg for working with Fondren’s acquisition team to purchase copies of the Winners of the West microfilm series. Materials from this series are the main source base for the fifth chapter in this dissertation. For the last five years, I have had the opportunity to work with, learn from, and develop relationships with gifted colleagues and friends that will last a lifetime. They have always offered useful advice and assistance, motivated me, and challenged me. Doctoral work is often isolating, exhausting, and frustrating, but I have benefited from a strong network of people who have always had my back. Thank you to Lauren Brand, Miller Wright, Maria Montalvo, D. Andrew Johnson, Keith McCall, David Ponton III, Thomas Blake Earle, Samuel Abramson, Christina Regelski, William Jones, Cami Jones, Sean Smith, Hannah Francis, Kelyne Rhodehamel, Maki Kodama, Arang Ha, CarrieAnne DeLoach, Kimberly Jones, Cynthia Martinez, Ben Gomez, Ana Goñi-Lessan, Tara Johnson, and Kathryn Kundrod for being amazing friends and colleagues. While I am excited to move on to the next stage in my life, I will certainly miss all of you. Lastly, I would not be the person I am today without support and inspiration from a wonderful family. My parents, Edward and Odessa Valentin, have always worked hard to provide Alisa, my younger sister, and I with the means to achieve success. My parents were instrumental in developing my interests in reading, writing, and history at an early age; they purchased countless books and took us on numerous family trips to museums, parks, and other places with the goal of encouraging Alisa and I to learn more about the world around us. I would also like to thank Alisa for putting up with me enough to allow me to stay with her in the vi Washington D.C. Metropolitan area during my research trips. Everything I do is for the honor of my family and the place I come from. 1 Introduction “I Went Away Because I was not Treated Right”: Black Enlisted Men and Social Order in the Southwest Borderlands In March 1873, Henry C. Turner, an African
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