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First Nations Control of First Nations Education FIRST NATIONS CONTROL OF FIRST NATIONS EDUCATION: AN ISSUE OF POWER AND KNOWLEDGE ELIZABETH LIGHTNING A Thesis subrnitted in conformity with the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Graduate Department of Education University of Toronto 8 Copyright by Elizabeth Lightning, 1997 National Library Bibliothèque nationale l*l of Canada du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographie Services services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395. rue Wellingtm OttawaON K1AON4 Ottawa ON K1A ON4 Canada Canada The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accordé me licence non exclusive licence dowing the exclusive permettant à la National Library of Canada to Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distribute or seIl reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou copies of this thesis in microform, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la fome de microfiche/nlm, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique. The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis nor substantial extracts fkom it Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or otherwise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. ABSTRACT This study is a two-part inquiry into the First Nations control of First Nations ducati ion movement which began in the 1970's. The study is unique in that it utilizes postcolonial, feminist, critical pedagogical, and anti-racist perspectives in the development of theoretical and methodological models. The use of alternative critical and oppositional perspectives facilitates the study of the historical context which, it is argued, is integral to understanding the contemporary situation of the First Nations. Although a comprehensive study of socio-cultural changes which have occurred since European contact is not possible, the thesis argues that the recognition of these changes is also integrai in the development of contemporary Native epistemologies and pedagogies. This approach reveals the diversity that characterizes First Nations communities, but it is argued that it is possible to focus on the problems which they share through their relationship with the dominant government. Part One comprises an exploration of colonialism in general, and the study of residential and integrated schooling in particular. Native education of this period is conceptualized under the title of Historical Colonial Indigenous Education, a period when the Firçt Nations did not have any control over their own education but were forced to attend forms of schooling which were alien to their own cultures. The development of theory which explores colonialism is crucial for understanding the way colonialism impacted on the indigenous people of Canada. In the pursuit of land and resources, the destruction of indigenous cultures and languages was a necessary component for the success of colonialism. Schools, such as residential schools, became crucial sites for genocidal practices and policies. The chapter on residential schools reveals, one, the destructiveness of this type of schooling, and two, the way residential school experiences continue to impact on the lives of Native people today . The second part comprises two chapters which focus on the period when the First Nations won the right to have significant control over their own education. This period is conceptualized as the Postcolonial Period. One chapter provides an overview of the First Nations control of First Nations education movement. The problems inherent in this endeavour were identified through an extensive review of existing literature on Native education, and by observation of the practices of Native communities in general and one Native community in particular. The last chapter provides a synthesis of the different strategies, visions, and constraints which are integral to the issue of Native education. A major constraint is that Native educational practices and curricula have to be developed within a Western European educational framework. This section includes a discussion of the way curricula based on Native values and philosophical systems can be developed and implemented. There are a number of people who provided support, advice, and encouragement during the writing of this thesis. They were instrumental in the completion of a very difficult task. First, 1 would like to express my appreciation for family members for their inspiration, patience and support. 1 especially want to express my deepest gratitude to rny husband Eric Perrott for his cornitment and support. The completion of this thesis would not have been possible without his support and encouragement. I extend my gratitude to Professor Dorothy Smith for her wisdom and patience in her role as my Supervisor. 1 admire her fortitude and faith that 1 would corne through somehow, even though at times it did not seem like 1 would. 1 was fortunate to be able to benefit £rom her theoretical and methodological formulations which formed the basis of my own analytical frameworks. Finally, 1 would like to thank Professor Roger Simon for introducing me to oppositional critical discourses. Ais courses in critical pedagogy provided me with a background which is so essential for a person who is a rnernber of a minority group. 1 would like to thank Professor Jim Cummins for his support and his interest in my work. iii CONTENTS Abstract ii Acknowledgements iii Contents iv Chapter 1 ~ntroduction II The Role of Author and the Nature of Study III Theoretical and Methodological Strategies IV An Exploration of the Historical Colonial Context V Historical Colonial Indigenous Education VI The First Nations Control of First Nations Education Movement - A Postcolonial Perspective 146 VI1 Dreams, Visions, and Resistance - through a Postcolonial and Sacred Circle Perspective Bibliography CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The main objective of this dissertation was to develop new methods and theoretical frameworks for the study of the First ~ationscontrol of First Nations ducati ion movement. In 1973, a national indigenous organization, the National Indian Brotherhood (NIB), presented the Federal Government with a Policy Paper demanding educational control by Native bands. Extensive literature on this subject exists (Barman, Hebert, & McCaskill:1986; Charters-Voght:1991; Kirkness:1986; MatthewA990). While I found this literature useful, it did not have the theoretical and methodological scope for the critical analysis of complex phenomena.' Although 1 did not have any clear alternatives at the beginning of this exploratory study, 1 was determined to find new analytical and theoretical approaches. Fortunately, 1 was able to draw £rom critical theoretical discourses from fields such as feminisrn, postcolonialism, radical critical pedagogye2 As will become apparent in this study, the use of these disourses added new dimensions to the study of Native education. ' Lxisting literature did not provido eatiefactory explanations for the numerous problens that exist in Native communities in general, and in Native education in particular. The problem was that the historical and pclitical specificiey of Native people was not taken into consideration. While 1 am avare of poatmodernism and poatatructurslism, 1 have not had the opportunity to study these rnovements thoroughly. Therefore 1 am not able to use the literature at this time. For instance, 1 was able to use a critical perspective to reveal that the phenomenon of taking educational control by Native bands is a political endeavour characterized by conflict, complexity and contradiction. This is because the First Nations are now implicated in the power relations of Western society, wherein they are socially constructed as a racial minority. The intent of this dissertation is not to replicate the numerous empirical or descriptive studies which have been conducted in the field of Native education. My intention was to go beyond the scope of these studies and explore new theoretical and methodological horizons. The field of Native studies is at the point where the various parameters and complexity of Native education need to be reviewed. Systematic studies of First Nations education, using a postcolonial indigenous perspective which takes into consideration the power relations that underlie Native reality, need to be conducted. This thesis was motivated by my concern with the lack of the necessary critical theoretical discourses which would guide First Nations educators and administrators in the complex and difficult task of assuming control of their own education. When Native people began to establish their own schools and curricula the only educational models available were based on Western European educational ideologies and practices. As well, after years of domination many communities were unprepared to assume control (Taylor, Crago, & McAlpine:1993; Pauls:1984; Wyatt:1978-79; King:1987). Many Native educators demonstrated ingenuity and foresight by relying on traditional elders for guidance and inspiration (Couture:1985:4). Through this process Native educators and band members were able to create curricula and educational materials which were grounded in Native traditions and values (Armstrong:1987; Archibald: 1995; Williams & Wyatt: 1987; Battiste:1995). The theoretical approach utilized in this dissertation enables me to argue that the recognition of socio/economic and cultural
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