PUBLIC EXPRESSIONS OF FIRST NATIONS PROTEST IN CANADA’S SIXTIES A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Master of Arts In History University of Regina By Brian Eric Warren Regina, Saskatchewan March 2020 Copyright 2020: Brian Warren UNIVERSITY OF REGINA FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES AND RESEARCH SUPERVISORY AND EXAMINING COMMITTEE Brian Eric Warren, candidate for the degree of Master of Arts in History, has presented a thesis titled, Public Expressions of First Nations Protest in Canada’s Sixties, in an oral examination held on March 17, 2020. The following committee members have found the thesis acceptable in form and content, and that the candidate demonstrated satisfactory knowledge of the subject material. External Examiner: *Dr. John Meehan, University of Sudbury Supervisor: Dr. Ken Leyton-Brown, Department of History Committee Member: Dr. Philip Charrier, Department of History Committee Member: Dr. James Daschuk, Faculty of Kinesiology and Health Studies Chair of Defense: Dr. Dongyan Blachford, Department of International Languages *via Teleconference i Abstract Much of the literature about modern First Nations activism in Canada has left the impression that it began, in earnest, in protest of the federal government’s controversial 1969 White Paper. As a result, several significant and well-publicized expressions of First Nations protest in the preceding decade, have been widely ignored. This thesis explores the growth and diversification of First Nations protest, from the eve of the sixties, through the White Paper backlash, to demonstrate how the groundwork for future activism, was laid amid the political foment of the sixties. It chronicles Six Nations’ Declarations of Independence from Canada; the heated debate among Status Indians over voting rights in 1960; the 1965 demonstrations at Edmonton, Ottawa, and Kenora; the Indians of Canada Pavilion at Expo 67; the birth of the militant Red Power movement; and, the ascendancy of the National Indian Brotherhood and its provincial affiliates in the wake of the White Paper. The analysis of these events, as well as significant contextual undercurrents such as the Civil Rights Movement, draws on indigenous-authored retrospectives, subsequent academic studies, and a wealth of primary research from a diverse array of contemporary newspapers, periodicals, and other media. ii Acknowledgments This thesis evolved over the past two-and-a-half years amid my ongoing work as a high school history teacher. I owe its existence to the patience, encouragement, and guidance of those who supported my efforts. Before I began my research, I had the honour of speaking, at length, with the late elder, life speaker, and former chief of the National Indian Brotherhood, Noel Starblanket. As a young activist and leader-on-the-rise during the 1960s, his firsthand insights and recollections, as well as his belief in the importance of my project, provided me with a strong sense of purpose, direction, and inspiration. Moving forward, my supervisor, Dr. Ken Leyton-Brown, guided my efforts and helped me to stay focused. He always read my drafts with care, and provided vital feedback with candour and precision, which continually challenged me to better my work. I am also indebted to Dr. Dawn Flood, whose graduate seminar on Black Power in US History, provided me with an early opportunity to investigate connections between African American and indigenous protest movements in the sixties, especially their cross-border dynamics. Several of the findings presented in my term paper for that course, which benefitted immeasurably from Dr. Flood’s knowledge, guidance, and feedback, have been utilized in this thesis. I would also like to thank Dr. Philip Charrier, Head of the Department of History, and longtime mentor, for his continued support, encouragement, and for his critical contributions as my instructor in research methods. Finally, I am grateful to Dr. Charrier, along with Dr. James Daschuk—whose 2013 work, Clearing the Plains, has been a significant influence—for serving as committee members. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. ii Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................iii INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 1 PART 1: Historiography ....................................................................................................... 2 PART 2: Public Expressions of First Nations Protest, 1959-1970 ................................ 12 2.1 The “Iroquois Revolt” of 1959 ............................................................................. 13 2.2 The Spectre of the Vote ........................................................................................ 22 2.3 First Nations on the March ................................................................................... 31 2.4 Protesting Canada’s Centennial at Expo 67 ........................................................ 44 2.5 Forging Red Power ............................................................................................... 53 2.6 The White Paper Backlash ................................................................................... 64 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................... 77 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 80 1 INTRODUCTION In the summer of 1969, the Canadian government proposed, in an infamously ill-fated white paper, to abolish the Crown’s treaties with First Nations, along with the federal legislation and bureaucracy that allowed for First Nations’ separate legal status and entitlements.1 This prompted an immediate and sustained backlash from First Nations individuals, communities, and organizations. Their provincial and territorial leaders rallied swiftly and effectively against the government’s stated intention to extinguish its treaty obligations, along with all remaining semblance of indigenous sovereignty, eroded as it was by a century of assimilationist policy.2 In light of its withdrawal in the face of First Nations opposition, the 1969 White Paper, or, “Statement of the Government of Canada on Indian Policy,” has been widely cited as the catalyst that initiated modern indigenous activism, which has persisted in various forms to the present day. Such narratives have often ignored the preceding rise in public protest activity among Canada’s geographically fragmented and culturally diverse First Nations, which aimed to assert their sovereign indigenous rights within the Canadian state; to remind politicians, and the public-at-large, of their historic treaties with the Crown; and to address desperate socioeconomic inequalities among them. This thesis analyses diverse public expressions 1 Indigenous, Aboriginal, and Native, are inclusive terms that define anyone who traces their ancestry to the original inhabitants of a particular place. First Nations—the focus of this thesis—are the largest subgroup of indigenous peoples in Canada, followed by the Métis, a nation born of early interactions between First Nations and European newcomers, and the Inuit peoples, which are indigenous to the Arctic. In the 1960s, the most common term used to classify First Nations people was, “Indian,” as had been the case for centuries. Although some continue to self-identify in this way, many others find the term offensive, inaccurate, or both. It persists due to the legal fact that most First Nations individuals are entitled to Indian status, which legally designates them as Status Indians. Furthermore, the federal legislation that provides for the administration of Status Indians, and defines who is considered as such, is called the Indian Act. For the purposes of this thesis, the term “Indian,” will therefore be used in those legal contexts, and in direct quotes. 2 John L. Tobias has demonstrated that Canada’s policy on First Nations, always meant to “protect” them from exploitation so they could be separately “civilized” in advance of their “assimilation” into the dominant culture. See “Protection, Civilization, Assimilation: An Outline History of Canada’s Indian Policy,” Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology 6, 2 (1976), 13-16. 2 of First Nations protest, chronologically, in the decade leading up to the White Paper, and demonstrates that indigenous upheaval in Canada, and across North America, was already well underway throughout the 1960s—a transformative era that laid the groundwork for future activism. PART 1: Historiography Relatively little has been written about First Nations activism in Canada during the 1960s. Of what is available and pertinent, there are two distinct bodies of literature to consider: the contemporary writings of indigenous activists themselves in the wake of that decade, and the more recent scholarly literature that has sought to interpret their activities. Almost none of the early works by indigenous authors appeared until the 1960s had ended, but developments in that decade inspired and