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Pests and Diseases of Plants Are Cosmopolitan, and Have Been

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Pests and Diseases of Plants Are Cosmopolitan, and Have Been InternationalInternational EntomologyEntomology Kostas Bourtzis, Steven Crook, Daniele Daffonchio, Ravi Durvasula, Yupa Hanboonsong, Francisco Infante, Paulo T. Lacava, Thomas A. Miller, and Fernando E. Vega ests and diseases of plants are cosmopolitan, and have been the percentage is lowest near the equator and higher farther away. from the beginning of agriculture. Domestication of plants and breeding for increased yields allowed civilizations to nights in diapause only at non-freezing temperatures underground. develop, but often created new problems associated with DiapauseAs a tropical is triggered moth, the by pink low temperature,bollworm can short survive days, freezing and food winter qual- P ity. Older literature claimed that diapause could last two years or era, inorganic fertilizer in some cases has eliminated crop rotation andmonocultures led to pollution and displacedof rivers and native aquifers. flora Theand following fauna. In descriptionsthe modern of several international collaborators’ attempts to manage pests more (see F. C. Willcocks 1916, in Naranjo et al. 2002; Anonymous and diseases represent the beginnings of a practical international 1984). Diapausing pink bollworm larvae tend to associate with cotton entomology, and are a form of science diplomacy. A common theme regionsseeds, spinning in this condition. a modified cocoon and often knitting seeds together. in each of the examples is the urgent need for new tools in pest and It can survive shipment from infested areas to other cotton-growing disease management. program starting a few years after introduction to California from Pink bollworm was the object of a Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) Pink Bollworm - plow-downArizona around and 1965.other Whilesanitation suppression measures, of ainfestations court decision in eastern to lift worm, Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders) (Lepidoptera: Gelechi- Arizona starting in 1927 were considered successful using early First recorded as a cotton pest in India about 1843, the pink boll through Arizona to California (Naranjo et al. 2002). This incident on the richness of parasites and predators found there (Naranjo et al. these restrictions lead quickly to a population explosion that spread idae) is thought to have originated in the Indo-Pakistan region, based exacerbate pest problems. clearly shows how human intervention and lack of vigilance can 2002). The larval stage infests fruit and flower buds of the Malvaceae- pendingfamily of onplants, prevailing including weather okra, conditions; mallow, hibiscus, earlier and generations cotton. feed deltaThe endotoxin advent of genes Bollgard® from acotton strain developed of Bacillus by thuringiensis Monsanto provided, an ento- The pink bollworm has from three to six generations a year de a powerful new tool to control pink bollworm. Insertion of one of the most chewing Lepidoptera, including larvae of the budworm and on cotton squares or flowers in the spring, while later ones infest mopathogenic bacterium, into cotton offered 100% protection against bolls. A certain number of larvae in field populations enter diapause; 234 American Entomologist 2012 • Winter bollworm complex (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and pink bollworm itself. theseResistance published was studies readily and demonstrated anecdotal infestation by feeding reports, pink bollworms resistance on a Bollgard® diet for several generations (Bartlett 1995). Despite- of pink bollworm to the Bollgard® plants was not reported from in troduction around 1994 until 2011, when resistance was confirmed thein India United by StatesTim Dennehy, was due then to the with resistance Monsanto management (Dhurua and strategy Gujar followed2011). Perhaps by the U.S. this Environmental outstanding record Protection of holding Agency, off which resistance insisted in that a non-Bollgard® harborage be included in every Bollgard® maintain a large enough supply of susceptible genes to prevent the cotton field. Because resistance is a recessive trait, the intent was to rigidoccurrence resistance of homozygous management resistant strategy. strains (Tabashnik et al. 2000). The Indian resistance incidentAnthonomous may have grandis been grandiscaused by Boheman), relaxing this the Like the boll weevil ( ofpink the bollworm program isare the a specialobject ofwaiver eradication of the EPAattempts, rule requiring the latest non- one Bollgard®starting in 2005harborage (http://tinyurl.com/cjhh5bk). plants, early-season pheromone The main treatment, elements - toring.SIT releases The waiver when wasthe field granted populations by EPA because are reduced sterile to insect small releases enough werenumbers said to to make satisfy SIT the practical, harborage and requirement.extensive pheromone trap moni No pink bollworms have been found in California, Arizona, New Mexico, or most of Chihuahua, Mexico for the past few years. The eradication program is now focusing on west Texas and Mexico in the Colorado River drainage areas of San Luis, Sonora and Mexicali, Baja California Norte. During the 2011 cotton season, 83,202 acres of cotton were grown in the Mexicali area just over the California tensborder of thousands from El Centro. of cotton Of this bolls acreage, that were 137 randomly fields out sampled. of 2,310 Forty- were Fig. 1. Coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari. Left photo by Eric non-Bollgard® cotton, and fewer than 12 larvae were found in the Erbe, colorized by Chris Pooley, USDA; right photo by Peggy Greb, USDA. five million SIT moths were released each week in this area and San Luis during the 2011 growing season. Twenty-five larvae were found arein the expensive, San Luis-Mexicali requiring intensivearea at the labor end and of the unprecedented 2012 season. coopera - tion.Eradication Therefore, programs they are only like feasiblethose for when boll weevil the costs and are pink outweighed bollworm Coffeeby overwhelming Berry Borer financial incentives. The most devastating insect pest of Coffea arabica L. and C. ca- nephora Pierre ex A. Froehner worldwide is the coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolyti- coffee-producing countries, causing severe damage to the coffee seed, nae) (Fig. 1). This bark beetle has disseminated from Africa to most whichThe is insect the marketable poses a formidable product. Yearly control losses challenge due to due the to coffee its cryptic berry Fig. 2. Coffee berries ready for picking. Photo by Fernando E. Vega. borer have been estimated at over $500 million (Vega et al. 2002a). sibling mating inside the berry means that females are inseminated nature inside the coffee berry (Fig. 2). Infestation begins when a and ready to oviposit as soon as they exit the berry. theyfemale start bores consuming a hole in the the seed, coffee reducing berry and both deposits quality upand to yield. 300 eggsTwo Research aimed at developing pest management strategies (Jaramillo 2008) in galleries within the seed. Once the larvae hatch, against the coffee berry borer have focused on the use of biological control agents, such as parasitoids and fungal entomopathogens. offactors the maternallymake the insect inherited even moreintracellular problematic: alphaproteobacterium the sex ratio of the Unfortunately, even though some mortality might ensue, use of these Wolbachiaspecies is skewed, favoring females 10:1 (likely due to the presence biocontrol agents is not sufficient to control the insect. Furthermore, American Entomologist or another male-killingVolume 58, Number agent [Vega4 et al. 2002b]); and 235 • long-term studies after introduction of both parasitoids and fungal fee berry, and due to sibling mating in this cryptic environment, opportunities for mating disruption appear limited. Some success the use of fungal entomopathogens against the coffee berry borer has been reported in recruiting local entomopathogenic fungi as a wasentomopathogens the development are of lacking a technique (Vega that et al. was 2009). effective A novel in introducing aspect of Beauveria bassiana deliverybiological paradigm control method is needed. that is applied like an insecticide. However, (Balsamo) Vuillemin (Ascomycota: Hypocreales) as inTools the forcase pest of the control pink fall bollworm, into one deliveryof the four is categoriesthe problem. shown A new in as a fungal endophyte in coffee plants (Posada and Vega 2006; Posada Of these, neurotoxic chemicals are the most frequently used et al. 2007), although establishment was short-lived, probably due to the presence of other fungal endophytes in the plant (Vega et al. ofTable broad-spectrum 1. neurotoxic insecticides, well-established agro- 2008a, 2010). Further research aimed at permanent and systemic and the only ones on the list that give results immediately. In the case strategyestablishment against of thefungal coffee entomopathogens berry borer. as endophytes (Vega 2008; VegaOne et ofal. the 2008b) interesting might aspectsresult in in anthe effective biology ofpest the management coffee berry chemical companies enjoy a $30 billion global market that maintains borer is the insect’s ability to survive on a food source that contains attractivethe industry. selectivity The current that trendthis approach to find local offers. fungi While or other biopesticides microbial arecontrol more agents sustainable is hampered and environmentally by a narrow market friendly dictated than byneurotoxic the very insecticides, they still suffer from development of resistance and the weightthe alkaloid basis) caffeine in
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