Final Report SPACE: the Final Frontier for CSR SPACE: the Final Frontier for CSR

Final Report SPACE: the final frontier for CSR SPACE: the final frontier for CSR

Cover image: Remote sensing view of the BP Deep Horizon oil spill in April 2010. Image courtesy of NASA. Team logo created by Luca Celiento.

The MSS 2017 Program of the International Space University (ISU) was held at the ISU Central Campus in Illkirch-Graffenstaden, France.

Electronic copies of the Final Report and Executive Summary can be downloaded from the ISU website at www.isunet.edu. Printed copies of the Executive Summary may be requested, while supplies last, from:

International Space University Strasbourg Central Campus Attention: Publication/Library Parc d’Innovation 1 rue Jean-Dominique Cassini 67400 Illkirch-Graffenstaden France

Tel. +33 (0)3 88 65 54 32 Fax. +33 (0)3 88 65 54 47 e-mail. [email protected]

Acknowledgments

Project TerraSPACE authors wish to thank Muriel Riester for her assistance provided to us during this stage of the team project by assisting us in finding various relevant sources offered to us by ISU’s library. Her continued patience is greatly appreciated and will be valued throughout the continuation of this project.

Professor Barnaby Osborne, the project’s supervisor, has provided us with the necessary guidance to operate as a team effectively. His support throughout this project has allowed us to focus on the report’s content in efforts of producing a meaningful effort.

Team members wish to express their gratitude to C. Mate for kindly holding an interview with team members to discuss the current working conditions of the oil and gas industry.

Finally, we wish to thank the various members of the ISU faculty who have provided feedback on the final report: Walter Peeters, Volker Damann, Hugh Hill, Danijela Stupar, Chris Welch, and Vasilis Zervos. An additional thanks is extended to Professor Zervos for aiding team members in understanding the various aspects of corporate social responsibility and how it is applied in industry. We would also like to acknowledge Veena Shelvankar, Peter Thoreau, and Yadvender Singh Dhillon for their support throughout the various stages of our final report.

Team TerraSPACE

Illkirch-Graffenstaden, France, 2017

ii Report Authors

Hernán Barrio Zhang Physical Sciences Pablo Calla Galleguillos Electronics Engineering Meredith Campbell Mechanical Engineering Luca Celiento Space Engineering Mary Distler Aerospace Engineering Bethany Downer Geography & Earth Sciences Arthur van Eeckhout Business & Business Economics Pierre Evellin Engineering Alyssa Frayling Computer Science Alexander Harding Astrophysics Sergey Sergeevich Ioda Business Management Nicolas Jalbert Mechanical Engineering Joost van Oorschot Entrepreneurship & Economics Joshua Rasera Mechanical Engineering Siddharth Shihora Aerospace Engineering & Technology Juan Tan Aerospace Engineering Jenna Tiwana Aerospace Engineering Jian Wang Engineering Yue Wang Business Management Nicholas Yee Life Sciences Haizhou Zhang Business Management Wenjie Zhang Communications Engineering

Editing Coordinator:Bethany Downer Research Coordinator: Pierre Evellin Planning and Organization Coordinator:Joshua Rasera Faculty Interface: Prof. Barnaby Osborne

iii Abstract

This work presents an impact study of new and upcoming space-based and space-derived systems on the Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) practices of oil and gas sector companies. These systems include the Internet of Things, space-sector-derived spinoffs, new satellite constellations (O3b, SpaceX, and OneWeb), remote operations, alternative energy sources, and human performance studies in extreme environments.

As a result of growing understanding and concern regarding the negative effects of their operations (such as potential oil spills, inevitable emissions, and the contribution to global climate change), companies operating in the oil and gas sector have become particular champions of CSR, and spend billions of dollars on CSR activities annually. As the integration, utilization, and dissemination of such values can positively impact a given company in the oil and gas sector, this study considers how space- based and space-derived systems can impact the CSR practices of various industry corporations.

This paper presents an identification of the needs of CSR for oil and gas companies, highlights the existing approaches being taking to address these needs, and identifies the gaps that space-based and space-derived systems might fill, assesses the impact of the future space systems, and presents recommendations and conclusions. In particular, three key areas of CSR policies were chosen for analysis: employment and labor practices, environmental management and preservation, and community and social benefits.

The impact of space systems is judged based on the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) and Triple Bottom Line standard methodologies, and has been tailored to the needs of this work. Finally, we present recommendations on which systems should be implemented based on their potential for net impact on CSR practices in the oil and gas sector.

Faculty Preface

MSS17 has brought together forty-two students from a range of different cultures, backgrounds and experiences. This class has participated in an Intercultural, Interdisciplinary and International MSc in Space Studies made up of lectures, workshops, professional visits, internship, individual project and team project. For the class of 2017, there were two team projects: TP Dragonfly - considering the synergies between drone technology and satellite remote sensing; and TerraSPACE. This team project, TerraSPACE considers the impact of space technologies and practices on the Corporate and Social Responsibilities of Oil and Gas companies. This is a novel topic, in a time where resource companies are coming under increasing scrutiny from the media and public. This project sought potential opportunities and parallels in existing space based monitoring (such as arms regulation monitoring), remote observation, space based communications and space derived technologies. The intent of this project was to consider the impact that these capabilities would have on current CSR activities for Oil and Gas companies. The project was carried out over the past six months by twenty two MSS17 students from thirteen different countries. The team have identified a range of possible intersections between the space sector and CSR activities. They have considered the technical, legal and political requirements and assessed the social and economic impacts, resulting in a number of key recommendations for this important part of the resources sector. In developing the main findings presented in this report, team TerraSPACE have consistently demonstrated a professional and methodical approach. They have engaged with the 3I approach of ISU to prepare a broad scoped impact study. On behalf of the ISU faculty, I am happy to commend both the students and the TP TerraSPACE final report to you.

Dr. Barnaby Osborne

v Student Preface

The oil and gas sector represents a significant portion of the global economy, and drives the livelihoods of millions, if not billions, of people. Whether or not people are directly involved in the sector, the impact of these corporations can be far reaching, and can be felt in seemingly unrelated ways. In recent years, the negative impact had by oil and gas operations has caused backlash from employees, investors and communities, and as such, companies have needed to raise themselves to a higher standard. Now, through the outreach and investment by oil and gas companies, numerous people’s lives have been improved through safer working conditions, better environmental management, and investment in social and physical infrastructure. It is the purpose of our team, and this report, to describe the space-based and space-inspired means by which these processes can be improved. This project began with a wide scope, having analyzed the needs, trends, and gaps in the mining, forestry, and fisheries sectors. Unfortunately, the nature of this project required us to greatly refine our focus, and attempt to address the gaps experienced by a single sector: oil and gas. Through our research, we identified that Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) was a common trend throughout this sector, and that relatively little space-based and space-inspired technologies were being used. This is where TerraSPACE was established. CSR is an important facet of the contemporary oil and gas sector, and also happens to integrate well with ISU’s International, Intercultural, and Interdisciplinary approach. Clearly, engineering and issues are at the forefront of many space activities, and this is not different. However, there are pivotal considerations for culture, science, policy, law, and human health. Fortunately, our team of 22 people, from 13 different countries, with numerous educational, cultural, and social backgrounds has allowed us to address this topic from a truly 3Is perspective. With a practical and egalitarian approach to team management, and with a strong emphasis placed on mutual respect and understanding, Team TerraSPACE has been able to deliver a high-caliber and impactful report. While our findings will undoubtedly be interesting for oil and gas companies, we also present considerations that would be useful for communities affected by the industry, or even those interested in the ways that space-based and space-inspired technologies can be used outside of their traditional means. Our team has consulted and reviewed numerous journals, agency publications, industry websites, and experts in the field. We have been well supported by the ISU faculty, and appreciate their assistance and guidance throughout this project. It is our hope that this paper be used to help oil and gas corporations to make CSR activities more attractive, both socially and economically, and also to help improve the quality of life for those in, and affected by, the industry.

Team TerraSPACE

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments ii Report Authors iii Abstract iv Faculty Preface v Student Preface vi Table of Contents vii List of Figures x List of Tables xii List of Report Acronyms xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Report Overview and Objectives Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.2 CSR in the Oil and Gas Industry 3 2 Industry Challenges for CSR 1 2.1 Employment and Labor Practices 1 2.1.1 CSR Dissemination and Verification 1 2.1.2 Public Perception on Worker Accidents 2 2.1.3 Emergency Response Times 3 2.2 Environmental Management 4 2.2.1 Transition in Policy Mentality 4 2.2.2 Inevitable Impact of Operations 4 2.2.3 Accidents and Incidents in Operations 6 2.3 Social and Community Benefits 7 2.3.1 Public Demand for CSR 8 2.3.2 Benefits of CSR for Public Matters 8 2.3.3 Community Issues with CSR 9 2.3.4 Publicity of CSR 10 3 Existing Space Sector Approaches 11 3.1 Employment and Labor Practices 11 3.1.1 Remote Sensing and Tracking Technologies 11 3.1.2 Applied Materials 12 3.1.3 Teleoperation and Automation 12 3.1.4 Internet Services 13 3.2 Environmental Management 13

3.2.1 Environmental Monitoring 14 3.2.2 Emergency Response 16 3.3 Social and Community Benefits 17 3.3.1 Community Engagement 18 3.3.2 Education and Training 19 3.3.3 Infrastructure 20 3.3.4 Public Health and Safety 21 4 Identification of Key Gaps 22 4.1 Employment and Labor Practices 22 4.2 Environmental Management 23 4.3 Social and Community Benefits 25 5 Impact of Future Technologies 33 5.1 Assessment Criteria and Methodology 33 5.2 Internet of Things 37 5.2.1 Description 37 5.2.2 Applications 40 5.3 Spinoff Systems 42 5.3.1 Description 42 5.3.2 Applications 42 5.4 Next-Generation Satellite Constellations 60 5.4.1 Description 60 5.4.1 Applications 62 5.5 Remote Operations 69 5.5.1 Description 69 5.5.2 Applications 70 5.6 Human Performance Studies in Extreme Environments 75 5.6.1 Description 75 5.6.2 Applications 76 5.7 Alternative Energy Sources 80 5.7.1 Description 80 5.7.2 Applications 81 6 Recommendations 84 6.1 Internet of Things 84 6.2 Spinoff Technologies 84 6.3 Next Generation Satellite Constellations 84 6.4 Remote Operations 85

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6.5 Analog Studies 85 6.6 Alternative Energy Sources 86 7 Conclusion 87 References 88 Appendix A 100

ix List of Figures

Figure 1: An example of Royal Dutch Shell’s worker health and safety practices webpage (Shell PLC, 2017a)...... 1 Figure 2: Concentration of the main particulates emitted by human activity from 2001-2006 (Van Donkelaar, et al., 2010)...... 6 Figure 3: Demonstrators in front of the White House whilst protesting against the Keystone XL pipeline in Washington, DC (PRI, 2017)...... 9 Figure 4: An example of SAR data captured by Envisat and the analysis to depict an oil spill (Cheng, et al., 2011) ...... 14 Figure 5: A combined ASTER and DEM of oil field in Colombia (Satellite Imaging Corporation, 2016)...... 15 Figure 6: Average number of tanker spills over a ten year period, for spill sizes 7-700 tons and >700 tons (ITOPF, 2017)...... 16 Figure 7: Volunteers working to clear oil spilled by the Prestige tanker in Spain, which had affected the reproductive activity of the European shag bird (Kaplan, 2014)...... 24 Figure 8: The voluntary social investment provided by Royal Dutch Shell to the areas in which it operates. Adapted from Shell PLC (2015)...... 27 Figure 9: An illustration of a telemedicine system infrastructure...... 28 Figure 10: The continents of Africa and Europe seen at night in a compiled image. The brighter regions reveal area with high light output (NASA, 2009).https://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/earthday/gall_earth_night.html ...... 30 Figure 11: Oil spills causing devastation throughout a creek in the Niger Delta (BBC, 2013)...... 31 Figure 12: Depiction of the evolution of the Internet of Things (Li, et al., 2015)...... 38 Figure 13: The architecture of Occupational Health and Safety Support System (OHSSS) for a company...... 39 Figure 14: The experimental X-38 crew return vehicle during a flight test in California, USA (NASA, 2015a)...... 43 Figure 15: Aerial image of a forest in Connecticut (left). Bare-earth LIDAR image displaying the remains of infrastructure and then-cleared farmland (right) (NASA, 2017a, p.139)...... 46 Figure 16: Biological Air filter used to remove airborne contaminants the International Space Station (ESA, 2015)...... 48 Figure 17: Crude oil spill in Saskatchewan, Canada, which threatened the drinking water supplies of the local communities (Graeber, 2016)...... 50 Figure 18: A baby using Embrace’s Infant Warmer to remain at a regulated and comfortable temperature (NASA, 2017a, p.49)...... 53 Figure 19: A photograph image taken of Point Lobos in California (left). The same bay except imaged using Sigma Space’s Single Photon Lidar. The color range corresponds to topography (right)...... 54 Figure 20: Photographs of two thatched huts that have been set on fire. The hut on the left has had CASPOL flameproof coating applied. The hut without the coating has completed burned down whereas the one with the coating has remained standing (ISRO, 2016)...... 56

Figure 21: Three multispectral images of crop fields used to analyze a farm’s vegetation density, water levels, and crop stress respectively (NASA, 2017a, p.132)...... 58 Figure 22: An example of Satshot’s Mapcenter app. The colors seen on the crop field represent different levels of crop yield, green corresponding to high-yield (NASA, 2017a, p.133)...... 59 Figure 23: OneWeb constellation distribution (OneWeb, 2017)...... 61 Figure 24: O3b Energy Network Architecture (O3b, 2017b)...... 62 Figure 25: (A) Real-Time Geo Steering, (B) Engineer using the Instant Messenger Interface (Red Box) to control the drill bit in real-time. The images have been adopted from Stahl (2008)...... 63 Figure 26: Example of soil pollution in the Niger Delta decades after the oil spill took place (Sosialistisk Ungdom, n.d.)...... 67 Figure 27: Subsea equipment employing remote drilling operations on the sea floor (Methe, 2016)...... 71 Figure 28: A photograph of the antenna to be used on KASYMOSA undergoing testing for the tracking system at the Facility for Over-the-Air Research and Testing (FORTE) (Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft, 2017)...... 74 Figure 29: Images showing the harsh work environments of both the oil and gas and space sectors (BP, 2017b; NASA, 2015b)...... 75

List of Tables

Table 1: Table depicting factors and effects of oil spillages (DG IPOL, 2013) ...... 6 Table 2: Space-Sector Solution Impact Assessment Criterion List...... 34

Table 3: Criteria Measurement Matrix ...... 37

Table 4: This table identifies the challenges faced in a Space environment (Morphew, 2001). Green refers to the challenges met in both the space and oil rig environments, red refers to challenges only met in the space environment and blue refers to challenge ...... 78

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List of Report Acronyms

ASTER - Advanced Spaceborne Thermal KASYMOSA – Ka-Band Systems For Mobile Emission and Reflection Satellite Communications ATLAS - Advanced Topographic Laser Altimeter LIDAR - Light Detection and Ranging System MODIS - Moderate Resolution Imaging BBC - British Broadcasting Corp. Spectroradiometer BNNT - Boron Nitride Nanotube NASA – National Aeronautics and Space BP - British Petroleum Administration CASPOL - Ceramic Polymer Hybrid NEEMO - NASA Extreme Environment Mission CAVES - Cooperative Adventure for Valuing and Operations Exercising NEX - NASA Earth Exchange CLIP - Computer Learning Imagery Platform NGO - Non-Governmental Organization CNOOC - China National Offshore Oil OECD - Organization for Economic Co-operation Corporation and Development COP - Common Operating Picture OHSSS - Occupational Health and Safety CSA - Canadian Space Agency Support System CSIRO - Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial OLA - OSIRIS-REx Laser Altimeter Research Organization OWC - Optical Wireless Communications CSR - Corporate Social Responsibility PCM - Phase-Changing Material DEM - Digital Elevation Models PR – Public Relations EM - Ectomycorrhizal RDSS - Rice Decision Support System EPA - Environmental Protection Agency RFID - Radio Frequency Identification ESA - European Space Agency RMB - Renminbi currency FCC - Federal Communications Commission ROSES - Research Opportunities in Space and GEO - Geosynchronous Earth Orbit Earth Sciences GEOGLAM - Group on Earth Observations’ ROV - Remotely Operated Vehicle Global Agricultural Monitoring SAR - Synthetic Aperture Radar GIS - Geographic Information Systems SBIR - Small Business Innovation Research GNSS - Global Navigation Satellite System SERT - Solar Power Exploratory Research and GPS - Global Positioning System Technology GRI - Global Reporting Initiative SLAR - Side-Looking Radar Images HEI - Harsh Environment Initiative SNR - Staged Nutrient Release ICESAT-2 – Ice Cloud and Land Elevation SpaceX - Space Exploration Technologies Corp. Satellite 2 SPL - Single Photon Lidar ILO - International Labor Organization SPOT - Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre IOS - Intelligent Optical Systems STEM - Science, Technology, Engineering and IoT - Internet of Things Mathematics IP - Internet Protocol TIR - Thermal Infrared ISRO - Indian Space Research Organization UAV - Unmanned Aerial Vehicle ISRU - In-Situ Resource Utilization UN - United Nations ISS - International Space Station UV- Ultra-Violet ITU- International Telecommunication Union VIIRS - Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer JAXA - Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency Suite JPSS - Joint Polar Satellite System VOCs - Volatile Organic Compounds WHO - World Health Organization

1 Introduction

1.1 Report Overview, Aims, and Objectives

1.1.1 Mission Statement

Through this report, TerraSPACE aims to assess the impact of new and upcoming space- based and space-derived solutions on the Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) practices of the oil and gas sector.

1.1.2 Report Aims and Objectives The aims of TerraSPACE are: • To deliver an impact study on space-based or space-derived solutions that analyzes their potential effects on main areas of CSR in the oil and gas sector. • To identify present and futuristic space-based and space-derived solutions to deliver possible improvements for the future of the oil and gas industry. • To offer space-based and space-inspired solutions that facilitate the betterment of the industry, whilst minimizing its environmental footprint. To meet these aims, TerraSPACE has the following objectives: 1. To identify trends within the CSR practices in the oil and gas sector. 2. To extract current and upcoming technologies and solutions found during the literature review, such as upcoming communication satellite constellations or internet of things, and develop a detailed understanding of their potential applications. 3. To define the gaps between the industry trends and current solutions for CSR efforts. 4. To identify potential technological crossovers between the space sector and the oil and gas sector in order to further develop the technical understanding of existing and emerging CSR solutions. 5. To identify spinoffs and spin-ins from the space industry that could be incorporated to develop a potential solution for the CSR of oil and gas companies. 6. To understand and provide a clear recommendation of the upcoming solutions that can be applied to the oil and gas industries.

1.1.3 Overview

As the aims and objectives elucidate the details of the mission statement, it is the goal of this report to further elaborate upon those aims and objectives themselves, by focusing on three key areas of

CSR that have been identified as: employment and labor practices, environmental management, and community and social benefits. The resulting analysis aims to provide the oil and gas sector with a series of recommendations that could encourage the incorporation of space-derived solutions to better the oil and gas CSR activities in the coming decades. This will be particularly relevant as new and emerging technologies and applications from the space sector continue to evolve.

The oil and gas industry faces a variety of challenges in the interest of labor practices, environmental impact and social implications of its activities. A common practice employed by companies of the industry is to apply CSR policies, standards, and activities to serve the interest of the greater society while also striving to improve employee satisfaction, productivity, minimize poor public perceptions, and to attract the interest of socially-minded investors. Three primary themes are currently being addressed at large by the oil and gas industry in the interest of CSR to better the company and the wider community: employment and labor practices, environmental management, and the social rights of the community.

The space sector is currently experiencing vast developments in technology and understanding of human activities that take place on Earth and their subsequent impacts. In various ways, the space industry is already aiding the oil and gas sector to improve its practices and to monitor its efforts. However, in the coming decade, a wide variety of development will be emerging in the space sector that will have significant impacts on the oil and gas industry. If adopted and utilized by the oil and gas sector appropriately, space-based solutions, technologies, and applications can greatly enhance corporations to improve their CSR policies and activities. Such innovations include the increased integration of the Internet of Things (IoT), next-generation satellite constellation systems, remote operation systems and applications to be harnessed by the space industry (such as in-situ resource utilization, automation, robotics, and three-dimensional printing), and alternative sources of energy. While not all of such technologies are derived directly from the space industry, their application and use by the space sector can be considered for their pertinence and suitability for use by the oil and gas industry to improve their CSR practices.

In this report, the areas of employment and labor practices, environmental management, and social community rights, will each be addressed in the context of the space sector to establish which challenges are currently being faced by the industry in each of these areas. Space practices technologies that are currently being used to address such needs will then be highlighted to illustrate the space sector’s current involvement in the oil and gas industry, and to reveal which industry gaps are yet to be connected to applications of the space sector for the interest of such CSR considerations. Next, labor practices, environmental management, and social community rights will each have an accompanying analysis which will summarize the impacts that new space-based solutions,

technologies, and applications could have on their respective CSR activities and standards in the coming years as such systems and innovations are realized. This will also allow for innovative solutions for how the oil and gas industry can potentially harness the new developments in the space sector to enhance its CSR practices. In efforts of measuring the degree of such impacts, an assessment matrix and accompanying list of criterion is created and applied to each of the discussed technologies and space-derived applications. This effort hopes to quantify the degree of impact these new solutions may have on the oil and gas industry in the context of their CSR practices by considering employee labor practices, environmental management, and social community rights, across each of the assessed technologies. In its entirety, this report aims to assess the impact of new and upcoming space-based and space-derived solutions on the CSR practices of the oil and gas sector.

1.2 CSR in the Oil and Gas Industry

CSR can be defined as a duty of a corporate body to protect and serve the interest of society, above and beyond what is required by law (Barnes and Rubin, 2005; Holme and Watts, 1999). The use of CSR has become a common trend in firms around the world in recent decades, and has essentially become an industry in and of itself (Barnea and Rubin, 2005). Essentially, it is a means by which corporations can align societal values with their internal business operations. This can be useful in many ways: companies may be able to attract socially-minded investors, improve employee satisfaction and productivity, or avoid poor reputations amongst society at large, to name a few (Barnea and Rubin, 2005).

Companies operating in the oil and gas sector have become particular champions of CSR in recent decades. This is likely due to the visible negative effects of their operations, such as methane and carbon dioxide emissions, oil spills, and global climate change (Frynas, 2009a). Particularly well- publicized disasters, such as the BP Deep Horizon oil spill of 2010, or the Exxon-Valdez spill of 1989, place additional pressure upon these companies to find ways to maintain their images. According to Frynas (2009a), oil companies tend to pay more attention to CSR and become more involved with the needs and interests of local communities compared to other sectors. This is demonstrated by the marked increase of corporate codes of conduct, social reporting, and participation in international transparency initiatives like the United Nations (UN) Global Compact (Frynas, 2009b).

While oil and gas companies are often heavily involved in CSR campaigns directed at environmental protection and management, there have been numerous examples of projects aimed at improving the lives of the people with whom these companies ‘live’; this has been the case particularly in developing

nations. For example, oil companies have helped to build schools, developed and administered microcredit schemes for local people and assisted in youth employment programs (Frynas, 2009b).

CSR initiatives tend to be influenced greatly by the cultural practices and needs of the country in which a corporation is operating. In Malaysia, for example, companies tend to increase their efforts with respect to charitable activities around Muslim and Chinese holidays like Eid al-Fitr and Chinese New Year (Zulkifli and Amran, 2006). In developing countries, the alleviation of poverty, health care access, education, and infrastructure, are all perceived to be the most important facets to CSR. Conversely, western nations are more typically focused on the environment, consumer protection, and fair trade (Amaeshi, et al., 2006). Clearly, cultural priorities can play a major role in the development and application of CSR practices.

According to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises (2011), it is recommended that corporations “take fully into account established policies in the countries in which they operate, and consider the views of other stakeholders”. The OECD Guidelines continue to provide 15 recommendations for what companies should do in order to accomplish this, and have been paraphrased below:

1) Contribute to sustainable economic, environmental and social progress; 2) Respect the human rights of those affected; 3) Encourage local capacity building; 4) Encourage human capital formation; 5) Refrain from seeking or accepting exemptions related to human rights, environment, health, safety, labor, taxation, financial incentives, or other issues; 6) Support and uphold good corporate governance; 7) Develop and apply effective self-regulatory practices systems that build relationships and mutual trust; 8) Promote awareness of and compliance by workers to company policies and training programs; 9) Refrain from discriminatory or disciplinary action against workers; 10) Carry out risk-based due diligence; 11) Avoid causing or contributing to adverse impacts; 12) Seek to prevent or mitigate adverse impacts; 13) Encourage business partners to apply principles of responsible business conduct; 14) Engage with relevant stakeholders to provide meaningful opportunities for them to express their views in relation to planning and decision making for activities that may impact them; 15) Abstain from improper involvement in political activities.

From these, it can be seen that the three main themes being dealt with are: environmental management, employment and labor practices, and the social rights of the community. These three divisions are also reflected in the examples of CSR that have been discussed above. As previously mentioned, the cultural needs and framework will greatly affect how these themes are handled for CSR projects in different countries and communities.

2 Industry Challenges for CSR

2.1 Employment and Labor Practices

A variety of challenges currently exist in the global oil and gas sector concerning the utilization of CSR in the interest of employment and labor practices in addition to employee health and safety (Figure 1). As this is a key component of CSR for the majority of companies that promote this responsibility, the associated challenges are briefly introduced below in efforts of highlighting what needs have not been met to later address how space technologies and industry concepts can answer such demands. This section will analyze some company-specific challenges that remain for a variety of oil and gas companies in the context of worker health and safety of CSR in an international context. For the purpose of this report, labor and primarily the health and safety of those directly employed and working in the oil and gas industry will be considered.

Figure 1: An example of Royal Dutch Shell’s worker health and safety practices webpage (Shell PLC, 2017a).

2.1.1 CSR Dissemination and Verification

A key challenge highlighted by the CSR model illustrated by Shell, an Anglo-Dutch multinational oil and gas company, is that of emergency response time. The company currently prides itself in a response time of four hours. Whilst such claims are difficult to verify and validate, the recognition of the need and intent to reduce emergency response times is a positive step for such companies. The result of this optimization is the potential improvement to employee safety in emergency situations. A further

example of public CSR information dissemination is that of British Petroleum PLC. (BP). The British multinational oil and gas company publicly shares its CSR standards online. There is currently no specific section pertaining to worker safety for those operating in-land or off-shore. However, BP attested their sustainability report by Ernst and Young to assess a variety of compliances. These include whether the report covers the key issues raised in the media, if the health, safety, and environment data is representative of BP’s performance requirements and definitions, and if any claims against the company for sustainability are consistent with evidence provided by relevant managers (BP, 2017a). Thus, BP effectively justifies its reports and some components of CSR applications. However, such liability can also be translated to CSR concerning the health and safety of its workers. A recent study has also revealed that oil and gas companies in Qatar focused their CSR efforts towards worker health, sports, and education, while overlooking human rights, labor rights, and working conditions. The study confirms that with no firm assessment criteria to review CSR activities, companies have no evidence to verify success or failure of their initiatives (Kirat, 2015).

Finally, due to its large scope and impact in the sector, ExxonMobil could be considered as a valuable leader in other worker health and safety parameters. Unlike the company’s CSR information detailing extensively emergency response measures, ExxonMobil’s worker health and wellness programs adopt a primarily mitigation-oriented approach. This includes preventative measures against outbreaks of tuberculosis, HIV/AIDs, ebola, and malaria, and the company has applied an exposure assessment strategy to identify and assess various health risks to their employees. While various preventative measures exist, much is unknown concerning protocols undertaken during a medical emergency other than removal of the employee from a given site. Currently, a method for effectively enforcing a given organization’s policy does not exist and as such, one could question how standards are enforced in organizations with broad scopes.

2.1.2 Public Perception on Worker Accidents

While the mining industry is typically characterized for dangerous work environments for its employees, the oil and gas industry reports particular occupational risk. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration of the United States Department of Labor (2017) identified various sources of risk for employees of the oil and gas industry these include: falls, explosions, fires, confined spaces, ergonomic hazards, high pressure lines, equipment use, machine hazards, electrical hazards, and vehicle collisions. Of the 155 private mining industry occupational injuries in 2011 in the United States, the oil and gas extraction industries accounted for over 70 percent of those fatalities (BLS, 2014). The country has also reported 529 fatal injuries in the oil and gas industries between 2007 to 2011, with an annual occupational fatality rate of 27.5 per 100,000 workers (2003-2009); more than seven times higher than the rate for all U.S. workers (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2012;

United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014). Such statistics and associated events which result in injury and death typically leave lasting negative perceptions with the general public.

In May 2014, Petrobras received particularly negative attention for a series of worker accidents, including the death of a worker following a refinery explosion, which comprised of a series of six accidents in a single week for multiple refineries (Reuters, 2014). In May of 2016, an employee of the semi-public Brazilian multinational corporation fatally fell from a 12-meter platform (Offshore Post, 2016). Such events demonstrated the lack of coherence between the company’s social responsibility standards and the reality of safety protocols. The monitoring of a company’s implementation of safety standards requires improvements in workplace standards, but also standards to address and improve public perceptions after fatal incidents. Furthermore, when injuries and fatalities of the workplace receive media attention, combined with pre-existing negative perceptions of the industry’s harmful effects of the environment, the industry may visibly struggle to maintain public support for its operations.

2.1.3 Emergency Response Times

In emergency safety for the oil and mining industry, the differences in the on-shore and off-shore rigs as well as the locations need to be considered. Proximity to aid and ability to evacuate vary with the different operations. While companies train employees using muster drills, safety briefings, and safety reports, clear evacuation methods need to be utilized at all sites (Mate, 2017). For on-shore oil rigs, the company RIDE International Inc. currently offers an emergency rig decent device for workers that is similar to the Space Shuttle Emergency Egress Slidewire Baskets. The RIDE assures around 30 seconds to get the worker from the rig to safety (RIDE International Inc., 2017). While this is an effective solution for on-shore sites, off-shore oil rigs have more factors to consider when evacuations are required.

Currently, three options are used in the industry; the first option is using helicopter evacuations, however, this method is highly dependent on favorable weather and even with ideal flying conditions, can take multiple days for a full evacuation. Next, the use of a Safety Standby Vessel is considered. Still in need of good weather, this vessel would offer evacuation for the crew using platform cranes that lift workers from the rig to the ship. This requires 5-8 hours to evacuate all personnel at some of the larger rigs around the world. The third option is in case of an immediate evacuation is needed from the rig. In this situation, lifeboats and survival suits are located around the rig and have the capacity for double the number of workers onboard. These are deployed using Skyscape cranes to safely lower the boats into the water. While lifeboats offer immediate response to emergency evacuations, the use of these still require certain weather conditions in order to provide safety (Mate,

2017). Overall, companies in the oil and gas sector use CSR to address worker health and safety in the variety of dangerous circumstances that employees are faced with, primarily concerning the remote locations in which work is undertaken. However, terrestrially rural sites or offshore oil platforms both threaten long response times in emergency scenarios due to location and weather conditions. The industry still needs options for evacuations and assurance of worker safety in extreme situations.

2.2 Environmental Management

It is widely recognized that the operations undertaken in the oil and gas industry result in adverse effects for the surrounding environment. As the recognition of this consequence and the sharing of policies established to mitigate possible devastating accidents is an integral component of CSR, this section looks to consider the various challenges presented by environmental impacts. Considered topics include the industry’s transition in policy as made apparent by emerging international policies, a discussion of the various impacts that result from oil and gas operations, and the impacts of accidents such as oil spills.

2.2.1 Transition in Policy Mentality

A transition in mentality has been reflected by policy decisions on an international scale, as the sector is visibly trending toward more environmentally conscious extraction practices of oil and gas. This is regarded as a challenge as corporations are required to abide to environmental policies that are set in place by respective governments, which subsequently impacts operations. Formalized at the G7 Summit in 2015, all seven participating bodies (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, United Kingdom, United States, and the European Union) agreed to phase out petroleum-based fuel use by the end of the century and to further reduce contributions to greenhouse gas emissions. These nations agreed to a reduction in emissions from the coal, oil and gas industries by 40-70% from the levels recorded in 2010, by 2050 (G7, 2015). Six months following this agreement, the United Nations COP21 Paris summit saw over 200 nations agree to achieving (net) zero greenhouse gases emission in the second half of the century. These agreements are representative and reflective of global environmental commitment to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels. However, such summits also serve as an integral tool for CSR if corporations can reflect their adherence to such goals.

2.2.2 Inevitable Impact of Operations

A key challenge that is faced by CSR practices in the interest of environmental impact is that of the negative impacts oil and gas activities have on the surrounding terrain and wildlife, and how such impacts are opposed by various populations. The social impacts will be explored in further detail in

Section 2.3, while the nature and degree of the environmental impacts will be described in this section. For example, a project gaining much critical reception for its likely impacts is the Keystone XL Pipeline Project, a proposed crude oil pipeline spanning from Alberta, Canada to Nebraska in the United States. The significant environmental impacts that result of these pipelines include the emissions of greenhouse gases during extraction and processing and the threat to water quality (for irrigation, recreation, and drinking) following a possible spill of materials (Jernelöv, 2010; Erickson and Lazarus, 2014). According to Erickson and Lazarus (2014), the net annual impact of the Keystone XL project could amount to 110 million tons of CO2 equivalent annually. The threat of oil spills to the marine environment is also a prevalent threat that has received documentation acknowledging the detrimental effects that such disasters cause. For example, the 2010 BP-operated Deepwater Horizon oil spill that occurred in the Gulf of Mexico has become the “second-most publicized environmental catastrophe in decades” (Jernelöv, 2010). Evidently, this challenge for the oil and gas industry illustrates the importance of resource transport and the subsequent effects of such activities.

A considerably harmful byproduct produced by the oil and gas sector is that of emissions: the production and discharge of potentially harmful gases and particulates into the atmosphere. Figure 2 below shows a global map of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) that are 2.5 micrometers or less in diameter, which can contribute to a large number of deaths per year. The most common gaseous pollutants produced by the oil and gas industry are Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC’s), nitrogen oxide (NO), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and methane. As these emissions are produced during every stage of the process including extraction, storage, transportation, and refueling (Xu and Chen, 2016). VOCs are primarily produced during the transfer of crude oil to tankers and during the extraction process of natural gas (Tamadonni, et al., 2014). The primary danger posed by the production of these compounds is their propensity to form ozone.

Ozone is considered the second most harmful atmospheric pollutant after particulate matter when considering the impact on human health, as high concentrations of ozone have been linked to fatal cases of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases (Khaniabadi, et al., 2017). Additionally, H2S is a particularly disconcerting pollutant due to its well-known effects on human health. In high concentrations such as those experienced in an occupational setting, H2S is toxic to humans and can result in sudden death, loss of consciousness, and pulmonary edema (Khaniabadi, et al., 2017). As the effect of low level exposure to the toxin is not widely studied and is actively debated, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of the United States has been petitioned by multiple nonprofit groups to add H2S to the Clean Air Act as a hazardous pollutant (Lewis and Copley, 2014).

Figure 2: Concentration of the main particulates emitted by human activity from 2001-2006 (Van Donkelaar, et al., 2010).

2.2.3 Accidents and Incidents in Operations

Accidents in the oil and gas industry, including spills, leakages, fires, and explosions, are often catastrophic and devastating to the surrounding environment. Such events are rarely predicted and require extensive clean-up operations, and typically result in detailed mitigation strategies being established to prevent future events of this nature. Spillages of hydrocarbons and chemicals is a major concern to the industry in the interest of CSR as these discharges constrain corporations from suggesting that their environmental policies are sound, practiced, and effective. As accidental discharges and spillages do take place, these accidents are most typically caused by human error or equipment failure. The various factors dictating the impact of a discharge can be seen in Table 1:

Table 1: Table depicting factors and effects of oil spillages (DG IPOL, 2013) Factor Lower Impact Higher Impact Size of spill Small Large Nature of spill Light oil Dense, crude Season of year Non-critical Reproductive period Weather conditions Storminess Calm atmosphere Physical environment Open ocean Enclosed water Rocky cliff Sand beach Sensitive ecosystem (coral, mangrove)

Response Fast and adequate Slow and inadequate

Oil slicks result from accidental seepages of oil from a container or vessel operating at sea and appears as a layer of oil on a given body of water. Short-term effects included reduced mobility and fatality rates for the region’s species, meanwhile long-term effects are typically more difficult to quantify due to altered eating and breeding habits and subsequent adaptation abilities of species (Jézéquel and Poncet, 2011). Effects of even minor oil spillages have been observed in local ecosystems more than a decade after a given accident (Jézéquel and Poncet, 2011). As commonly understood, oil spills have severe impacts for both the environment and aquatic systems. Shoreline species, such as mollusks and plants, are prevented from respiring and photosynthesizing within days of a given spill, while larger organisms, such as birds and mammals, experience altered buoyancy and thermal insulation effects as a result of this heavy oil (Lee, et al., 2015).

In addition to the varying natural factors (such as the rate of microorganism decay, regional weather, and radiation levels) which impact the state of a spill or leak following its occurrence, Lee, et al. (2015) suggests one of the most important factors dictating the success of an oil spill clean-up is the speed of response. While fresh water spills are typically smaller in nature, the environmental effects are often more pronounced due to such water volumes being unable to dilute in the large expanses of water (compared to spillages that occur at sea). As a result, the speed of response for such accidents are particularly critical (Jernelov, 2010). This is a particular challenge when considering the trend of the oil and gas industry to drill in increasingly remote locations to access new reserves, and thus threatens the efficacy of response to a given spill.

2.3 Social and Community Benefits

Corporate Social Responsibility is a growing trend helping companies alleviate the potential negative social and environmental impacts that their activities can generate. This positive view is also shared by company executives as is shown by a survey conducted by McKinsey (2006): “84 per cent of executives agree that generating high returns for investors should be accompanied by contributions to the broader public good.” Due to the extensive impacts their operations cause, oil and gas companies are frequently scrutinized by the general public (Frynas, 2009b). Such societal pressures are inducing challenges for how these businesses carry out and establish their respective Corporate Social Responsibilities, and are encouraging the amelioration of respective business-society relationships. These challenges include legal battles between corporations and governments, the displacement of communities due to extracting projects, the garnering of public support for new projects, the justification of CSR benefits to the greater society, the rising public demand for CSR involvement from oil and gas companies, and the need to better publicize the corporate social

responsibility policy that a company puts in place. The following developments aim to provide better understanding of the varied and diversified series of challenges that need to be solved by the corporations who are active in this industry.

2.3.1 Public Demand for CSR

It is apparent that the oil and gas industry’s activities present various threats to environments and populations living in surrounding areas of respective extraction sites, for both humans as well as animal ecosystems. Governmental bodies have established strict regulations in efforts of better controlling and minimizing the risks associated with oil and gas exploitation (such as the Oil Pollution Act enacted in 1990). However, as mentioned by Spence (2011), “…we also know that in such a technically challenging industry, accidents will happen. Therefore, societies look to oil and gas companies to self-regulate: to do more to mitigate risks to society than merely comply with the law. Perhaps more so than in any other industry, people demand CSR from oil and gas companies.”

Additionally, it is of utmost important to consider the “reputational risk” that oil and gas companies are progressively taking. For example, for regions of the world where there lacks strict regulations concerning oil and gas extractions activities, companies can exploit such circumstances to maximize their operations and subsequent profits. However, as a result of increased interest and application of CSR in the past decades, various corporations now consider the moral aspects of their activities’ consequences and the resulting effects on the environment and society. Further attention is being given to company perception and reputation, as the employing CSR is utilized as a means of protection: “Some international oil companies within the oil and gas industry may be embracing CSR because they believe that it is wrong to leave a legacy of toxic contamination, poverty and social dislocation. More likely, they may recognize that reputational harm can be just as damaging to the bottom line as legal liability, and that investments in socially responsible behavior may earn positive returns- at least, over the long run” (Spence, 2011).

2.3.2 Benefits of CSR for Public Matters

Although there is evident recognition of the importance and benefits of CSR to companies, it is challenging to quantify the actual benefits of CSR activities for the international community. Reasoning for such includes the lack of empirical evidence, analytical limitations of CSR, the business case for CSR, and unresolved governance questions (Frynas, 2008). To summarize these four arguments, the influence of CSR over international development, or other worldwide causes, is generally unknown due to a lack of data. Questions subsequently arise regarding whether companies are able to sustain continuous growth whilst also contributing to international matters via their CSR policies. Companies are primarily focusing on investing money into community development schemes

and to a lesser extent, on the processes that analyze the negative impacts that their industry causes on societies and their economic development (Frynas, 2008).

2.3.3 Community Issues with CSR

An additional challenge faced by oil and gas companies is the relationship they share with surrounding populations that are situated near to extracting operations and subsequent drilling sites. While many of these relations are amicable and constructive in nature, the converse also occurs. For example, in Nigeria CSR policies and strategies have failed to diminish the violent conflicts existing between the local populations and the oil companies in the Niger Delta (Idemudia, 2006). Oil corporations therefore require a reliable understanding of communities’ demands in their respective social and cultural contexts in order to prevent negative responses and reactions such as that in Nigeria. Recent developments that has been actively portrayed by various media outlets has illustrated this negative response by the public and respective populations against certain oil and gas companies’ projects. For example, the recent revival of the Keystone XL pipeline project has generated protests by various groups, including First Nation communities (McKenna, 2017). An example of these protests can be seen in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Demonstrators in front of the White House whilst protesting against the Keystone XL pipeline in Washington, DC (PRI, 2017).

Since its creation in 2008, the TransCanada pipeline project became a source of conflict between the company and communities affected by it. Multiple attempts by TransCanada Corporation were made to justify the initiative, notably by invoking environmental considerations and demonstrating that public concerns were considered: "based on extensive feedback from Nebraskans, and reflects our shared desire to minimize the disturbance of land and sensitive resources in the state.” An additional recurring adverse result faced by oil and gas companies that is particularly challenging to justify

through CSR, is the population displacement that results from drilling activities. This has been by observed in developing countries from Africa or South America (Terminski, 2011) and there is room for improvements of social activities provided by the exploiting companies. Further concern exists regarding the dislocation of indigenous people, as oil projects force their retreat due to lack of law and social infrastructures in place, and rarely results in any compensation or contribution of the income made from such extractions (Terminski, 2011). Furthermore, these corporations also contribute to the deforestation of various forests and other natural areas, which, in additional to being primordial natural ecosystems, provide shelter and resources for these indigenous populations (MSS17, 2016).

2.3.4 Publicity of CSR

One of the key utilizations of CSR is to spread and disseminate to the public, information of all the actions taken by a given company in regards to the social benefits of their corporation's activities and practices. Therefore, oil and gas companies must provide details about their activities and all the platforms necessary to accomplish them. In their 2012 study, Hughey and Sulkowski suggest that the more data a company can make available on its results, whether financial or operational, the better its CSR reputation will become. Resultantly, and due to quickly-evolving public opinions, corporations shall find ways to offer more visibility and transparency for their activities and make their results accessible and understandable to the public and affected communities. This is particularly challenging for corporations of the oil and gas sector, as their information concerning operational practices reflect substantial adverse environmental impact.

3 Existing Space Sector Approaches

3.1 Employment and Labor Practices

This section looks to consider the variety of space-based technology and applications that have already aided the oil and gas industry in its operations. This analysis allows for a thorough understanding of which challenges presented by CSR as described above have not been met, to later consider future space technologies that can assist oil and gas companies in developing and practicing their CSR activities and standards. The applications described in this section include remote sensing, geographic information systems, navigation and tracking technologies, applied materials, teleoperation, automation, the provision of internet services, and teleoperation.

3.1.1 Remote Sensing and Tracking Technologies

Currently serving as the world’s largest publicly traded international oil and gas company, ExxonMobil’s CSR is detailed extensively on its website for public access (ExxonMobil, 2017a). The company states, “[they are] rolling out a Common Operating Picture (COP). COP is a computing platform based on geographic information system (GIS) technology that provides a single source of data and information to improve situational awareness and accelerates decision-making for emergency response or project planning activities” to accompany a variety of emergency preparedness and response drills, training exercises, and simulations (ExxonMobil, 2017a). Evidently, the company applies situational technology that likely uses integrated satellite services to assist in emergency situation however these applications are only utilized during emergency scenarios and are not currently operating under a preventive approach.

Another means by which space-based or space-derived technology is currently assisting in securing the safety of workers in the oil and gas sector is through the tracking of mine equipment and employees. For example, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) has developed a decentralized form of wireless network for positioning, which is attached to various extraction and drilling equipment, as well as employees, to track and locate their positions in real time with an accuracy of 0.5 meters (CSIRO, 2016). This applied to CSR in the interest of worker health and safety, as it can provide the positioning of employees in emergency scenarios and can assure workers are abiding to proper operation safety standards by working in the right locations. Similarly, the China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC) group has adopted a maritime emergency mobile command communications system (CNOOC Ltd., 2017). This program has allowed for reliable and

consistent communications for maritime emergency treatment in addition to emergency response services and resources for all of the company’s remote locations.

3.1.2 Applied Materials

A primary example of spinoff applications from the space sector being applied to the mining industry is that of the European Space Agency’s (ESA’s) Harsh Environment Initiative (HEI). This project sought to improve operations of various terrestrial industries, such as the mining of minerals as well as the extraction and transportation of oil and gas through the reduction of operation costs and the enhancement of efficiency, without risking safety to employees or incurring environmental impact (Kumar, et al., 1999). Due to the robustness and reliable nature of space technologies that are designed to withstand the harsh conditions of space, such technologies were considered for various hostile on-Earth applications, such as offshore oil and gas extraction sites and mines in remote regions of northern Europe and Canada. From 1997 to 2004, C-Core from Newfoundland, Canada; was contracted by the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) and ESA to analyze more than 140 technologies for possible applications to terrestrial industries (C-Core, 2012). Key derivations of this effort found the effective use of lightweight plastic films and polymer-based fibers of space equipment for use in mining and oil extraction machinery.

Similarly, the ability of space-applied materials to shed ice was effectively recognized for possible use in the various equipment that operate in northern remote locations of the oil and gas sector (Kumar, et al., 1999). Furthermore, the uses of satellite monitoring systems were documented as capable of effectively assessing ground movement for unstable slopes in which a pipeline has been installed (Peeters, 2001). This is valuable information for the interest of worker safety as it allows for the prevention of operations to occur on or below terrain that is considered unstable and vulnerable to erosion and subsequent employee injury.

3.1.3 Teleoperation and Automation

The most actively discussed operational concept that is currently being applied by today’s leading mining companies is that of increased automation and teleoperation. Through the controlling of vehicles from a remote, protected site through the use of various sensors, cameras and positioning software, various companies are beginning to introduce this transformation to their respective practices. Key aims of these efforts are to increase employee safety by physically removing them from the mine’s machinery and unstable terrain, improved productivity, mitigate labor shortages, diminish energy consumption, and to ultimately lower operating costs. Rio Tinto represents one of the world’s leading mining and metal companies and has established the Mine of the Future program that seeks to develop fully integrated and automated mining practices. Seeking to offer a sustainable advantage,

the mines operated in Australia’s Pilbara region employ 69 autonomous trucks that are tele-operated via the company’s operations center located in Perth (Rio Tinto, 2014). Similarly, Komatsu's Autonomous Haulage System has developed unmanned ‘super-large’ dump trucks that operate 24 hours a day, seven days a week. Penguin Automated Systems Inc. is presently assessing the first omnidirectional program to utilize teleoperation of equipment in various mining operations through Optical Wireless Communications (OWC). Such development and documented analysis of these processes reflects the transforming nature of the industry as it progresses to increasingly innovative ways of integrating innovating into its practice and through the increased engagement with space technologies.

3.1.4 Internet Services

To maintain employee health and well-being, workers operating on offshore oil rigs are provided access to family and friends. For example, ExxonMobil currently supplies telephone and internet communication for personal purposes via satellite (Mate, 2017). This allows for the regard of employee mental and emotional well-being during operating shifts in remote locations. In the case of medical emergencies, expertise assistance can be provided to remote locations due to advances in web and satellite communications. A company that is actively sharing its use of telemedicine to encourage worker safety is Royal Dutch Shell. The corporation’s president for health, Alistair Fraser, has stated, “Telemedicine allows us to diagnose patients more successfully, reducing the upheaval of medical evacuations by around 60%. The technology has the potential to be used around the world” (Shell PLC, 2017b). The consulted medical professionals perform examinations, diagnose conditions and take what may be life-saving decisions. The company claims their Noble Globetrotter II deepwater drilling ship has saved two lives and avoided three unnecessary evacuations through the utilization of telemedicine over a four-month period by connecting satellites with up to twelve hospital departments in Norway (Shell PLC, 2017b). The company also employs this technology for terrestrial operations, such as in Nigeria where employees working in remote rural locations are connected to medical specialists in Warri and Port Harcourt.

3.2 Environmental Management

Following the above discussion in Section 2.2 of the environmental impacts that characterize the oil and gas sector and the associated challenges that are presented to CSR practices, this section will highlight some of the current ways by which the space sector is aiding the industry in such challenges. The following discussion will highlight some space sector technologies and applications which consist almost entirely of environmental monitoring, in addition to emergency response support.

3.2.1 Environmental Monitoring

Today, the availability of data from Earth observation satellites offers a means of complementing and optimizing surveillance strategies, by providing a cost-effective approach to oil-pollution monitoring. Space-acquired Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data can assist surveillance strategies both by providing coverage over areas not easily surveyed with aircraft, and by providing synoptic views of large areas. This raises the likelihood of immediate intervention during accidental events being more feasible, while also increasing the size of the area that can be routinely surveyed (Van Der Meer, et al., 2002). An example of the enhancement SAR data can provide is seen in Figure 4, where an image from Envisat after analysis can clearly illustrate the exact location, size and shape of an oil spills which is critical for clean-up operations.

Figure 4: An example of SAR data captured by Envisat and the analysis to depict an oil spill (Cheng, et al., 2011) Environmental modeling employs the analysis of Digital Elevation Models (DEM) to monitor various topographic changes that occur as a result of mining activity, such as through the use of Cartosat-I imagery (Pandey and Kumar, 2014). Similarly, monitoring and modeling efforts have applied both Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection (ASTER) and DEM data from satellites to monitor China’s Fushan area for ten years to reveal flooded areas spanning 1.73 km2 as a result of topography-changing drilling activities (Dong, et al., 2009). An example of the produced images that result of combining ASTER and DEM technologies are illustrated in Figure 5. Further effects to various water bodies have been assessed by the analysis of spectral reflectance to indicate areas that have been polluted with suspended compounds and organic pollutants as a result of drilling activities in addition to oil spills (Oparin, et al., 2012). More recent work by Ul-Haq, et al. (2016) assessed that carbon dioxide emission over Pakistan has grown by 167% since 2013, 35.2% of which was a direct result of oil extraction and 29.0% from gas. Such knowledge of these adverse effects allows for informed management decisions that consider the environmental impacts of the industry.

Furthermore, such data allows for effective establishment of CSR environmental policies and activities by allowing for effective insight into what environmental impacts should be prioritized.

Figure 5: A combined ASTER and DEM of oil field in Colombia (Satellite Imaging Corporation, 2016). Insight into this has also been achieved by the measurement of greenhouse gases that are directly caused from the oil and gas industry. As previously described, the mining industry is facing an increased priority towards more environmentally-conscious behavior. For example, particular Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre (SPOT) and Landsat projects are being dedicated to the monitoring of oil pipelines leaks. These remote sensing systems are particularly advantageous, as Side-Looking Radar Images (SLAR) and SAR imaging allow subsurface structures to be observed that would otherwise be considered imperceptible (Gerilowski, et al., 2015). As oil spills also occur in the ocean and subsequently result in detrimental effects to various marine ecosystems, technologies have also been applied to monitor such events. The use of multiple wavelengths for the monitoring of ocean pollution in efforts of quickly detecting spillages to encourage immediate identification and ensuing clearing efforts has been applied in recent years (Brekke, et al., 2005). For example, infrared imaging has proven particularly effective, as oil and water solutions emit radiation at differing rates, allowing such events to be monitored in the absence of daylight.

An example of satellite application for the detection of particulates and aerosols that result from oil and gas drilling activity are the Terra and Aqua satellites which are both equipped with the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) instrument onboard. These satellites image the Earth in its entirety every 1-2 days and provide 36 spectral bands. (MODIS, 2017a) The MODIS instruments can be used to see the particulates in the atmosphere and to subsequently assess the air quality of certain regions. The spatial resolution of the instruments varies according to the specific band used to detect specific particulates, and ranges between 250 and 1000 meters (MODIS, 2017b). The MODIS instruments’ success resulted in the development of the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) instruments - scanning radiometers - by Raytheon, of which the first instrument flew on the

Suomi NPP satellite in 2011 (Raytheon, 2017). This instrument is also expected to fly on the future Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS) satellites, of which launches will occur between 2017 to 2031 (NOAA, 2017).

Spills from tankers, whilst a catastrophic event, have been decreasing in number over the last thirty years (Huijer, 2005). The amount of oil entering the oceans was reduced from 314,000 tons in the 1970s to 100 tons in 2009 (Jernelöv, 2010). A depiction of this trend is illustrated in Figure 6. This is predominantly due to several mitigation strategies that have been undertaken, including the establishment of sea lanes in efforts to minimize tanker collisions due to two-way traffic, and Global Positioning System (GPS) usage to determine unpredicted and incorrect positioning of ships (Huijer, 2005; Jernelöv, 2010). Evidently, the effective planning of tanker routes via remote sensing and GPS technologies can assist in minimizing collisions at sea that result in harmful spillages of oil.

Figure 6: Average number of tanker spills over a ten year period, for spill sizes 7-700 tons and >700 tons (ITOPF, 2017).

3.2.2 Emergency Response

An additional means by which space technologies is supporting the oil and gas industry to maintain their CSR environmental policies is with regards to the support services provided for ground operations following an accident in which oil is spilled. Applications and technologies currently associated with such accidents are remote sensing, navigation, and communication satellite missions.

In the oil extraction and processing industry, multispectral imaging from SPOT and Landsat satellites have the ability to detect oil leaks via two key techniques. Firstly, by means of observation of oil pools derived from seepages through the detection of “tonal [anomalies] that is the manifestation of hydrocarbon micro seepage” (Van Der Meer, et al., 2002). Indirect detection also occurs by focusing on the light seepage from hydrocarbons to the surface which are detectable via changes in vegetation structure (Yang, et al., 1998). Van Der Meer, et al. (2002) also provided a case study in the Santa Barbara basin of southern California in which an airborne whiskbroom sensor named Probe-1 sampled the area and studied the migration of oil in area. The area was divided into vegetative and non- vegetative subsections allowing for each region to be analyzed in-depth according to specific characteristics. Another case study is that presented by Beukelaer, et al. (2002) in the investigation of oil slick detection using SAR techniques. This effort found that distinct signatures of oil slicks were apparent in all images taken, however weather (particularly wind and associated currents) significantly influences the morphology of the slicks location.

Satellite remote sensing is currently employed in the detection of natural gas leak detection in pipelines in efforts of alerting the appropriate emergency response personnel immediately to encourage clean-up efforts that begin as soon as possible. The passivity of these methods is advantageous as it can be used from ground, air or space. Through the utilization of this space application, long sections of pipelines can be monitored in the same instance allowing for a wider observation in brief periods of time. In 2014, ESA and the consortium named Orbit Eye successfully established a service prototype to monitor gas pipelines from space that accounted for third party interference (which result in approximately 50% of pipeline accidents. This technology uses SAR technologies from satellites of Sentinel 1-A and is refreshed every 12-14 days, and reports any suspicious activity that is detected to pipeline operators (ESA, 2016).

3.3 Social and Community Benefits

Unlike the challenges described by the aspects of CSR pertaining to labor and employment practices and environmental impact, social impacts pertaining to oil and gas operations are not currently being addressed by space sector-derived solutions to any considerable extent. However, the analysis provided in Section 2.3 allowed for a thorough understanding of the pressing challenges that remain in the interest of community benefits for CSR. Therefore, the following discussion will briefly highlight the challenges that are currently being met from non-space-sector sources in efforts of establishing what remaining gaps can be answered by the technologies assessed for impact in Section 5.

Implemented initiatives include investing in programs geared towards community engagement, offering educational programs, developing infrastructure, civilian safety, and public health.

3.3.1 Community Engagement

Interaction with local communities is an important component of CSR policy for oil and gas companies. Although authorized by national governments for exclusive rights for extraction of natural resources, many companies request informal permission from local and indigenous communities or non- governmental organizations before operating. The intention of this interaction is to allow for company operations without negative reaction from local populations. By building partnerships, the companies’ and communities work together in addressing potential negative impacts (BP, 2016).

Additionally, companies carry out screening of possible socio-economic impacts to assess their activities in order to identify adverse social impact. These studies are then used to mitigate the negative impacts and to share the benefits of potential positive impacts with the communities. Nearby communities are invited to periodically held audits where they can share their concerns for such impacts. Typical major concerns are usually related to noise, dust, odor, requests for job opportunities opened to local community, and the development of new access roads reducing congestion for the existing ones (BP, 2016). For companies operating in uncontaminated regions, more consideration is given to the protection of cultural and natural heritage sites and any uncontacted indigenous tribes living in reserves. Recently in Latin America, the Peruvian state oil company, Perupetro, announced the intention to open new oil and gas exploration sites in a region inhabited by one of the last uncontacted indigenous tribe called the Murunahua (Hill, 2014). This remains a consideration for companies seeking expansion of their extraction fields.

As multiple oil and gas companies are state-owned, engagement is also frequently undertaken in national relief efforts. In 2011, Sinopec, China’s largest oil and gas company by revenue, provided relief funds of RMB 100 million to aid over 180,000 people in China (Sinopec, 2017a). Furthermore, the organizing of singing competitions, painting exhibitions, and photography shows all took place to rebuild social engagement. The importance of nationally-driven engagement is prevalent in many state-owned companies, and can also be stimulated through the engagement with older populations. Sinopec holds a corporate mission to contribute to their country’s citizens of all ages, and the corporation’s retirees practice Tai Chi, a form of ancient Chinese martial arts, together and encourage their involvement in company activities (Sinopec, 2017a). For the over 387,000 retirees, Sinopec strives to maintain their quality of life.

3.3.2 Education and Training

An encouraging social impact of interest currently offered by the industry is the provision of educational support. Training is offered to staff as part of CSR policy to adhere to international standards. One of the key identified issues is the introduction of a specific ethical code by major oil and gas companies (Petrobras, 2016; Eni, 2016; BP, 2016). By this code, no business relationships are undertaken with companies or people working in illegal conditions without respecting the minimal health and safety standards. Ensuring employee awareness of this policy and its adherence aid in mitigating the negative impact caused by illegal activities.

This behavior also extends in regime of violation of human rights, labor laws and environmental laws. Particularly, Petrobras is sensitive to the identification of risks of child labor and gender discrimination and protection of equal opportunities. The company sponsors and supports an initiative in Latin America entitled Caravana Siga Bem, which promotes the diffusion of values and principles in favor of empowerment of women employment and the fight against under-age sexual exploitation (Petrobras, 2016).

Oil and gas corporations also demonstrate their employee commitment by offering training programs. For example, Sinopec heavily invests in their employees, as for approximately 1 million of its staff members, with a turnover rate of 0.8% and 8,200 new university graduates joining the company each year, they amount to one of the largest job provider in China (Sinopec, 2017b). Sinopec organizes, in abundance, first-line staff training to help employees quickly progress into middle and senior roles. Major national oil and gas companies may also open specific training facilities to enable this vertical growth. The Eni Corporate University conducts training in technical and managerial competencies in Italy and abroad. The university builds connections with recognized research universities, such as those in Angola and Congo, to raise the quality of training of their staff (Eni, 2016). This builds a corporate identity for employees that helps them in their future careers.

Access to education is often provided by oil and gas companies in poverty-struck areas. This support helps to strengthen local communities by offering competence development with market-orientated training through their remote training system (Sinopec, 2017b). Sinopec combines relief aid and self- development training to raise the quality of health care and education throughout poverty-struck areas (Sinopec, 2017c). Equal opportunity education is another common initiative, such as exemplified by Saudi Aramco who demonstrates their equalitarian efforts through their training programs. Through their Women Development Programs, corporate profits are funneled to encourage female university students to develop their ability in STEM subjects (Saudi Aramco, 2017a). For children to young adults, a variety of programs, such as iRead, iSpark, and iThra youth, these initiatives hope to

create unique educational opportunities to build the future of innovators in Saudi Arabia (Saudi Aramco, 2017a). As a state-owned company, Saudi Aramco aligns with the government’s goals in empowering education and training.

3.3.3 Infrastructure

Large oil and gas companies invest in developing infrastructure for their country and communities local to the area of their operations, as support with infrastructure development is a highly visible act and can directly improve operations. For example, Saudi Aramco contributes to the infrastructure improvement conducted in Thuwal, Saudi Arabia. Through ameliorations of flood control channels, schools, and mosques, Saudi Aramco worked to provide amenities to local citizens. For decades, this company has sought to demonstrate commitment to the infrastructural development providing a significant positive impact for the communities they help.

Supporting communities by building homes is another common activity conducted by companies’ CSR schemes. Saudi Aramco’s Home Ownership Program financed over 64,700 new homes for Saudi Employees that meet high energy-efficiency standards (Saudi Aramco, 2017b). As many of these civilizations are located in rural areas, companies typically develop small towns by building infrastructure for various community needs. Saudi Aramco’s Shamah Autism Center represents a commitment to the citizens and employees as a stronghold for multidisciplinary action to improving community health (Saudi Aramco, 2017c). Total Global is another such oil and gas company that aids community development by operating a long-standing medical center in Gabon since the 1970s (Total SA, 2016). Constructing buildings and physical landmarks is a means for companies to support communities and to serve as visible and positive community players.

As the oil and gas sector has revitalized, stimulated and supported many economies, countries are developing at unprecedented rates and depend on companies to provide various means of support. In Africa, the Awango by Total photovoltaic power plant from Total Global serves more than eight million people. China, emerging as an economic superpower, requires rapid infrastructure growth to support and sustain their growing economy. The Chinese state-owned oil and gas company, Sinopec, provides large economic contributions to support community infrastructure. In 2011, the corporation relocated 5,863 households to new and safer homes and equipped over more than 6,000 households with a solar lighting systems. In Tibet, Sinopec has also constructed recreation centers for the general public and a primary school (Sinopec, 2017d). Evidently, company-sponsored construction programs can make drastic improvements to the population.

3.3.4 Public Health and Safety

Considerations of safety relate with the well-being of those in the region in which companies are operating. For safety, oil and gas companies undertake monitoring campaigns to discover what major issues are met by the local communities. For example, Saudi Arabia faces major safety concerns from motor vehicle accidents. Aligned with tackling major issues, Saudi Aramco sponsors the Traffic Safety Forum and educates younger generations in safe driving programs to encourage progressive driving habits (Saudi Aramco, 2017d). Additionally, companies are sharing the knowledge and experience gained from working in harsh regions through collaborative efforts with partners to assure safe and responsible operations, as done by BP in the Arctic (BP, 2016). Safety of civilians that reside in the regions in which these corporations operate can also be compromised if such zones are characterized by political, social, or military conflicts that pose harm to peoples and operations. For example, to mitigate potential harm, BP monitors against physical and digital threats and vulnerabilities in regions of their operations that are affected by political and social unrest, terrorism, armed conflict or criminal activities (BP, 2016).

Various initiatives are also undertaken regarding the education of local communities about major health concerns. As a primary economic player in Saudi Arabia, Saudi Aramco has initiated international partnerships to foster improvements in community health. Through the Johns Hopkins Aramco Healthcare joint-venture, wellness and preventative health programs offer quality healthcare to citizens (Saudi Aramco, 2017c). The facilities operate cutting-edge equipment and community- focused programs previously unavailable in the region. This program also offers Doctorate of Nursing programs to improve nursing practices to a comparative level of internationally recognized healthcare programs (Saudi Aramco, 2017c).

Companies also act through foundations and organizations external to the industry to support health- related programs and services. Valero Energy Foundation provided more than $3 million of financial support for research against Alzheimer's, Multiple Sclerosis and cancer and several pediatric hospitals (Valero Energy, 2016). Prevention measures are often implemented to fight infectious disease (HIV/AIDS, malaria or avian flu), substances abuse (tobacco or alcohol) and obesity/cardiovascular diseases (Total SA, 2016). Promotion of public health practices and outreach activities for raising awareness are conducted by companies to help prevent occupational illnesses. These activities are carried out together with screening and/or vaccination campaigns. For instance, 80% of the employees of Total have taken benefit of such health practice campaigns (Total SA, 2016).

4 Identification of Key Gaps

By considering the above discussions detailed in Sections 2 and 3, the following analysis will consider what gaps remain between the challenges that are currently unmet by the oil and gas sector in the interest of employment and labor practices, environmental management, and social/community benefits. Understanding of these remaining challenges will allow for subsequent analysis of the various means by which the space sector can meet these needs through new and emerging technologies and applications that are offer by the space industry.

4.1 Employment and Labor Practices

As revealed by the discussion of the industry’s pressing challenges in terms of worker health and safety, the elimination of risk to employees is being addressed through autonomous, robotic, and tele operated assets. Such technologies are currently being developed and implemented and have seen particularly integration in recent year. Current space applications that apply to the health and safety of those working in the mining industry include the provision of communication software and technology for maintaining employee well-being and connection to families and enabling the alerting of emergency personnel. In addition to theses, navigation capabilities for the tracking and monitoring of equipment and employees to monitor safety protocols and proper operation practices is provided together with the use of telemedicine to provide medical services to remote locations, and situational awareness data provided by geographic information systems. This overview of the oil and gas sector’s challenges pertaining to CSR and the current industry challenges that are addressed by space technologies and applications has allowed for the understanding of what industry gaps remain between them. These include the persisting issue of public perception, which is further challenged by environmental concerns, and can only be resolved by improving (or ideally eliminating) employee injuries and fatalities.

Furthermore, there appears to be a lack of CSR standards to address public perception of company’s following a particular event of this nature, as well as lack of means to assure safety protocols are followed and adhered to. The information disseminated concerning CSR policy, standards, and activities does not appear to maintain consistency even within a single company. Furthermore, there exists a lack of methods by which to verify such information that is publically available through CSR. Concerning medical emergencies and employee health, oil and gas companies appear to adopt a primarily mitigation-oriented and preventative approach to CSR, however very little information exists

concerning company protocols during evacuation and emergency scenarios. This is also connected to the industry gap of emergency response times that remains in the order of hours for rural, remote, and isolated drilling regions and ocean oil rigs. With this understanding of the gaps that exist between the industries’ challenges and oil and gas sector CSR, various space-based solutions that seek to be harnessed in the coming decades can be considered for their impact and how such applications can address such needs.

4.2 Environmental Management

Next, a variety of gaps can be established by the oil and gas industry in the context of environmental management for CSR. As revealed by the discussion of the challenges faced by corporations of the oil and gas industry in the interest of environmental CSR in Section 2.2, various struggles are faced by these companies. This includes a shift in mentality as revealed by recent international policies such as that of 2015’s G7 Summit and the COP21 Summit, which force corporations to abide by the established goals to reduce emission and harmful operational effects of their operations significantly in the coming decades. There are impacts that occur as a result of oil and gas operations that appear generally inevitable. These include primarily the pollution caused in a given region’s water and soil, in addition to particulate concentrations in the atmosphere (including VOCs, hydrogen sulfide, and carbon dioxide). However, avoidable events are also prevalent as multiple accidents occur as a result of human errors and equipment failures. A variety of industry gaps remain concerning the unmet challenges posed by the oil and gas industry that have not been answered by technologies and/or applications offered by the space sector. To begin establishing these gaps, Lee, et al. (2015) has identified key aspects pertaining oil and gas spills which need to be further developed to reduce the detrimental environmental impact of oil and gas accidents:

1) Further understanding of the environmental impact of accidents and incidents in high-risk and less well-understood areas, such as Arctic waters, or inland rivers and wetlands; 2) An increase in the understanding of effects of accidents on aquatic life and wildlife at an ecosystem, population and community levels is needed (Figure 7); 3) Monitoring is needed to enhance the understanding of the environmental and ecological properties of areas that may be affected by accidents in the future and the severity to which they will affected; 4) Better understanding of spill behavior and effects for a range of oil types in different ecosystems and conditions is needed; 5) Investigation into the efficiency of spill responses is needed;

6) Improvements into accident and incident prevention and mitigation is required. Development and application of decision support systems should occur to ensure sound response decisions and effectiveness.

Figure 7: Volunteers working to clear oil spilled by the Prestige tanker in Spain, which had affected the reproductive activity of the European shag bird (Kaplan, 2014). With this understanding, it can be considered what steps will be taken by the industry in the coming years, and how the space sector can assist in such efforts to subsequently aid in the environmental considerations for the corporations’ CSR standards and activities. Key challenges that remain for the industry include the limiting factors of spatial resolution and refresh rates for images taken remotely by satellites. If monitoring efforts of pipeline leakages are to be monitored in this manner, effective spatial characteristics are required. It becomes easy to monitor the global conditions but due to the lack of resolution, it is hard to detect specific emission sources, such as those based on the oil and gas industry. Furthermore, an index that monitors the amount of emitted greenhouse gases and particulates to the source of those emissions may be possible with current technologies, although it may require a higher spatial resolution to increase accuracy.

Similarly, an emissivity index would provide a substantial data source for policy makers across the globe and allow for the true monitoring of greenhouse gas emissions. Currently carbon taxes have been based on estimates of emissions, which often are presented by the emitting companies. A true monitoring system for greenhouse gases using space based assets would be ideal to ensure emitters pay the taxes associated to the negative externalities of their business activities. Additionally, this also presents a possibility for the oil and gas industry to improve their position in the public eye. If it can be proven with data that a specific oil and gas company applies better practices than another company, it can be used in their marketing efforts and branding. When considering a given

corporation’s CSR information dissemination, clearly stating a company’s emissions and what actions are being undertaken to minimize those emissions will give public trust in said business.

When considering the aforementioned issues of policy mentality shifts and inevitable or preventable effects of operations, some of the space-based solutions described above address such challenges. For example, environmental monitoring allows for the collection of data concerning environmental effects of oil and gas sector activities, however its effects are reduced or mitigated. In summary, such monitoring is currently being done by SAR imaging, and subsequently produced ASTER and DEM pictures from images such as those taken from SPOT and Landsat systems, in conjunction with instrumentation such as that of MODIS. This can only be done if preventable accidents are minimized, including equipment failure, third party interference, and human error. Such prevention will therefore be explored in Section 5 that address the impact of future space sector technologies to the CSR practices of oil and gas companies.

4.3 Social and Community Benefits

As addressed in Section 2.3, today’s oil and gas companies are challenged by a variety of issues concerning their interactions with the local communities. This includes how best to assist them, and how to maintain the respective corporation’s reputation and support. Poor public relations surrounding accidents and oil leaks can have lasting effects for a given company’s reputation and esteem long following the initial event, as illustrated by the disastrous BP Gulf of Mexico oil spill. Concerning how the sector attempts to address the challenges it faces with the space sector, there is an apparent omission as little to no current space technologies are being effectively applied.

The following discussion attempts to describe this gap between the space sector and the aforementioned CSR challenges, and to highlight how applications such as satellite imaging and communications systems can be used to find efficient and, in the long-term, cost-effective solutions. This understanding will then allow for proper impact analysis of future space technologies and applications in Section 5 of the report. Unlike the challenges described by the aspects of CSR pertaining to labor and employment practices and environmental impact, social impacts pertaining to oil and gas operations are not currently being addressed by space sector-derived solutions to any considerable extent. Therefore, this section will not only highlight the gaps that are ever-present by the industry in the context of CSR, but will also offer some key ideas as to how the space sector can address such challenges and gaps that are external to the solutions described in Section 5.

Maintaining good public relations is one of the greatest challenges faced by oil and gas industry due to negative public opinion. These views stem from cases of disruption, exploitation and environmental damage brought on by the industry’s operations. Although many of the companies involved conduct

humanitarian activities, such as providing education and infrastructure development in poor communities, the general public still holds a negative viewpoint on the industry as a whole. As oil and gas companies need to rebuild the trust of the public, the space sector offer a means to accomplish this goal.

The space industry has developed a generally positive image amongst the public due to its engaging themes of exploration, advancement and innovation. For example, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has been very successful on platforms such as social media and has a ~70% positive public perception (Launius, 2003). Space technology is already used extensively in the energy sector but primarily for aiding discovery and extraction of resources. These are not aspects that garner public interest, as they are commonly seen as unsustainable activities that exploit Earth’s natural resources. A potential solution to the Public Relations (PR) challenges faced by oil and gas companies could be to conduct more public outreach showing the industry’s link with space, primarily in the domain of social responsibility schemes. This will not instantly repair the negative reputation of the industry but the inclusion of space will allow some of the positive opinion of space to shift and evolve in the oil and gas industry. Awareness of spinoff technology used in the oil and gas sector, provided by space, will also benefit both the public opinion of space and the oil and gas companies. The following parts of this section discuss how space technology can be incorporated into the main CSR activities that the oil and gas companies take part in.

The second identified and discussed CSR challenge is that of education and training. Educational support is a CSR activity that is being undertaken by many of the companies in the oil and gas sector. The focus of the education is based on either improving the education of the public or developing the skills of the local contracted workforce. The educational support is commonly offered as scholarship schemes, workforce educating, and building of schools in rural communities for easier access to education (BP, 2017a). In 2015, Royal Dutch Shell provided $122 million for “voluntary social investment”, 31% of this total went towards supporting education (Shell PLC, 2015). Figure 8 shows the breakdown of this investment into different areas of social impact and by countries receiving the funding. The company also aids children of the United Kingdom to achieve engineering experience while also helping those in less developed areas, such as through efforts to reduce Nigerian illiteracy levels (Shell PLC, 2017c).

Figure 8: The voluntary social investment provided by Royal Dutch Shell to the areas in which it operates. Adapted from Shell PLC (2015). Companies conducting these activities are seen to be providing positive social impact to less developed communities while simultaneously improving the capabilities and skills of the local people they are employing in their operations. Therefore, both the energy sector companies and the communities benefit from such activities, which allows for community development and so are subsequently highly supported by the general public. Companies can further increase the effectiveness of the supplied education by incorporating the benefits that are provided by space technology.

Tele-education is an application of telecommunications that can offer remote access to educational material for rural communities. This method can be more viable than terrestrial methods due to the ability for the technology to reach remote and less developed areas without requiring the construction of supporting underlying infrastructure (i.e. laying kilometers of cables). Alternatively, satellites can provide the telecommunications required across large geographical areas (ESA, 2016). Further advantages include the reduction in costs incurred from the transportation of the education professionals to the sites because services such as teleconferencing can be used instead. Current satellite technology and constellations can be utilized to supply tele-education to communities. Future space advancements, such as new constellations, will provide more efficient and low cost solutions for education efforts. These will be discussed in detail later in the report.

Healthcare is a widespread concern amongst many of the local communities based in regions where large oil and gas companies hold their operations. To give aid in addressing this issue, the majority of companies have either established programs or provided funding to charities that address some of the primary risks. Not only is this ethically sound, but such efforts also benefit the respective company by decreasing the risk of their employees coming into contact with highly infectious diseases. Furthermore, companies may hire local workers, and utilize local producers as suppliers to encourage

local economic sustainability in operating regions. As previously described, the established programs typically focus on training the local community on the subject of healthcare, helping set up infrastructures such as hospitals, and providing supplies to fight specific diseases. Royal Dutch Shell assists in the upgrading of hospitals, offers community health insurance schemes to the local community in the Niger Delta, helps train women to provide health services to people in the Middle East, operates an HIV/AIDs program in more than 60 countries, and helps fight malaria in the Philippines (Shell PLC, 2017d). Meanwhile, ExxonMobil has trained “520,000 health care workers and counselors to help prevent, diagnose and treat malaria” (ExxonMobil, 2017b). As stated previously, telecommunications is a space technology that, if incorporated by the oil and gas industry, can provide significant benefits to their CSR activities.

Telemedicine is another application of this technology. Telemedicine, developed mainly from the military and space sectors, is the use of information and communication technologies to exchange information for “diagnosis, treatment and prevention of disease and injuries…and the continuing education of healthcare providers” where distance plays a critical role (WHO, 2009). As seen in Figure 9, the technology can utilize real-time consultation with technology such as videoconferencing, or pre- recorded consultations via systems such as email, and is particularly helpful for remote or rural areas with a lack of healthcare services by overcoming “distance and time barriers” (WHO, 2009).

Figure 9: An illustration of a telemedicine system infrastructure. Oil and gas companies can use this concept within their own health care programs to improve efficiency by reaching a wider audience patients and trainees, removing the need to send professionals to the region, and using the same technology for multiple purposes. One of the primary challenges that constrains the maintenance or introduction of telemedicine in low-income countries is the lack of information communications technology literacy and infrastructure to support the associated technology. However, much of the same technology is employed by oil and supporting gas companies who need direct contact with their employees. Furthermore, the concept of telemedicine

is also being utilized by some companies for their own workers (Evjemo, et al., 2015). Therefore, it should not require significant additional investment to develop this technology to support the wider local community.

The next challenge discussed in the interest of social aspects of CSR for oil and gas companies was that of community infrastructure development. The building of schools/facilities, laying of roads, and the provision of access to reliable energy are some of the fundamental means by which companies assist poorer communities to evolve. While the oil and gas sector is also supporting such efforts, the methods employed to develop these communities are not currently widely applying the advancements that space technology can offer. Remote sensing is one such technology that could benefit CSR activities. This can be achieved through two main themes: efficient activity planning and public awareness.

The first of these remote sensing applications uses space technology as a method to improve the efficiency of the process to conduct community development activities. Satellite imagery is commonly used to show the growth of urban areas with time (Kadhim, 2016). Building roads to provide rural villages with access to major cities is one such activity that can be more effectively planned with the aid of remote sensing. Optical observations of the landscape can provide a top-down view of the local area and SAR imaging can reveal the associated topographic information. Employing these space technologies can reduce the need for ground surveying teams for the planning stages of the development. Likewise, these techniques can assist in construction planning in these regions, such as a schools and hospitals.

Interestingly, interference with cultural heritage sites can be better avoided with the aid of remote sensing. Currently, companies will conduct archaeological surveys to ensure these valued sites are not disturbed (Shell PLC, 2017e). Space technology can be used to determine the locations of these sites, to ensure oil and gas corporations do not violate the respect of the local communities. For example, infrared observations of Egypt have discovered over 3,000 ancient settlements (BBC, 2011). With this technology, these areas can be avoided and the location of unknown cultural sites could be discovered and delegated to local communities. Furthermore, the use of interferometric SAR technology can measure ground displacement with millimeter-scale accuracy. Displacement maps can subsequently be built to optimize reservoir models and to aid in extraction efficiency (Tre Altamira, 2017). The technology can also provide significant social impact by aiding infrastructure development on uneven land and subsidence monitoring during natural disasters, such as earthquakes.

The second method involves the use of remote sensing to aid the public outreach efforts of oil and gas companies. Satellite images provide visual and interactive means to bring awareness to the

general public about the humanitarian activities being employed by the companies. Observations by satellites of the communities affected by infrastructure development can illustrate the evolution that has occurred since the introduction of the CSR activities. For example, photographs taken before and after infrastructure and building development by CSR efforts of a given company can highlight the physical extent of such efforts. Additionally, satellite images taken at night reveal the amount of light produced by populated areas, thus making developments in infrastructure providing increased energy access will be made apparent from the increased light output at night. Prashed (2011) discusses how the light emitted from a community can be used as a measure of that community’s “economic development and population density”, as illustrated in Figure 10. Images showing this development can be released to the public in effort to increase awareness of CSR activities to and improve the public opinion of oil and gas companies.

Figure 10: The continents of Africa and Europe seen at night in a compiled image. The brighter regions reveal area with high light output (NASA, 2009). The challenge of community respect and health appears to be a gap between oil and gas CSR and the space sector. While various oil and gas companies have sought to establish health care programs in the local communities, through the construction of hospitals and the training of medical staff, with the potential of introducing the concept of tele-education and telemedicine. However, there are additional challenges to the health and wellbeing of people which stem directly from accidents or improper handling of the company’s resources or infrastructure, and where current space applications could be of use.

In 2013, the Donghuang II oil pipeline, owned by Sinopec, exploded suddenly in Qingdao, China. The blast killed 62 people, contaminated water supplies and cost a “direct economic loss of…$124.9 million” (NACE International, 2017). The direct cause of the accident was credited to the ignition of

vapors produced from “oil leaking from a corroded pipeline”, although worker error through a failure of proper inspections was also attributed to the incident. This was also in conjunction with poor infrastructure design where the oil pipeline was intertwined with the sewage system and installed “too close to nearby buildings” (NACE International, 2017). Similarly, in 2014, a leak from a pipeline owned by a subsidiary of Sinopec was found to have contaminated the water supply for over 2.4 million people in Lanzhou, China. The water was found to have contained 20 times the national safety limit of the toxic chemical benzene – a chemical that is attributed to an increased cancer risk (BBC, 2014).

Figure 11: Oil spills causing devastation throughout a creek in the Niger Delta (BBC, 2013). Furthermore, numerous examples of oil leaks causing a negative environmental impact for the local communities who need to farm and fish has been documented in Nigeria. Figure 11 displays some of the environmental devastation caused by the oil spills in the Niger Delta, where a creek has been contaminated. This country has also experienced dangerous explosions and subsequent fires, resulting in a loss of life, such as the Jesse disaster of 1998, which claimed more than 1000 lives, and the Abule Egba disaster of 2006 which resulted in 500 casualties and serious destruction of homes and businesses (Okoli and Orinya, 2013).

Some of these oil leaks are caused by illegal tapping - a common occurrence due to poor protection of the pipelines by the companies and the widespread poverty within the local communities. This stolen oil can be used for lighting and power, or can alternatively be sold on the oil black market (Okoli and Orinya, 2013). To minimize the issue, militant groups target the region’s pipelines by placing explosives in a campaign to demand a greater share of oil wealth “be spent on ending poverty in local communities”, and successfully disrupting crude oil production (BBC, 2016a). Royal Dutch Shell claimed that 98% of its oil spills in the region are caused by “vandalism, theft or sabotage by militants”, and that involved communities occasionally refuse access to clean-up teams due to the desire to “make more money from compensation” (Vidal, 2010). This is disputed by environmental groups and

the communities however, who blame “rusting pipes and storage tanks, corroding pipelines [and] semi-derelict pumping stations” (Vidal, 2010). Royal Dutch Shell agreed in 2015 to pay a settlement of $84 million to the Bodo community that was devastated by two oil spills in 2008 and 2009 (BBC, 2015).

Recent accidents and socio-economic issues, such as those indicated above, highlight how some of the industry’s companies are not effectively nor consistently monitoring their pipelines for oil leaks, illegal activities, or corrosion. This leads to costly consequences, such as environmental clean-up missions, the loss of resources, legal battles and teams to fix the tapped pipelines, as well as creating a loss of reputation and a worsening relationship between the company and the local communities. A possible means of addressing such issues is through a preventative effort by which satellite imaging can monitor the activities surrounding remote pipelines, in order to capture the movement of militants or illegal tappers. Meanwhile, remote monitoring companies have begun to use innovative solutions such as offering high sensitivity pressure sensors placed at the “infeed and outfeed” of pipelines, to detect even small changes in pressure that may indicate a leak, and then transmit such data via satellite communications to a system every five minutes, which will send an immediate alert if a leak or illegal tap is detected (PennEnergy, 2014). Unfortunately, these solutions have not yet been fully integrated into the operations of large oil and gas companies.

The above gap analysis has not only addressed the variety of CSR challenges faced by oil and gas companies in the interest of social impact, but has connected them to possible solutions that can be provided by the space sector. This includes the improvement of oil and gas corporations’ public relations through the utilization of the space sector’s positive public image and effective outreach efforts. The challenge of education and training was addressed by suggesting the use of information communication technology infrastructure that is placed by oil and gas companies to integrate local tele-education and telemedicine services. Two mechanisms for applying remote sensing technologies was suggested to address the industry gap of community infrastructure development to the space sector. Firstly, through the planning of CSR activities and associated constructions in efforts of increasing efficiency and the avoidance of cultural sites located below the surface through the use of interferometric SAR technology. Secondly, through the promotion of CSR efforts by illustrating these activities via before and after images, particularly with night images. Finally, the challenge of community wellbeing was addressed by suggesting that remote sensing be utilized in regions prone to pipeline leaks and illegal activity to establish reliable monitoring efforts.

5 Impact of Future Technologies

5.1 Assessment Criteria and Methodology

The report now looks to consider which emerging space-based and space-applied technologies will be developed and utilized in the coming years and how such mechanisms can impact the oil and gas sector improve its CSR practices in the areas of labor practices and employee health and safety, environmental management, and the social considerations of the greater community. The discussions of applicable technology for the three CSR topics (employee health and safety, environmental impact, and social impact) will be addressed respectively in Sections 5.2-5.6. In efforts of assessing the degree of these impacts, this section looks to integrate these three CSR aspects across each of the major technologies and applications discussed throughout this report through an assessment methodology.

A key challenge for corporations of all sectors is to measure the true impact of their CSR activities. The following analysis looks to measure the impact of the considered technologies to the oil and gas sector, whether positive or negative, and to what degree. To produce a common method to measure the impact of these technologies across the three discussed components of CSR, previous means of assessing CSR impacts were first considered. Developed in the 1990s, the Triple Bottom Line accounting framework was created to provide organizations with a means of evaluating their performance in three key areas outside of company operations: social, environmental, and financial (Scerri and James, 2010). The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) has been operating independently as of the late 1990s to communicate the impact of various company activities in a wide range of areas, including human rights, corruption, and sustainability (GRI, 2016; GRI, 2017). A review of such documents allowed for the development of the following criterion list for application to the discussed technologies:

Table 2: Space-Sector Solution Impact Assessment Criterion List.

Criteria Solutions Comments

Having good relationship with your contractor is Relationship with the a sign of wealth for the company thus implying contractors potential future cooperation that could lead to Relationship with the economic wealth, more employment and so on. suppliers Improving the relationship with suppliers helps Management Relationship with the reducing the risks inherent to the contracts end-users Quality of signed between the two parts. product Relationship with the end-users impacts the Cost of production image of the company. Some would defend that CSR is for a marketing purpose, meaning Delay of production improving the relationship with end-users.

Use of different technologies or specific Economic development solutions implemented by companies might have an economic impact on the surrounding Indirect Economic of surrounding area. area. For example, start-ups gather around big Impact Intellectual development companies so they can have a better of surrounding area relationship, thus implying an economic development of the area.

Percentage of recycled The green footprint of the materials used must be considered since there is a variety of Material material environmental impacts depending of which Packaging material is used.

Global energy GEP has clear environmental impact considering Energy production (GEP) supply and demand. % of renewable energy

Volume of water used The volume of water recycled or reused typically applies effective management. Number of water sources Water Volume of water recycled/reused

Quantity of species The impact on other life forms is also of great impacted importance given that disturbing ecosystems have the potential of permanently affect the Extent of affected area Biodiversity landscape, biomass and the biodiversity. Duration of impact Reversibility

Greenhouse gases Pollution related to oil and gas industry activity. Ozone depleting Emission substances produced Pollutants

Water treatment Oil spills on water are particularly important to deal due to the high difficulty of relieving its Volume of water impact on the environment. impacted Biodiversity value of impacted water Weight of hazardous Effluent and water waste Weight of non-hazardous waste Number of spills Volume of spill Impact of spill

Non-monetary sanctions have direct tangible Environmental Monetary sanctions dangerous behaviors companies need to reduce Compliance Non-monetary sanctions to maintain positive public perception

In the context of CSR, a positive social impact on employment would mean an increase in work opportunities for local communities because providing jobs is perceived as a positive social aspect. Part-time employees indicate how the company is dealing with services, equipment or Full-time employees technologies out of its scope and needs to hire part-time employees for specific missions. It also Employment Part-time employees shows if the quantity of missions is constant or Turn-over fluctuating. Increasing part-time employees is then perceived negatively because full-time employment is preferred Having high turn-over (frequently renewing positions and new employees) might have a really negative impact on the CSR because it means that the company does not provide correct working condition to its employees.

Occupational Control of the work zone If the company controls the work zone, less risks Health and Safety by the company exist for the workers.

Severity of injuries The injuries and fatalities are obviously an important topic for CSR. Injuries rate

Occupational disease rate Work related fatalities Diseases due to the workplace

Respect of human rights This is of great importance for the corporate social responsibility since this topic has one of Child labor abolition Human Rights the highest social impacts. Considerations Forced labor abolition Diversity and equality

Self-sustainable Accessibility of solutions to communities enable solutions and practices an efficiency assessment of the solutions on local communities Community independence Local Communities Stakeholder priority over shareholders Accessibility of solutions to community

While the industry being assessed is not Customer health Incidents with the producing technologies, the technologies and safety product considered for their impact may have risks for the end-users.

Given that this assessment considers the oil and gas industry in its entirety, and is not applied to a specific company nor region, the qualitative measurement of the above criterion is likely not possible. Instead, qualitative justifications are provided for the documented impact measurements. The following impact scale has been produced for the aforementioned criteria.

Table 3: Criteria Measurement Matrix

Impact Assessment Description

- - - Negative impact that is deemed not acceptable - - Negative impact that requires adjustments of the industry’s strategy that is considered to be acceptable

- Negative impact that does not require any adjustments of companies’ strategy

= No discernible impact + Positive impact that is not strong enough to enable changes of company strategies

+ + Positive impact that enables changes of company strategies + + + Positive impact that will greatly impact the industry

The following analyses will now consider the impacts of various emerging space-derived solutions and applications for possible use by the oil and gas sector to improve CSR practices. The associated spreadsheets that summarize the respective impacts are provided in Appendix A.

5.2 Internet of Things

5.2.1 Description

The IoT refers to the global internet-based networks that connect to physical objects through a variety of devices, including embedded sensors and actuators, to collect and transmit object information (Weber and Weber, 2010; Wortmann and Fluchter, 2015; Xia, 2012). Its function is to connect objects and their virtual representation in information systems through an information architecture that facilitates the exchange of goods and services for analysis or operations. It is defined by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) as “a global infrastructure for the information society,

enabling advanced services by interconnecting (physical and virtual) things based on existing and evolving interoperable information and communication technologies” (ITU, 2015). For example, the physical object of a household light bulb can be enhanced with IoT technology, as additional sensors can detect human presence to activate the light, thus serving as an economic security system. The associated information system would alert the owner’s smartphone of such intrusion.

Conception of this technology began in the 1980s, during which private lines and networks were utilized due to costly computer networks and limited performance, memory, and storage (Behmann, 2015). This contrasts today’s use of virtual private networks and expansive wireless technologies that are less expensive, offer high-capacity memory and storage, increased power, and connectivity that can support diverse user interface devices (Behmann, 2015). Early applications primarily included telecommunications, as IoT technology began as network Radio-Frequency Identification infrastructures (RFID), which uses radio waves to identify items. It has since broadened its scope and applications to establish a market that is estimated to be worth $7.1 trillion USD by 2020 (Wortmann and Fluchter, 2015). The IoT architecture is based on data communication tools, primarily tagged with this RFID technology, to integrate various objects for interaction via embedded systems. These systems allow for this network of devices to communicate with human beings as well as other devices (Weber and Weber, 2010). The evolution of IoT can be illustrated by several phases as shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12: Depiction of the evolution of the Internet of Things (Li, et al., 2015). Various areas of current application include home uses, transportation applications, and medical uses (ITU, 2015; Wortmann and Fluchter 2015). Such digitalized functions and capabilities have resulted from increasingly efficient broadband communication, advances in microprocessor technology,

reliable memory, and advances in power management (Wortmann and Fluchter, 2015). The implementation of a connected product typically requires the integration of multiple hardware and software components in the form of multi-layered IoT technologies. First, a device layer encompasses IoT-specific hardware, such as sensors, actuators, and processors that operate the object’s functionality. This is subsequently connects to a connectivity layer that enables communication between the object and the cloud. At this middle layer, device communication and management software is used to manage the connected things in a cloud network, while an associated application platform supports the operation of IoT applications (Wortmann and Fluchter 2015). Such a format is illustrated in Figure 13.

Figure 13: The architecture of Occupational Health and Safety Support System (OHSSS) for a company. While terrestrial network technologies have given access to reliable communication, they offer poor coverage in remote areas. A space communication network could also solve this issue. With current communication and space technology, a space communication system can provide services from Geostationary Orbit (GEO), Medium Earth Orbit (MEO), and Lower Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites or a constellation. They offer varying coverage and latency options useful for different applications. The combination of terrestrial networks and a space network can form a seamless, low latency, low cost, highly scalable, and reliable network for IoT to provide its application in the oil and gas industry. Specifically, offshore workers with this integrated network would be able to easily transfer information to and from the related objects.

5.2.2 Applications

Occupational Health and Safety Support System

Firstly, the consideration of an Occupational Health and Safety Support System (OHSSS) will be addressed as an IoT solution in three stages: for a company, a country, and the industry as a whole. A company in the oil and gas sector could develop an OHSSS as a basis for development on the country and industry levels. Most of the in-situ oil rig information can be collected, such as health conditions, worker location, or facility operating status and subsequently connected to a layer that enables the communication between the object and the cloud network. Besides the in-situ terrestrial information, space-based sensors can add more valuable knowledge to protect workers from danger or assist in their working procedures. For example, meteorological satellites can give real-time weather updates for outdoor working sites. Remote sensing satellites can provide broad environmental detail with a range of spectral information to drilling operators. With accurate positioning information from a space navigation system, every object can be positioned within centimeters of the target. This helps workers find facilities and managers take inventory of their materials and machines.

OHSSS collects a large amount of related data from heterogeneous sources for organized storage and analyzes the data for decision-making at an end application system. To be understood these functions need a scalable and efficient platform. IoT can be beneficial as it has the capabilities and resources of the cloud to manage and compose services to deal with physical objects in a more distributed and dynamic manner and to deliver new services in a large quantity. OHSSS scenarios can be set-up according to application demands, such as the simplicity of worker’s health or working environment monitoring. More complex data collection and analysis can be done in emergency dispersal which needs the support of basic functions and related assistant data in real-time.

The next OHSSS structure is developed on the country level. Sometimes a country needs to take a supervisory role over the companies. With IoT, the supervising organization of a country’s operations can get information from each company and analyze the data in order to make decisions about the specific occupational health and safety situations. With clear information and analysis, the organization can determine systematic actions in an emergency and provide comprehensive knowledge about occupational health and safety in the oil and gas industry.

Lastly, the industry also plays a role in the OHSSS structure. A study has indicated that health and safety improvements are something that all sides of the offshore industry can collaborate. The companies' willingness to share data openly in this field demonstrates their commitment to learn and to share safety issues with their competitors (Ian, 2010). With appropriate tools, lessons can be easily learned from each company to improve the entire industry. Such an application can be useful in

emergencies, where data processing and analysis timeliness need to be spread rapidly. With international disaster monitoring and rescue mechanisms, rescue and emergency efforts can be coordinated to aid a disaster area. OHSSS for the industry, based on IoT with space, can coordinate resources across companies and countries to give support. For example, if a gas pipe were to explode, data from space observations, in-situ sensors, and other terrestrial means can be combined to gain detailed information of the accident.

Improved Communication Methods with Local Communities

The Internet of Things can provide benefits to users through new applications, such as:

● Monitoring the health and behavior of instruments; ● Helping to tracking assets; ● Obtaining automated and accurate sensor-driven analysis on operational tools; ● Providing new ways for automation and remote control (Mattern and Floerkemeier, 2010).

The main points shown above could stimulate oil and gas companies’ CSR activities. For example, as stakeholders of oil companies, local communities should be updated on the activities at exploitation sites for crude oil and gas. The current ways of delivering this information are mostly indirect through public release statements and news sources. Having the time to handle the information before releasing it to the public often results in a lack of trust between local communities and private companies.

Using the capabilities of IoT could allow oil companies to enable local communities to obtain direct information from a company’s operations, thus eliminating bias or pre-processing. It could greatly enhance the company’s transparency towards local communities, which, would greatly increase the trust of the local communities and improve their general public perceptions. Combining mobile applications with the potential of the IoT could fulfill these objectives through better means. Real- time information could be delivered directly to smartphones and tablets through social media, which would greatly improve general public awareness of oil and gas operations. By implementing these practices, the oil companies can greatly improve the image they project, and be identified more as a community member.

By the embedded positioning sensors into machines and vehicles, companies can monitor the location of certain assets. With the capability of tracking its outdoor assets, the oil company’s assets security can be greatly increased. Having the ability to track outdoor assets can help in the reduction of theft, a considerable part of which are committed by local citizens. Thus, oil companies can help local communities by reducing the crime rate. With the data collected by the IoT technology, oil companies could improve and carry out better education regarding their operations at exploitation sites,

transportation facilities, and other oil processing locations. Compared with traditional public education methodology, these improvements could provide a much stronger situational judgment for companies and the public.

5.3 Spinoff Systems

5.3.1 Description

Many innovative advancements for terrestrial commercial products have been developed from existing space sector technologies. These spinoff technologies developed through contracts with, licensing of patents from, or use of facilities or data provided by national space agencies. Famous examples from NASA include the space blanket, found today in many first aid kits, as well as firefighter equipment and developments in prosthetic limbs (NASA, 2016). Many pace agencies have technology transfer programs that aim to connect agency resources with the private sector. The goal of these interactions are to identify new business opportunities and provide financial or technical support to companies. There are several new spinoff technologies that could have significant positive impacts on local communities if employed by oil and gas companies.

5.3.2 Applications Emergency Escape Mechanisms

The gas and oil industry, while well versed in safety options for on-shore locations and for gas leaks and small fires, faces challenges in how to assure worker safety after explosions or other large catastrophes on offshore rigs. With limited access to evacuation routes and bad weather hindering the use of life-boats and helicopters, a solution suitable for harsh conditions is still needed (Vatanparast, 2016). The space community’s established system for emergency procedures and escape mechanisms for astronauts on the ISS could provide insight into new evacuation systems for the oil and gas industry.

The concept of the Crew Return Vehicle of “lifeboats in space” has been under development since the need was first identified by Dr. Wernher von Braun in the 1960s. This was in relation to rescuing sailors from trips in the sea. Rescuing astronauts arise from the same problems – medical aid, explosions, and mechanical failures – problems that are still threats to human safety on offshore oil rigs. Von Braun proposed a space parachute and a protective foam filled bag as the primary options to access astronauts by pick-up by emergency crews, since then, variations of a crew return vehicle from the International Space Station have been developed by different agencies (Braun, 1966). Most notable is the X-38 project by NASA (see Figure 14). Developed from other Crew Return Vehicle designs, the X-

38 was a wingless vehicle that was to be carried to the space station in the bay of a space shuttle and then attached to a docking port of the station. In the event of an emergency, up to seven crewmembers could return to Earth, as with the space shuttle, but with a steerable parachute landing. While it provided great progress in helping solve this problem, the program was canceled in 2002, forcing need for a different solution (Gibbs, 2015).

Figure 14: The experimental X-38 crew return vehicle during a flight test in California, USA (NASA, 2015a). Today, the Soyuz spacecraft that takes the astronauts to the ISS is the emergency vehicle, however it only seats three crew members. As a result, there is always a second Soyuz descent capsule docked onboard providing enough vehicle space for all crew members to evacuate. While this works, future concepts such as the ESA’s Advanced Reentry Vehicle or space place designs from SpaceX, Boeing, or Sierra Nevada Corporation, could provide the next crew transportation to the space station and back, including in emergency situations (ESA, n.d.; Giller, 2014). By creating emergency vehicles that can handle the environment of the space station, the space community has developed an instantaneous evacuation ability for the crew members. While a space plane is not necessarily feasible on an offshore oil rig, the concept of more durable lifeboats is a concept which should be given real consideration.

Focusing more on a durable, sea-vessel style capsule that can get workers away from the disaster site and offer life support until reaching shore or receiving rescue, these safety modules could provide an answer to safety from explosions or hard weather. Details such as the ability to operate like a boat to get to shore, or be submersible in case of rough waters, could be considered to address the specifics of the rig location. Multiple vehicles throughout the rig would allow for access in case of a fire preventing use of some of the capsules.

International Safety Standards

While the International Labor Organization (ILO) adopted the Safety and Health in Mines Convention in 1995, which gives guidelines for national mine regulations for health and safety, large discrepancies still exist between the different national practices (United States Department of Labor - Mine Safety and Health Administration, n.d.). It is customary that all nations have government inspections and reviews of companies and that they require each company to establish practices that meet the international regulations. The ILO’s Convention does not require any specific levels of safety for the nations, rather, high-level agreements for the different parties to take “appropriate measures to eliminate or minimize the risk.” Without clear definitions, each country is able to interpret health and safety decisions to their own standards, causing variations worldwide (International Labor Organization, 1998).

The ISS and the International Partners developed agreed upon measures to determine the necessary health levels and practices for all astronauts, regardless of nationality. Within these defined levels of physical and mental health, and medical safety practices, each participating nation is able to use their own styles of medicine, types of food, and exercise equipment. If the international mining community was able to create a document to assure the boundaries and limitations of safety and worker health that are to be followed, the mining jobs could have less risks associated with them. This agreement could assure that workers are prepared adequately for the job and working conditions are acceptable in all of the major nations in the industry.

Water Decontamination

Contaminated water from extraction processes can be harmful to the surrounding environment and lead to health problems in the local wildlife and human populace if leaks occur. Currently, most of the extracted contaminated water is stored in such a way that it should not pose a threat to the health of humans or wildlife; however, with the sensitivity of the system to natural disasters or even poor construction, leaks should be expected. Instead of storing the contaminated water, filtering and treating the water to purify it to safe standards could be a better solution. On the ISS, astronauts live in a semi-closed environmental system. This system requires the astronauts to reclaim as much water as possible, including sweat and urine, to turn into drinkable water. In the pursuit of better filtration NASA began to invest in developing NanoCeram, a nanomaterial with an electropositive charge which gives the material an unusually strong filtering capability (Argonide Corporation, 2017). Most filtration systems rely on a fabric weave small enough that only water molecules can pass, but this process is slow and makes filtering large amounts of water difficult. Because NanoCeram uses electric charge to filter out impurities instead of a restrictive fabric weave, larger amounts of water can be filtered in

less time. Systems utilizing NanoCeram can remove lead, chlorine, E. Coli, coliform bacteria, viruses, algae, pharmaceuticals, and many other contaminants without the use of chemicals (Argonide Corporation, 2017). With the advances in filtering technology made for the International Space Station, perhaps water contamination could be avoided.

It is also of integral importance to consider that it is difficult to treat contamination if the level of contamination is not understood. Launched in 2004, the ESA’s Rosetta mission encountered its target comet in 2014. While not actually flown with the Rosetta mission, NASA had developed a space-ready spectrometer to analyze the chemical composition of the comet’s surface. This spectrometer differed from other spectrometers because of its use of an acousto-optic filter. Unlike the traditional rotating grating or prism found in most spectrometers, the acousto-optic filter has no moving parts. In the years since development, this technology has been used by many industries including pharmaceuticals and winemakers to test the composition and purity of their products. This technology could also be transferred to the oil and gas industry as a tool to test the chemical composition of water and soil around extraction areas, to determine if contamination is occurring and to what extent.

Application of LIDAR Technology

Many oil and gas companies suffer from problematic public relations. On a global scale, negative media coverage of events like the BP Deep Water Horizon oil spill can damage the opinions of consumers and shareholders. Local communities near to where the oil and gas operations are based are often at the leading edge of tension over issues such as land claims, fear of water contamination, and farmland pollution. There are, however, several ways in which space-sector-derived spinoff technologies could help improve the situation.

The laser-based remote sensing technique LIDAR is used to detect details that are difficult to see with either other remote sensing methods, or the naked eye. It is currently playing a significant role in NASA’s OSIRIS-REx mission, with the OSIRIS-REx Laser Altimeter (OLA) which will be used to scan the surface of a target asteroid in order to create a 3D map of its topography. This map will be used to help determine a site suitable for the sample-return mission (NASA, 2017a). Teledyne Optech, the company which built the LIDAR system for the OLA, as well as the LIDAR instruments of the Phoenix Mars lander, also has a system onboard an Optech ALTM-3100C laser mapping system operated by West Virginia University National Resource Analysis Center (NASA, 2017a).

The Teledyne Optech LIDAR can receive “up to eight returns” for each laser pulse, allowing for the creation of a 3D model that includes fine details of vegetation This system can also produce a “bare- earth” model, allowing for the discovery of features that are so overgrown that they would remain unnoticed by a person on the ground (NASA, 2017a). An archeological team has used this technology

to search for likely sites of buried bison bones, whilst Figure 15 shows the remnants of structures and farmland hidden underneath vegetation in Connecticut. If not for LIDAR technology, research such as this would have to be done by visiting the actual locations and performing measurements by hand – a costly, time-consuming, and difficult task for large regions or remote sites.

As explained previously, oil and gas companies are often obliged to conduct surveys to make sure that they will not destroy important archaeological sites when developing new infrastructure. If companies had access to LIDAR data however, they could commission surveys more often and in a more effective manner. Since it would be saving the cost of a large team of people on location, the project’s timeline would move in a positive direction if it was quickly discovered that there are no archaeological remains that would be disturbed. This would also lower the probability of an error occurring, where there were remnants of infrastructure that went unnoticed until work began.

Figure 15: Aerial image of a forest in Connecticut (left). Bare-earth LIDAR image displaying the remains of infrastructure and then-cleared farmland (right) (NASA, 2017a, p.139).

Illegal Activity Tracking

Another way in which companies can improve their public relations is in the area of tracking illegal activities. As mentioned previously, there are conflicts between the local communities and companies in regions such as Nigeria, where Royal Dutch Shell faces multiple oil leaks caused by illegal tapping of the pipelines. One way to counteract this issue is to involve the local community in the fight to prevent theft and protect the pipes.

The NASA Earth Exchange (NEX) project was launched in 2010 in order to encourage the use the supercomputing facilities at the Ames Research Center. The project called for proposals to “use Earth- observation data…to inform management, business and policy decisions on several subjects”, with the winning proposals being funded through NASA’s Research Opportunities in Space and Earth Sciences (ROSES) (NASA, 2017a, p.123). The nonprofit organization Conservation International received ROSES funding in order to improve its “fire-monitoring and early warning system”, which was a model that

had benefited from a NASA grant a decade earlier. The system was based on imaging data from NASA’s MODIS onboard the Terra and Aqua satellites and that now could be expanded thanks to the supercomputing resources provided by NEX (NASA, 2017a, p.122). The result is a system known as Firecast, with the updated system incorporating data from the Ground Precipitation Mission. Added to this system was the ability to use mobile devices to log patrolling information generated by users on the ground. GeoVisual Analytics, a company dedicated to analyzing Earth-imaging data and which developed under contracts with NASA, provided the OnSight platform to crowdsource information from users “in the field”, who can upload data “about events they observe” (NASA, 2017a, p.124). The risk and alert systems are now available via a single website, with one main goal being to catch sight of and prevent illegal activities.

A similar concept of using satellite data and crowdsourcing with mobile devices could be applied in regions where illegal tapping of pipelines causes oil leaks. The oil and gas companies could use this type of system to identify the most at-risk sections of the pipelines, making it easier to create patrol systems for those areas. Also, if some of the local community is encouraged to participate in the crowdsourcing, they will help police the area and take more responsibility for preventing illegal activities. Firecast has already lead to people being caught burning on protected land, and so the system has been shown to work. It helps to publicize the arrests, meaning that people will be less likely in the future to try similar activities, as well as encouraging the companies and local communities to work together to achieve a positive result.

Oil Leak Prevention

One of the main risks a community living near pipelines face is that of leakages. As mentioned previously, oil leaks can lead to polluted drinking water, contamination of farmland, and an increase in the risk of forest fires. Some commercial space spinoff technologies can help mitigate the negative consequences in the event of it occurring, and some can work as preventative measures. A precautionary action the companies could take is to try to limit the amount of corrosion of the steel used in pipelines, which is one of the main causes of oil leaks.

Both NASA and ESA have been involved in the development of products focused on this task. NASA’s Kennedy Space Center is a prime location to suffer corrosion thanks to its proximity to the sea (an abundant source of corrosive salt water), as well as the repeated heat cycling and water flooding their launch pads are subject to during launches. NASA entered an agreement with Surtreat, a company that had “developed two corrosion inhibitors that...were designed to be applied to the surface of concrete, where they would migrate to the steel rebar inside.” However, these coatings had not yet been formally tested and validated (NASA, 2016, p.82). The tests performed by NASA showed that

Surtreat’s method of using an “organic compound” whose “vapor would pass through the pores and cracks in concrete” in order to form a “protective film on the steel surface” was a successful way of inhibiting corrosion, and so began to utilize this at the space center (NASA, 2016, p.83).

Surtreat later developed this product further by creating a “pigmented epoxy primer” that could be applied directly to rusted steel in order to halt the progression of corrosion, based on the organic compound that had been validated by the tests at NASA (NASA, 2016, p.83). The company has now produced a two-part primer that offers “5-10 times the corrosion inhibiting properties of the standard primer.” While the initial cost is higher than that of a basic primer, this is offset by both savings in surface preparation and “increased lifespan of steel” since other inhibitors require rust to be removed from the steel surface before application (NASA, 2016, p.83).

Meanwhile, ESA’s directive to ensure the air on the ISS is safe for astronauts to breathe led to a method of identifying what patches of soil contain corrosion-causing bacteria. Space stations are essentially closed systems where contaminants can build up. Through its Technology Transfer Program, ESA partnered with Bioclear, a Dutch company that worked on soil pollution, in order to produce a biological air filter (Figure 16). Working off the knowledge of how microbiology can remove pollutants from the earth, Bioclear created a system that uses bacteria that “degrades contaminants into carbon dioxide and water” which can then be recycled back into the spacecraft (ESA, 2015).

Figure 16: Biological Air filter used to remove airborne contaminants the International Space Station (ESA, 2015). However, this created a risk of harmful bacteria breeding in the filtering system itself, and thus Bioclear developed a warning system to screen if there were dangerous bacteria in the filter that was putting astronauts at risk (ESA, 2015). To do this, Bioclear created an artificial strand of a pathogen’s DNA that was then impregnated with fluorescent compound. Then, if the artificial DNA strand had contact with the pathogen, it would bind with the pathogen’s DNA and show up under a microscope the same coloring as the fluorescent compounds (ESA, 2015). This method can now be employed to

identify soil that contains bacteria which causes corrosion in pipelines. Previously, the only way a company could find corrosion on the pipes was to send out “inspectors” on “spot checks”, and yet with this method, the at-risk stretches of pipeline can be easily identified and targeted (ESA, 2015). Oil and gas companies can make use of such technology, first by identifying which pipelines are most likely to suffer or are currently suffering from corrosion, and then by trying to prevent that from happening or protect against current rusting by applying Surtreat’s primer. This should help decrease the risk of pollution of a community's water or farmland.

This system can be more effective than ordinary ultrasonic scanners also because there is a reduction in friction, and so the probe can move faster and more easily, whilst keeping its cost comparable to those already on the market (NASA, 2016, p.233). It can be used on a variety of materials, including metal, and so could be applied to pipelines. By inspecting the pipelines in a faster and more efficient way, it will help to find defects and reduce the oil spills and harmful emissions that can negatively affect a community.

Unfortunately, some accidents will still occur even when actions are taken to prevent them; however, there is also spinoff technology that could aid in the cleanup operations. One of the winners of NASA’s Invention of the Year Award for 2016 was a technology that produces “high-quality boron nitride nanotubes” in order to form a highly heat-resistant material (NASA, 2017a, p.200). While Boron Nitride Nanotubes (BNNTs) have been synthesized since the mid-90s, there remained the challenge of how to produce them on a large scale. Finally, the Langley Research Center has now been the first to “produce high-quality BNNTs without any catalyst at a scalable amount” (NASA, 2017a, p.200).

Thanks to advancements in nanomaterials, a study by the Australian Research Council and Drexel University College of Engineering, has been researching a method of transforming boron nitride Nano sheets into sponge-like aerogels. The sheets have the ability to “absorb up to 33 times their weight in oils and organic solvents” (Frost, 2016). This could have a significant positive impact on the method in which oil spills are cleaned up.

Soil Remediation

Another new technique that is currently being offered for licensing by NASA is to achieve soil remediation via plant-fungal combinations, since some of these can be effective in removing fuel and similar contaminants from soil (NASA, 2017a, p.211). It is best to use native plant-fungal combinations, as well as “a set of enzymes from fungi specifically adapted to conditions in contaminated soils” (NASA, 2017a, p.211). Ectomycorrhizal (EM) remediation uses EM fungi, which have the ability to oxidize phenolic compounds. Since EM fungi up-regulate enzyme genes in response to changes in host physiological conditions, their reaction to the host tree being “partially defoliated” by phenolic soil

contamination is to “increase production of enzymes that will oxidize these compounds” (NASA, 2017a, p.211).

The benefit of a company using a method such as this to help remediate oil is that it allows for an extremely fast response time, and is both cost effective and low-maintenance. It also enhances naturally occurring species’ ability to decontaminate soil, meaning that the recovery time of the local ecosystem should be swift (NASA, 2017a, p.211). Therefore, the negative impacts on the population’s standard of living should be lessened.

Water Contamination

An unfortunate outcome of oil leaks is that the drinking water source of the local populace can become polluted, creating an urgent need for a way to find a way of cleaning up this vital resource. For example, a First Nations community in Canada faced having their drinking water at risk when a Husky Energy pipeline leaked (Figure 17). This is not a situation unique to communities near pipelines, as millions of people around the world struggle to have access to clean water. The solution to this is almost always to find a filtration system that works to clear the contamination. Unfortunately, the cheaper filters tend to have the ability to filter out dirt and certain types of contaminants, but are not equipped to tackle the more dangerous pollutants, such as viruses. Even the filters themselves can become infected with microbes.

Figure 17: Crude oil spill in Saskatchewan, Canada, which threatened the drinking water supplies of the local communities (Graeber, 2016). NASA awarded two Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) contracts to a company named Argonide, who discovered the promising properties of NanoCeram fibers as water filters during their work with nanomaterials. The first phase of testing proved it could purify water in space, and so the second contract was for them to build a filter large enough to serve a full space crew (NASA, 2017a, p.80).

In general, filters that have been designed to clear the water of viruses and bacteria must use membranes with pores that are small enough so only water molecules can pass, while the dangerous contaminants are too large to get through. Unfortunately, this process is extremely slow, especially for filtering the quantity of water needed for affected communities. However, NanoCeram fibers produce an electropositive charge when water flows through them, and so the contaminants, carrying a slight negative charge, are attracted to the fibers, becoming absorbed by the filter, creating virus- and bacteria-free water (NASA, 2017a, p.80). This allows the woven nanofibers to have larger pores than conventional filters, so that the water can pass through at a much faster rate whilst still being able to eliminate more than 99.9% of viruses and bacteria without needed to use chemicals (NASA, 2017a, p.80).

Water Pure Technologies offers portable systems that are offered at a low price compared to other systems on the market, and use a combination of filters, of which the most important is the NanoCeram filter. The other filters act as both fail-safes and as protectors of the NanoCeram filter, so it does not become “clogged with...larger-scale contaminants… [and can] last longer” so that it does not need to be replaced too often (NASA, 2017a, p.81). The Mobile Water ResQ U.V. unit offered by the company can filter around 2.9 gallons of water a minute (NASA, 2017a, p.81). A normally active person drinks around one half gallon of water per day, plus requires water for cleaning and cooking purposes (CDC, 2016). Therefore, it is extremely useful that this filter can process such a large amount of water so quickly, when considering the needs of a community.

Oil and gas companies could offer some of these systems to communities that have been affected with oil spills, helping them to have safe drinking water whilst also alleviating some of the stressful urgency of the clean-up operations. Not only do companies have to combat these risks, but they are also known for offering humanitarian aid to underdeveloped communities, such as malaria treatment.

Medical Aid

One such spinoff technology is fluorescent diagnostic test readers. These devices offer a quick alternative approach to diagnostic testing than current time consuming multiple-test investigations for illnesses (NASA, 2017a, p.40). The technology is desired by the space industry as an essential device when sending humans on future missions to destinations far from Earth, such as Mars and beyond. Diagnostic test readers are considered crucial to these missions because identifying any medical problems with astronauts early is of the utmost importance, so mitigation measures can be taken as soon as possible.

To produce this technology, NASA Ames contracted Intelligent Optical Systems (IOS) as part of the Small Business Innovation Research scheme. IOS proposed the use of a device that utilizes the power,

and portability, of smartphones and combined it with a sensor system in the form of a lateral flow strip. This is similar system to a pregnancy test: “The strips would analyze bodily fluids by combining them with molecules that glow in ultraviolet light and also bind with certain biomarkers” (NASA, 2017a, p.40). IOS collaborated with Cellmic LLC who made the hardware for the smartphone-based reader. The resulting device is able to analyze samples for cardiac and liver biomarkers using Ultra- Violet (UV) light (NASA, 2017a, p.40).

The current version of this technology is known as the HRDR-300 (Cellmic, 2015), but the system has not yet been spread to global markets. Future advancements are expected of the technology to provide more parts of the spectrum and for a single device to be to switch between them (NASA, 2017a, p.41). The technology also allows for tailorable tests, so that the user can adapt the reader to diagnose for specific diseases. These innovations combined with future medical research will result in technology that can take minimal samples and be able to detect a large range of diseases. The use of smartphones also adds the capability of crowdsourcing to the technology, where diagnoses and the locations at which they were made are uploaded to a central database. This can act as an early warning system for potential disease outbreaks and offer maps of the affected areas (NASA, 2017a, p.41).

This technology will offer a large boost for oil and gas companies humanitarian CSR activities. By providing the less developed communities that these companies help with the diagnostic test reader, many illnesses can be identified in the early stages, potentially saving lives. The use of the device will also decrease the need for high-tech medical facilities that are used for diagnostic testing, providing large cost reductions. As previously shown, some companies are trying to fight off the effects of malaria in third world countries. Future advancements in this technology should be able to detect bio signatures that reveal the malaria disease in patients, allowing for faster treatment.

It is also of integral importance to consider this spinoff technology’s application to the improvement of employee safety in the oil and gas industry. The fluorescent diagnostic test readers would provide a solution to the gap in medical professionals on-site. While this technology would aid in discovering health problems in a worker while on-site, the combination of this diagnosis with tele-medicine would allow for a majority of medical problems to be properly addressed while workers are in remote locations. As disease could also be identified, the ability to prevent an on-site epidemic also shows the importance of easy to use and accessible diagnostic techniques for oil and gas operations.

Temperature regulating fabrics are another space derived technology that can benefit humanitarian aid for under-developed communities. These materials were initially designed for use in space suits for heat management to ensure astronauts were protected from the hazardous cold temperatures during extravehicular activities while also not retaining too much heat in other working conditions

(NASA, 2017a, 48). The technology that emerged was Phase-Changing Material (PCM) which can transfer heat quickly and change phase at a temperature comfortable for humans. This ensures that any heat additions or losses go into changing the material’s phase instead of raising or lowering the temperature.

Fabrics infused with PCMs have since been widely commercially available, but more recently the technology has found an application in treating premature babies. The company Embrace Innovations have developed the infant warmer from phase-changing material that are used to help keep babies healthy, in communities without modern medical care, by keeping them at a stable, comfortable temperature (Figure 18). Currently Embrace’s technology has spread to 14 developing countries but in the future is likely to become more widespread (NASA 2017a, p.48).

This technology has the potential to be incorporated within the CSR activities conducted oil and gas companies. Supplying poorer communities that are lacking sufficient medical facilities with infant warmers and other temperature regulating fabrics will reduce the infant death rate: “formal studies have linked sudden infant death syndrome with overheating” (NASA, 2017a, p.49). This would be seen as a highly charitable act by the oil and gas companies and would likely improve public relations with local communities.

Figure 18: A baby using Embrace’s Infant Warmer to remain at a regulated and comfortable temperature (NASA, 2017a, p.49).

Furthermore, such fabric can also aid in the interest of employee health and safety. With NASA’s development of fabrics that can help keep people at comfortable temperatures for their health, the companies are able to keep workers safe from heat exhaustion and hypothermia in harsh environments. While body temperature is a large contributor to health problems, this technology would also aid in maintaining hygiene of workers during the 12-hour shifts, thus warding off the potential infections or disease caused by sweaty clothing.

Community Development

Another CSR activity that many oil and gas actors conduct is aiding the development of communities, typically poorer communities in rural regions. Examples of this have been given earlier in this report, such as building schools, facilities, and roads. These companies can make use of space spinoff technology to benefit their CSR by providing new solutions to issues faced by the communities.

The use of LIDAR systems for aiding public relations has already been made apparent but it can also benefit infrastructure development. The Single Photon Lidar (SPL) is an airborne Earth imaging developed by Sigma Space. This imaging technology emits up to 100 separate low power optical beams down to Earth in different directions (NASA, 2016, p.76). An image is compiled from the detections of the individual photons that have reflected off Earth’s surface and returned to the platform. By analyzing the time of the detections (travel time of the photons) a detailed map can be made of the terrain. Up to 32,000 pulses of the beams can be emitted per second which each pulse providing a 100-pixel image and a total of 3.2 million data points per second, producing a high resolution image as the result (NASA, 2016, p.76). An example of an SPL image can be seen in Figure 19 which shows a photograph (left) of Point Lobos in California and then a SPL image (right) with the colors matching different levels of terrain and topography.

Figure 19: A photograph image taken of Point Lobos in California (left). The same bay except imaged using Sigma Space’s Single Photon Lidar. The color range corresponds to topography (right). The technology has been used for multiple applications. A collaboration between Sigma Space and the University of Maryland used SPL technology to map the biomass coverage in the whole of Garrett County, Maryland (NASA, 2016, p.78). A region of 1,700 square kilometers in size was mapped with a resolution of tens of centimeters. New developments of this technology will be used by NASA’s upcoming Ice Cloud and Land Elevation Satellite 2 (ICESat-2), launching in 2017 (NASA, 2016, p.79). This instrument, called the Advanced Topographic Laser Altimeter System (ATLAS), will be incorporated on ICESat-2 to investigate changes in height of the polar ice sheet and a secondary objective to measure thickness in vegetation in lower latitudes (NASA, 2016, p.79).

Single Photon Lidar is noted to be a cost effective way of mapping large areas. This technology can be very beneficial to oil and gas companies due to the ability to provide a highly detailed map of a large area. Sigma Space has received interest for using the system to map large areas in Africa (NASA, 2016, p.78). Company operations and CSR activities for community development would receive a significant boost from SPL technology as, according to NASA (2016b, p.78), it “…would also be useful to oil companies and others who need to know the topography beneath that canopy to plan pipelines, roads, and other infrastructure.” The topographical information provided can be used to help plan communities’ development projects like building schools/facilities as well deciding on suitable locations to relocate the local populace to, when it is required by oil and gas operations.

Another method in which oil and gas companies can improve community infrastructure is by increasing their ability to be self-sustaining. While there are multiple ways in which this can be done, there is an upcoming technique that processes organic waste using a bioreactor. ESA (2014) has demonstrated this technology, where the end result was a highly-nutritional biomass that can be used as animal feed or a non-toxic fertilizer; however, future advancements could produce food for humans to consume. This technology is likely to be in the far future and could require a lot of infrastructure support to maintain it, however it would be a revolutionary way to feed communities.

Fires caused by oil spills and illegal activities with pipelines can be disastrous to rural populations. As has already been highlighted in this report, fires from these sources has caused hundreds of deaths and damage to towns and villages. Technology derived from space can help oil and gas companies reduce the severity of the consequences caused from these dramatic events.

A flameproof coating, developed by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), is being spunoff for commercial use to combat the damaging effects of fire. The Ceramic Polymer Hybrid (CASPOL) is a coating with self-extinguishing properties, is flame retardant, and waterproof (ISRO, 2016). The technology is described as a low-cost coating that can be sprayed/brushed on a surface without any toxic impact on humans or the environment. The coating has the added benefit of preventing water leakage and reducing temperature (low solar absorptivity and high emissivity) making it well suited for housing/buildings in hot climates (ISRO, 2016). Figure 20 shows a before (left) and after image (right) of two huts that were set on fire. The hut on the left is coated in CASPOL and can be seen to have survived the fire, whereas the hut without CASPOL was destroyed within a few seconds.

Figure 20: Photographs of two thatched huts that have been set on fire. The hut on the left has had CASPOL flameproof coating applied. The hut without the coating has completed burned down whereas the one with the coating has remained standing (ISRO, 2016).

In the future, the CASPOL coating can be adopted by the oil and gas industry to protect the local populations living close to their operations. In the case of a disastrous event causing fires, the damage dealt to the communities would be greatly reduced; this technology could save lives. The extra water leakage protection and temperature reduction properties will also improve the living conditions. All these benefits can be provided, at a low cost, to the people, raising their opinion of the oil and gas companies operating in their region and ameliorating tensions. This would make this technology highly recommended for future use in CSR programs. The CASPOL coating can also provide significant benefits to oil and gas operations if utilized on oil rigs to help prevent/reduce the severity of fires and protecting the workers on the rigs.

Once again, social and community benefits derived from space solutions can also apply to the health and safety of the industry’s workers, as this flameproof coating serves three potential advantages for oil rigs. First, with the use of this coating on all surfaces the platforms, fire damage could be reduced. With less severe damage, the risk of harm to workers could be reduced. Second, a flame-resistant coating could be applied to safety bunkers on platforms used in the event of fire where evacuation is delayed or impossible. Finally, with the ability of this polymer hybrid to be used in clothing, the workers could be given an extra level of protection when working near drilling equipment, as the likelihood of fire is highest there. Overall, this low-cost technology could serve multiple life-saving purposes at oil and gas sites that should be considered for assuring worker health and safety from fires and explosions.

Agricultural Management

Rural areas that do not have easy access to cities are often reliant on farming to provide their livelihood. This is where oil and gas companies can make a significant impact by harnessing the use of

modern and future technologies to provide precision farming for more efficient seeding, management, and harvest (BBC, 2016b). Future space spinoffs will be able to aid in this endeavor by providing technology that can help communities with these new methods of farming.

An example of such an agriculture aid is the Staged Nutrient Release (SNR) fertilizer, developed by the Florida company, Florikan. SNR is an innovative fertilizer that contains a polymer that coats the nutrients in such a way that releases the nutrients in a controlled manner. The formula has been adjusted to ensure the nutrients are released in order of when the plants need them the most. The mixture can also be adjusted to suit different types of crops or climates as required. Using the SNR fertilizer reduces the amount of fertilizer required for farming and the amount of nutrients being wasted which occurs with normal fertilizers because of the different rates at which the nutrients dissolve into water “wasting more than two-thirds of your nitrogen: it’s going straight into the groundwater” (NASA, 2017a, p.113).

The initial development of this type of fertilizer came about from a partnership with NASA to aid plant growth on the ISS to provide food for astronauts (NASA, 2017a, p.112). This was beneficial to NASA and their astronauts as it meant they “...can focus on other challenges, like how often to water the plants and how best to use lighting to promote growth” (NASA, 2017a, p.112). This technology has had applications such as producing red romaine lettuce and other greens on the ISS in 2015-2016. Future experiments are expected with the addition of the second “veggie plant growing module” to the ISS in 2017 for growing tomatoes and cabbage (NASA, 2017a, p.112). In terms of commercial use, fertilizers using the SNR formula have been embraced in the US, primarily by nurseries and turf growers, and in Indonesia and Malaysia, for palm oil growers (NASA, 2017a, p.115).

Oil and gas companies can provide SNR fertilizers to rural communities that rely heavily on agriculture to improve the efficiency of their farming. This CSR activity would have a positive social impact as it “significantly reduces the harmful environmental impact of nutrient runoff, and it also means less labor and lower costs for growers” (NASA, 2017a, p.115).

Another means through which CSR can benefit agriculture development is by utilizing advances in farm management. Recent innovations are focusing on using satellite technology to provide imagery of farmland to provide detailed information that is unable to be obtained from visual ground inspection. Observations taken in multiple spectral bands can reveal a vast amount of information about crops telling the farmers the crop yield, if some areas are producing more than others and if diseases are damaging certain crops.

An example spinoff technology from this method of imaging farms has been used in GeoVisual Analytics’ Computer Learning Imagery Platform (CLIP). This technology uses drones to provide digital

images that the system can analyze to provide valuable details about farms (NASA, 2017a, p.133). Use of this multispectral imagery can benefit farmers with their farming methods to achieve the maximum yield possible. Figure 21 shows three images taken in different spectral bands, each providing different signature responses. From top to bottom, the Figure panels are show information about vegetation density, water deficit and crop stress. The system can also be augmented with the OnSight platform which has been developed at NASA’s Stennis Space Center. This platform provides crowdsourcing engagement, allowing users to upload mistakes/inaccuracies on the system or add useful information (NASA, 2017a, p.132).

Figure 21: Three multispectral images of crop fields used to analyze a farm’s vegetation density, water levels, and crop stress respectively (NASA, 2017a, p.132). The CLIP technology was demonstrated in late 2015, in a collaboration with Taylor Farms, in which drone images of fields were analyzed to provide farm status information. Analysis of the infrared response revealed information on the crops health, the larger the infrared light being emitted (more heat emitted) the healthier the crops (NASA, 2017a, p.133). GeoVisual Analytics have expressed interest in further developing the system to eventually provide a global crop map providing detailed information on farming lands all over the world (NASA, 2017a, p.133).

Another technology spinoff from multispectral imaging comes from Satshot who use smart device apps to convey crop information from satellite imagery. The company’s Mapcenter app is one such example that can supply images of crop fields and its biomass map. Figure 22 shows a field viewed in the Mapcenter app with variations in color relating to different spectral responses from the crops. The red areas represent low crop yield and the green are areas of high yield.

Figure 22: An example of Satshot’s Mapcenter app. The colors seen on the crop field represent different levels of crop yield, green corresponding to high-yield (NASA, 2017a, p.133). This information can determine future farm management, as areas of high yield are more suitable to further seed planting and laying fertilizer as these areas can handle more crop production. Whereas areas of low yield may be suffering from disease and mitigation strategies are required. This method of precision farming is more efficient and cost effective; “[by] targeting resources rather than using a blanket approach, farmers not only save on resources but also reduce the amounts of chemicals and fertilizers that run off into watersheds” (NASA, 2016a, p.109). Satshot is working with the company John Deere to incorporate the analysis results provided by multispectral imaging into farming machinery, like tractors. The data will determine where seeds and fertilizer should be planted and the rate of dispensing based on the yield rate of certain areas in the fields. Satshot state that this method provides a 20% saving on these resources (NASA, 2016, p.110).

The imagery used is currently obtained through use of drones or satellites (i.e. LandSat-8), but the application and usability of these agriculture aids will advance greatly as new private constellations come online in the future. With the hundreds of new satellites planned by Planet Labs for their CubeSat constellations, images of the entire Earth will be taken every day. Additionally, multispectral imagery will be available and useful, not only for future agriculture planning, but for real-time management (NASA, 2016, p.110).

Further examples of spun-off satellite technology being used in agriculture comes from Applied GeoSolutions Rice Decision Support System (RDSS). In late 2007, there was a dramatic price rise in staple global food goods, causing issues in many developing countries (NASA, 2016, p.60). In response, the G20 nations formulated the Group on Earth Observations’ Global Agricultural Monitoring (GEOGLAM) Initiative whose objectives were to improve global forecasting of crop production to avoid such market crashes in the future. The main focus of the initiative was to rely on satellite imagery to

provide the required forecasting. Applied GeoSolutions developed the RDSS systems as part of this initiative to help predict rice crop production as it is “...the world’s most difficult major dietary staple to predict” (NASA, 2016, p.60).

The RDSS technology uses spectral imagery to monitor crop fields where the different spectral bands can “detect the greenness, biomass vigor, and leaf moisture of rice plants, and the presence and depth of surface water, all useful for assessing crop health and predicting crop outcomes” (NASA, 2016, p.60). The system provides the means to assess large regions of farmland for much lower cost than by traditional means (NASA, 2016, p.60). Applied GeoSolutions have gained support from NASA, JAXA and ESA to use the data obtained by the agencies’ satellite images from platforms such as Landsat, MODIS, and the Sentinel satellites (NASA, 2016, p.62). The range of satellites used provide images in a range of spectral bands, improving the quality of information that can be deduced about the crop fields. RDSS has currently been used in California, as well as pilot locations abroad such as Indonesia, Vietnam and Brazil. The use of the system can also help reduce the emissions of the greenhouse gas methane produced by oversaturated rice paddies. Therefore, the RDSS can provide awareness of crop field health status, predictions on yield and help decreasing the environmental impact.

5.4 Next-Generation Satellite Constellations

5.4.1 Description

The next technology of interest is that of emerging constellation systems. A variety of large satellite constellation programs have been proposed and are currently under development. Of these, OneWeb is a proposed constellation program, as depicted in Figure 23, consisting of 648 satellites operating at a height of 1,200 kilometers above the Earth’s surface (OneWeb, 2017). A total of 900 satellites will be constructed to produce any needed spare satellites on the ground or in orbit. With launches beginning in 2018, OneWeb intends to deploy the operational satellites into 20 orbital planes around Earth for global coverage to assure service beginning in 2019 (Clark, 2015). Internet signals are hoping to supply private consumers with broadband connectivity via small ground user terminals that can extend the reach of internet service providers in addition to mobile phone networks, rather than replace them (OneWeb, 2017). OneWeb’s constellation of satellites will “logically interlock with each other to create a coverage footprint over the entire planet” by ultimately extending existing networks into rural regions and to encourage affordable connectivity for all (OneWeb, 2017).

Figure 23: OneWeb constellation distribution (OneWeb, 2017). In November of 2015, the American aerospace manufacturer and space transport services company, Space Exploration Technologies Corporation (SpaceX), filed an application with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to launch a satellite constellation system (Leahy, 2016). The proposed project hopes to install 4,425 operating satellites in 83 different orbital planes at altitudes of 1,150 to 1,325 kilometers to provide full and continuous, global internet coverage (Tung, 2016). Ambitiously, these constellations would nearly quadruple the amount of currently active satellites in Earth’s orbit. The system is designed to provide a wide range of broadband and communications services for a variety of users worldwide, including those that are professional, commercial, institutional, residential, and governmental. The FCC application filed indicates the low-cost system intends to provide internet speeds of one gigabit per second, which equates to approximately 200 times faster than the world average connectivity speed (Leahy, 2016).

Smaller in nature, O3b Networks Ltd. have begun implementing a constellation program totaling 8 satellites at an orbital height of 8,062 kilometers to deliver global broadband connectivity (O3b, 2017a). The network seeks to include insufficiently connected markets including those in Asia, Australia, Africa, and Latin America.

Figure 24: O3b Energy Network Architecture (O3b, 2017b). As illustrated by Figure 24, O3b’s Energy Product overview document specifically highlights the use of its technologies in the oil and gas sector. By noting that the design of rigs of the future “[…]include video conferencing centers with the capability to receive live video feeds so experts can sit in a room in headquarters and have virtual visibility into the entire offshore operations. […] Video conferencing offshore is no longer a luxury but a necessity, and video monitoring for seismic processing activities are becoming a standard” (O3b, 2017c). Furthermore, O3b highlights the connections between crew contentment and offshore platform productivity, which can be assisted by providing access to social media, gaming and internet services to employees working on offshore platforms.

Evidently, a variety of networks will be developed and integrated in the coming years and will subsequently increase the broadband availability and the strength of wireless connectivity. The following will seek to assess the impact of such constellation network installations to the oil and gas sectors, and their possible utilization in the components of CSR worker health and safety, social impact, and environmental interests.

5.4.1 Applications Improving Worksite Communications

Increasing reliability, enhancing operations, and forming new values are crucial challenges faced by the oil and gas industry (Slaughter, et al., 2015). Over the years, companies have adopted, developed, and applied various modern technologies to their operations, including the use of satellites and robots. Meanwhile, a study has scored the digital maturity of the oil and gas industry at 4.68 where 1

represents the least digital maturity and 10 is the maximum achievable score in a given study (Kane, et al., 2015). The score suggests that the industry should focus on developing individual technologies to enhance the operational performance of the platforms. Therefore, a more connected approach is needed in the oil and gas industry where all major factors of production and management are interconnected.

Saudi Aramco uses an onshore command center or “nerve center” to monitor oil that is drilled, status of pipelines, and facility operations (Stahl, 2008). Engineers, through instant messenger alert programs, monitor the sensors that communicate with the command center. Such systems can be seen in Figure 25 below. While this system is operating in real-time for monitoring production, it is not currently used for worker health and safety practices. The barrier for health and safety monitoring in the oil and gas industry is the cost of these high-end technologies. While large companies like Saudi Aramco have the funds to invest in developing technology, such as satellite services for smoother operations, smaller companies lack those capabilities (Blas and Mahdi, 2017). Therefore, a cost- effective communication and internet network is essential for practical and large scale applications across the industry.

Figure 25: (A) Real-Time Geo Steering, (B) Engineer using the Instant Messenger Interface (Red Box) to control the drill bit in real- time. The images have been adopted from Stahl (2008). Oil and gas companies with remote operations need to provide constant connectivity for employees. However, access to such technology is limited to highly populated regions, resulting in the need of space communication networks to reach remote and offshore operations. The current state of space- based technology looks to improve communications with small satellite constellations. With these satellites communicating from lower orbits, the ability to extensively integrate operations with IoT provides a reliable communication system to workers and improves overall company communication.

With faster, cheaper, and greater bandwidths, more health and safety conditions can be monitored on oil rigs. The connection of smart watches to a greater communication system could allow for the monitoring of worker location and physical health, such as body temperature and heart rate. Sensors detecting air quality and temperature can be seamlessly integrated throughout the platform into an overall health monitoring system using IoT. The ability of a remote platform to have reliable high

speed connectivity offers both operational and personal benefits. Live video feeds can be used to monitor hazardous tasks performed by workers or machines in order to verify compliance with operational guidelines. The potential for better internet services allows for workers to easily connect to each other and their families. Through social media, entertainment platforms, or video calls, the connection would be its own network and not disturb the drilling operations. Furthermore, the advantages gained by higher bandwidths and lower latency could increase the productivity onsite, create safer working conditions, and provide easy communication with other operational sites (Elliott, 2015).

While these constellations are being developed to have the ability to provide many services, the systems must also be robust in order to handle the number of users while still providing quality service to meet the anticipated impact of their operations (Alvarez and Walls, 2016).

Monitoring of Environmental Hazards

As revealed by the environmental impact analysis pertaining to CSR, it was made clear that further understanding of the environmental impact of accidents and incidents in high-risk and less well- understood areas, such as Arctic waters, or inland rivers and wetlands is needed. A large satellite constellation would have the ability to cover more remote areas that are not otherwise connected. Due to high number of satellites that would be in orbit, one can incorporate different technologies into each satellite so whilst the satellites can share data and information, they can also gather and utilize different technologies to observe different aspects of the industry. For example, there could potentially be some incorporation of satellites which have bathymetric Light Detection and Ranging, otherwise known as LIDAR, to penetrate oceans whilst others may utilize topographic LIDAR to monitor shores or wetlands. A combination of these would create a more holistic picture of the effects of oil spills on both these types of ecosystem without having to compromise on the payload mass or size of a single satellite.

Furthermore, it was emphasized that an increase in the understanding the effects of accidents on aquatic life and wildlife at an ecosystem, population and community level would be of benefit. In order to understand both short-term and long-term environmental impacts of accidents on the community and ecosystem, monitoring taken at regular intervals will be required to understand any anomalies or transient behaviors. With a large flock of satellites, if one or more of these satellites experiences a critical failure, or can no longer deliver such data, a back-up satellite could take over its functions or be launched.

Secondly, monitoring is needed to enhance the understanding of the environmental and ecological properties of areas that may be affected by accidents in the future and the severity to which they will

be affected. Satellites within a large flock have a truly global footprint and hence could be used to ‘scout’ potential areas before placing installations for industry operations in these areas. Understanding the characteristics of such a region before investing the money to develop infrastructures, allows for the prediction and mitigation of catastrophic effects on the surrounding areas if any accidents were to occur. With a trend towards oil and gas activities being in more remote places, it is desirable to have these areas monitored without having to place a single large satellite into an unusual orbital inclination. As investigation into the efficiency of spill responses is also required, next-generation satellite constellation systems can further assist in this gap.

Due to the large number of satellites and hence faster data rates, it is possible to observe the effects or activities at an oil rig without having to be physically on location; this may cause additional, unnecessary pollution such as traveling there and flying observation planes. Furthermore, if a constellation is utilized to monitor clean-up operations and compared to previous operations, improvements can be incorporated and optimized clean-up operations can be realized. Once best practice has been established, it may assist in the creation of both national and international policy. This would also aid in creating consistent operations across borders which was previously established as a major concern in the industry. Using such a constellation would allow organizations to take regular images/measurements of accidents to gauge the impact in surrounding areas, helping in future modeling. In theory, the more satellites in orbit, the more data that could be gathered and applied leading to more accurate models.

The gap analysis also revealed that improvements in accident prevention and mitigation is required. Development and application of decision support systems would ensure improved response decisions and effectiveness. Real-time monitoring and fast communications allows for reduced time from detection to alerting emergency services to stop or mitigate an oil spill. In addition, real-time monitoring provides more accurate response and services to target the most critical areas of a spill which is forecasted to cause the most damage. Furthermore, the monitoring of accident-causing seismic activities of natural disasters can be foreseen, and with fast communications, such forecasting can be communicated to the platform to deploy necessary defenses to prevent damage to the given rig.

Currently, one of the key mitigation strategies of tanker collisions has been to implement one-way routes for tankers so the chances of head on collisions are reduced. However, these regulations are not always adhered to. With many more available satellites, registered tankers can be monitored more efficiently to help predict collisions that may occur should a tanker divert from the correct path. The implementation of such constellations and integration into the current infrastructures of the oil and gas industry should be of ease as large infrastructures will not be required. For receiver terminals

one of the key aspects of such constellation technologies is the incorporation of smaller handheld devices. These would be ideal for oil spills which are in remote locations and do not have the capacity for large ground terminals to be set up. On the other hand, a key consideration is that space debris may increase as the result of substantially more satellites in orbit, therefore this risk would also now be associated with the oil and gas industry.

The monitoring of ozone, and other harmful emissions, with large constellations allows for a more detailed global picture of ozone levels. The measuring of ozone would provide significant environmental impact as monitoring the greenhouse gases may incur high payload volumes and masses for the small satellites in the proposed constellations and if interest is mainly surrounding ozone, sensors to measure the ozone molecule could be integrated into the satellites (Levelt, et al., 2006).

Methane is another harmful emission gas that often leaks from plumbing. Monitoring of this gas from pipes in real-time would allow aging and maintenance to be identified before leakages occur. Furthermore, other greenhouse gases, such as water vapor or carbon dioxide, are colorless and odorless and so cannot easily be identified from the ground, but from space these could potentially be detected easier. Improved refresh rates, together with more frequent measurements, would allow for better understanding of how and where hazardous materials are released. The next-generation satellite constellations can provide these high rates and can communicate to a wide range of locations on land, as no large ground infrastructure is required.

Soil pollution leads to changes in soil temperature, but not significantly, as this is difficult to assess the level of contamination of the soil, by means of satellite technology. Using the satellite images, changes in landscape, due to soil pollution, can be monitored. A flock of satellites could be employed to monitor soil temperature because constellations have the ability to take measurements more frequently and communicate these on a regular basis. Even discrete temperature changes can be useful in monitoring soil pollution whereas if only one large satellite were to be utilized, the subtle changes may be overlooked. Furthermore, even if the change in temperature cannot be monitored, taking regular measurements of topology one may be able to model, predict, and mitigate landscape changes due to soil pollution from the oil and gas industry. Such a landscape change is shown in Figure 17.

Figure 26: Example of soil pollution in the Niger Delta decades after the oil spill took place (Sosialistisk Ungdom, n.d.). Research is needed to better explore the areas in which pipelines will be laid, for an enhanced understanding of the terrain and to ensure they cause the least harm to the environment. Thus, any political or external factors such as high vandalism rates, or even environmental factors such as high humidity, which may cause premature failure such as corrosion should be observed before pipes are laid down. Understanding such factors can be implemented into design or even the policies made around them to ensure the security and safety of the pipeline to prevent contamination of water through damage to the pipe. It was also suggested by the gap analysis that the government should establish a pollution level from wastewater in the territory of oil and gas production. International monitoring of this level could be carried out very efficiently with next-generation satellite constellations, as several places around the world could be observed simultaneously. This would thus ensure that these levels are not being exceeded.

Dumping of sewage into nearby ponds and marshes is a significant issue and introduces pollutants into groundwater. These could be monitored optically and the observations could be communicated to local services enabling law enforcement to intervene. A large flock of satellites would be ideal for this as the fast communication time can help prevent this issue while it is occurring. The survival of plants in oil-polluted soils could be predicted with such technology before harvesting, potentially

saving time and money before trying to harvest them. The survival of plants depend on depth of penetration of roots.

Satellite Imaging for Communities

An area in which the new constellations can aid oil and gas companies is in their community engagement. Satellite imaging can be used to take images of the regions where the companies intend to locate their activities: in particular, high resolution pictures help to identify features for the optimal placement of extraction facilities and the path of the pipeline network; in this process the impact and the implication on local communities can be assessed and proper mitigation solutions could be analyzed and applied.

Satellite observations can also be useful to identify the areas to relocate the people who accept to move from the sites where companies want to start new operations. An integral concern is the presence of indigenous tribes living in extraction sites or in the near proximity. These communities are very reluctant to relocate because of the cultural value of the lands where they are settled, for example, sacred lands. In this case the company can monitor its activities by taking images of the region integrated to Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) services in order to be sure that these do not affect local communities. This has the potential to have a significant impact for companies that can avoid any legal and financial charges for infringement of the local civil rights.

Future constellations are expected to provide high-speed voice and data connectivity in badly serviced and unreachable regions. This availability could improve and facilitate interaction between companies’ management, local authorities, and communities. Managers can periodically participate to meetings and audit without being physically at the operative sites. Quasi real-time connections give the locals opportunities to raise and share issues exactly when these occur and companies can undertake the proper mitigations immediately.

The scarcity of infrastructure in communities is often one of the biggest issues that companies try to tackle, for example, building schools. These development activities, require tools for assessment of local infrastructure availability. Satellite observations can help companies identify the latter and organize the actions they wish to conduct.

Generally, the required infrastructures are ground transport, broadband, and communication networks. From the point of view of CSR, new infrastructures development provides obvious benefits for the community. For communication networks, the current option for high connectivity services is fulfilled with fiber cable infrastructures. New wireless connectivity by satellite constellations has the same performance in terms of latency and data rates but without the need of physical media and relative costs of installation and maintenance. Additionally, costs and power requirements for wireless

broadband service is expected to be lower making it accessible to a wider audience and rural communities can take advantage from that.

Oil and gas companies continuously strive to update information about extraction sites’ security conditions: more frequently these territories are threatened by criminal or harmful military activities. Quasi real-time satellite imaging can help companies to identify potential incoming threats or attacks to facilities or infrastructures, at the same time safeguarding the people not directly involved in companies’ activities. The companies are also concerned by digital threats and internet piracy. For instance, they need to secure sensitive data of employees or preserve privacy of common people filmed by surveillance cameras distributed around the operative sites. Secure real-time data connectivity may protect communication and data transfer and reduce those risks.

5.5 Remote Operations

5.5.1 Description

The next technologies of interest are In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) and robotics, that can be applied to remote operations of the oil and gas industry. Firstly, a brief overview of these technologies and their application to this report will be provided.

ISRU includes "the collection, processing, storing and use of materials encountered in the course of human or robotic space exploration that replace materials that would otherwise be brought from Earth” (Sacksteder and Sanders, 2007). The primary goal of ISRU operations is to leverage the resources that are produced or found on another astronomical object to fulfill capabilities of a given space mission. Secondly, these operations typically seek to reduce cost, mass, and risk of a given robotic mission, while also hoping to increase operation performance and enable new mission concepts. Evidently, such technological advancements would be eliminating risk to humans by removing them from particular exploration missions while simultaneously encouraging the self- sufficiency of long-duration manned space bases. Furthermore, these self-sustaining technologies reduce the infrastructure required of human-supported missions and the subsequent need for vast human-support life systems (Sridhar, et al, 2000). Long duration missions or operations that occur in remote locations can therefore benefit from the technological developments that these operations will produce. Sanders (2011) has identified five key areas that have shown to have integral interest and benefit for future space missions, which are as follows:

1) Resource Characterization and Mapping (physical, mineral/chemical, and volatiles/water); 2) Mission Consumable Production (propellants, fuel cell reagents, life support consumables,

and feedstock for manufacturing and construction); 3) Civil Engineering and Surface Construction (radiation shields, landing pads, walls, habitats, etc.); 4) Energy Generation, Storage, and Transfer with In-situ Resources (solar, electrical, thermal); 5) Manufacturing and Repair with In-situ Resources (spare parts, wires, trusses, integrated systems etc.).

Evidently, the companies working to extract and process Earth’s oil and gas reserves will not be collecting, processing, or storing materials derived from non-terrestrial locations. However, it should be emphasized that this report will consider the application of self-sustaining technologies for possible integration into mining operations of remote locations or those in which this technology can replace human labor. Further considerations include the localization of environmental impact, the processing of materials nearer to particular mining sites, and the improvement of process efficiency.

While some aspects of the oil and gas industry have the potential to be made safer through regulations and procedural operations, the environment is still dangerous and hostile to humans. As safety is a big concern for remote locations that are difficult to reach, the oil and gas industry is continuously looking for lower-cost solutions while still improving manufacturing efficiencies and the quality and safety of production. The implementation of robotics and automation systems in such an unwelcoming environment has the potential to be a solution to the needs for efficiency, maximum production, safe production, and the capabilities required to further expansion of the industry.

When assessing the impact of the harsh environment on the oil industry, locations such as the deep water in the Gulf of Mexico, the extremely cold region of Russia, and the desert of Middle East must be considered. Some of the major environmental hazards to human operations at these sites include harsh atmospheric conditions, unsheltered maritime environments, and consistency of inclement weather, extreme temperatures, and an overall lack of space. A solution to these hazards on human health may be to eliminate the need for living beings on-site through remote operations and robotics.

5.5.2 Applications Robotic Systems to Mitigate Employee Risk

The application scenarios for mobile robots include scheduled and occasional operations. The most important scheduled operations are inspection, monitoring, and maintenance of on-site conditions and machine operations. Inspections could include gauge, valve, and lever position readings. Monitoring would focus on checking gas levels and leakages, acoustic anomalies, surface condition of materials, and checks for intruders. In order to maintain the site, the utilization of gas and fire detector tests would be required, as well as, sampling, cleaning, refilling, and upkeep of pipelines. The most

frequent actions would include the operation of valves and levers and the monitoring and controlling of gas leakage and fires.

The robotics in these operations will have to operate at various levels of automation: fully automatic, semi-automatic, and manual. The successful application of robotics and automation in the oil and gas industry will rely on the seamless integration of man, technology, and organization. Compared to the fully automated offshore robots, the inspection robots are the simplest, as they may need constant human involvement. The manipulation robot is more complex than the inspection robot as it must make decisions while performing different tasks. In the short term, the inspection robot could have many applications in the oil and gas industry.

Currently, multiple robotics are used in the industry for various tasks. First, Remotely Operated (underwater) Vehicles (ROVs) are highly maneuverable underwater robots operated by an operator aboard a surface vessel. The cables carrying electrical signals link ROVs with the operator. Most of ROVs are equipped with video cameras, lighting systems, and sometimes additional equipment. The potential tasks ROVs can do in oil and gas industry are internal and external inspections of pipelines and the structural testing of offshore platforms. The disadvantages of employing a ROV in its current design state include failure to complete difficult visual surveys and evaluations and the lack of freedom from the surface due to the ROV’s cabled connection. The second type of robot currently used are subsea robotics, as shown in Figure 18. As so much of the oil and gas formation reserves lay underneath the ocean’s floor, exploration can use robotic systems to drill on the sea floor up to 3000 meters below and make the Seabed Rig system. The other operations that could be done include automated seabed inspections and automated seabed maintenance and repairs, as depicted below.

Figure 27: Subsea equipment employing remote drilling operations on the sea floor (Methe, 2016).

Finally, mobile robot systems are currently used in the oil and gas industry as platforms to control topside operations, topside inspection and monitoring, and topside maintenance and repair. Various robotics applications can be considered for the CSR activities and practices of the oil and gas industry in context of labor practices and employee safety. First, the need for a specialized manipulator, or robotic arm, could fill the gaps in operational assistance. Based on the concept of the Canadarm on board the ISS and how it is used for capturing cargo capsules, releasing satellites, and other maintenance procedures, a robust robotic arm could be beneficial to on-site operations for the oil and gas industry. Abilities of the industry that could be filled by such a technology would include operations of different tools, the potential for large reach in inspection of vast areas, and movement of heavy materials for operations.

Furthermore, the current ROVs in the industry still require a cable connection to the operations platform. With the development of rover technology for operations on the surface of Mars and the Moon, rover-like machines could be used to operate semi-autonomous or full-autonomously on the seafloor. As the technology would have to tolerate harsh environments and operate in varying conditions, the skills and developments of the space sector for interplanetary rovers could be beneficial to creating systems for assessing the seafloor and observing the drilling operations.

With the feasibility of the first two robotic systems, the potential and need for tele-operation of fully autonomous robotic systems can be met in the oil and gas industry. Operations using telecommunications would include the operations of robots, but would also allow for computer systems and current machines to continue operations in inclement weather or on rigs which cannot support large workforces. In order to ensure the desired operations of robotics and autonomous systems work on remote oil rigs, the development of a reliable telecommunications system is needed, whether it be a new network, such as the constellation systems mentioned previously, or the building up of the technology currently in use for tele-operations in other industries.

In-Situ Resource Technologies for Improved Processing

Extraterrestrial resource extraction can be differentiated from the celestial bodies it is applied to. For example, there is ISRU development currently being explored for the Moon, planets such as Mars, and other celestial bodies, all offering a unique possibility to study the original materials and mechanisms which formed such bodies (Badescu, 2013). Furthermore, the exploitation of space mineral resources is becoming a commercial endeavor for the benefit of humanity and also to obtain a profit (Dula, 2015).

ISRU has generated several spinoffs in the industry, particularly by developing extraction efficiency and technique improvement. Some applications regarding this technologies application in our Solar

System will be considered regarding possible impact to the environment and how it can assist the corporate environmental responsibility of the oil and gas industry. From the development of technological concepts concerning extraterrestrial resource utilization, the most important applications pertaining to the oil and gas section mostly impact the extraction processes and prevention methods for leak detection in pipelines.

A possible ISRU application that will be applied throughout our Solar System in the coming years is that of a gas conversion system, which can be applied in the oil and gas sector to reclaim fuel from the industry. While analyzing the use of Mars resources it was concluded that on Mars, carbon dioxide could be combined with hydrogen to make methane and water, and this water would then be electrolyzed to make oxygen and hydrogen. The same analogy is thought to work for Earth applications, as there is methane in the form of natural gas, which can react with water to produce carbon dioxide and hydrogen, of which hydrogen can be used to create carbon-free electricity.

Tele-Education Systems

Remote training systems provide affordable means to disseminate information to employees situated closer to the operations. Large oil and gas companies, such as China’s Sinopec, rely on them to boost employee safety and performance (Sinopec, 2017a). They offer over 600 online courses to train their staff and to help promote upward mobility. Since remote training’s high value in large companies with employees in low density areas, tele-education through communication satellites may offer tangible benefits. Widespread training develops the future economic stability of rural communities.

Ka-Band system for mobile satellite communication (KASYMOSA) is currently under development (Figure 28). Its decentralized resource management system allows for direct communication which makes the links secure (Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft, 2017). Since some oil and gas training programs contain confidential information, the upcoming KASYMOSA system passes the data directly to the client without the use of a central hub. Instead of sending the trainer to each site in remote areas, they can rely on tele-education to deliver the same quality program at a fraction of the cost. For rig workers on rotating shifts, they can spend multiple hours commuting to and from the sites. Many workers fly out on company chartered airlines. With the improvements of inflight internet, by companies like Gogo Inflight Internet, online training programs can be offered to employees during the downtime of their flight (Gogo Business Aviation, 2017).

Figure 28: A photograph of the antenna to be used on KASYMOSA undergoing testing for the tracking system at the Facility for Over-the-Air Research and Testing (FORTE) (Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft, 2017). In addition to training programs, inflight internet access allows employees to remain in contact with staff during potentially crucial moments to pass on information. Since flight times are often included as work hours, inflight internet grants the ability to maximize productivity. Some rig workers commute by terrestrial means, such as cars or ferries. The KASYMOSA system can be used to maintain communication for training purposes. KASYMOSA is equipped with a new antenna system that is suitable for mobile use, a previous weakness in communication satellites networks (Fraunhofer- Gesellschaft, 2017). Having access during terrestrial transportation allows oil and gas companies to make use of transportation time. As these types of commutes are included in working hours, transportation time can be used for tele-education sessions.

Remote Weather Service Alerts for Rural Communities

Satellite-enabled remote services can be extended towards high-tech features in rural homes. Rural communities face greater weather challenges because they may not have the same maintenance capabilities as larger cities. Therefore, preventative measures can protect the rural communities that are erected to support oil and gas extraction. Using weather satellites connected with smart homes systems, such as Vivint Smart Home, can notify and prepare communities for the weather (Vivint Smart Home, 2017). These flexible systems can be connected with machines that can switch out shoes to suit the terrain and supply thermal blankets if their calendar indicates they are going on a long drive after a snowstorm. Since many companies help support employee housing, integrated applications in company homes have the potential to better prepare employees for the job.

5.6 Human Performance Studies in Extreme Environments

5.6.1 Description

Integral knowledge about the human body is also derived from the space sector, and can be of interest for CSR practices of the oil and gas industry. A variety of preparatory programs exist to train astronauts for the hostile space environment. These training programs and field tests conducted by space agencies in Earth-based environments are executed in order to assist in the planning, development and testing of technologies that will guide future human exploration missions. However, such analogs can also simulate the harsh conditions faced by those employed of the oil and gas sector (Figure 29). This is relevant to the oil and gas industry, as drills are being explored in increasingly remote and deep environments in order to extract needed reserves. This hostile environment includes regions that are not near to civilizations, such as northern regions and offshore oil rigs.

Figure 29: Images showing the harsh work environments of both the oil and gas and space sectors (BP, 2017b; NASA, 2015b). The Cooperative Adventure for Valuing and Exercising (CAVES) human behavior performance and skills is a preparatory course taken by astronauts and run by the ESA to simulate spaceflight (ESA, 2013). Conducted activities prepare astronauts to employ safe work practices and utilize this environmental analog in the Sa Grutta caves of Sardinia, Italy to practice various experiences of spaceflight. Environmental analogies of this course include sensory deprivation, limited private space, isolation, reduced communications with the outside world, limited resources, physical danger, high levels of autonomy, and environmental adaptation (Seine, 2017). Furthermore, a variety of operational analogs exist to simulate the environment on the ISS, which include an intense mission schedule, understanding of mission equipment, communication with ground team(s), and mission phases: preparatory training, exploration mission, and post-mission reporting (Seine, 2017).

Similarly, NASA has launched NEEMO, the NASA Extreme Environment Mission Operations project. This analog mission sends groups of scientists, astronauts, and engineers to live for three to five weeks at the undersea research station Aquarius in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (NASA, 2015c). During NEEMO missions, those onboard are able to “simulate living on a spacecraft and test

spacewalk techniques for future space missions. Working in space and in underwater environments requires extensive planning and sophisticated equipment. The underwater conditions have the additional benefit of allowing NASA to expose the aquanauts to different gravity environments.” (NASA, 2015c).

Subsequently, the following will discuss a comparison between the conditions of human performance in space and the health and safety procedures undertaken in the oil and gas industry to analyze their similarities, and the applicability to improve the worker health and safety, which will translate into benefits for the whole industry regarding corporate social responsibility on a long-term basis.

5.6.2 Applications

The mining sector as an industry that has always dealt with working conditions considered as dangerous. These dangers range from the intake of toxic substances to physical accidents. Whilst these situations often result in minor health problems, the effects on long-term health could become crippling or fatal. As a result, health and safety protocols are of utmost importance in the mining industry, with the oil and gas industry being no exception to this requirement.

In space, astronauts are encased in a limited space for months, where they are expected to perform highly technical tasks for an extended period of time. Similarly, oil and gas workers are put in remote areas for a considerable amount of time to perform technical operations with high risks (Parkes, 1992). As a result of the isolation and intensive work schedule, the physical, psychological, and psychosocial risks must be considered for oil and gas workers in the same way as they are for astronauts. It is important to note that there is real applicability to adopting space related protocols to mitigate risks in the oil and gas industry.

Oil and gas exploitation is a prominently hazardous activity, especially since the substances being extracted are highly flammable and toxic. This contributes to the high danger of explosions and intoxication for the workers in the industry. Among these dangerous activities are machine manipulation, chemical exposures, and fall hazards. In order to avoid a large potential for these issues, a strict training program should be completed prior to working on the rigs.

Astronaut training and preparation starts from the selection process, where the aim of the selection is to obtain candidates meeting the high standards required to perform the tasks expected from them in space. These candidates are thoroughly tested in social, intellectual, physical, and psychological aspects to verify that they meet with the high requirements of being an astronaut. This is done by the space agencies to secure their investments of taxpayer money, since any accident could result in the loss of human lives and an enormous amount of compensation. Thus, it is paramount to make sure that the selected people have the right skills to maximize the safety for operating the equipment and

the ability to cooperate and cohabitate with the other astronauts performing the mission. In contrast, the oil and gas industry mainly focuses on technically preparing their personnel and in many cases, such as BP, depend heavily on contractors. This introduces difficulties regarding the preparation of workers in terms of standardization and consistency. Placing an astronaut selection-like process for the oil and gas industry would maximize efficiency and safety of the oil rigs. Testing worker competence in a variety of different aspects, not just the technical, lowers the risk of technical, physical, and psychological risks inside the working site since this factors are interrelated with one another.

As in space, oil rig workers are required to use teamwork for most tasks, hence strong interpersonal relationships are of great importance. This is difficult to accomplish if the workforce is mainly comprised of contractors, that is to say temporary workers, procured from an external source. This is the case for BP that has 80% of its work force coming from contractors (BP, 2016). This means that the people working at the site are often trained externally posing a threat in synchronization between the workers and the site’s equipment and environment since operations vary slightly between the oil and gas companies. This would lead one to believe that retraining skills are required as it is highly likely that these would have been weakened over time, similarly to how astronauts are required to retrain abilities after the waiting time between missions. Constant testing should be carried out to ensure that workers have the right skills and knowledge needed to perform the tasks required by the specific oil site. These precautionary and preparatory training procedures are performed to diminish the risk of underperformance in tasks and the likelihood of accidents. This strategic program should be developed by the oil and gas companies for specific training for the type of oil rig, the machinery to be handled, and the conditions of the location if the work force is procured from external providers.

It is important to identify the challenges of the oil and gas industry and compare them to other industries, such as space. Doing so illustrates the similarities and differences between the two and allows one to recognize where practices could be exchanged. Seine (2017) has identified a series of challenges to humans as a result of the environmental conditions of long duration flights, as shown in Table 2. Such factors that also relate to those working in the oil and gas industry (particularly those employed on offshore oil rigs) include sleep disturbance, isolation, limited habitability and privacy, high risk working conditions that have the potential for the loss of life, family life disruption, social conflict, and limited external communications. While astronauts must worry about environmental hazards like radiation and microgravity affects, the oil and gas workers are exposed to serious chemical hazards through toxic fumes and highly flammable substances.

Physiological/ Psychological Psychosocial Human Factors Habitability Physical

Radiation Isolation and High team High and Low levels Limited hygiene confinement coordination of workload

Absence of natural Limited possibility Interpersonal Limited exchange of Chronic exposure to time parameters for abort/rescue tension between info/comms with vibration and noise crew and ground external environment

Altered circadian High-risk conditions Family life Limited equipment, Limited sleep rhythms and potential for disruption facilities and facilities loss of life supplies

Decrease in System and mission Enforced Mission danger and Lighting and exposure to complexity interpersonal risk associated with: illumination sunlight contact equipment failure, malfunction or damage

Adaptation to Hostile external Crew factors (i.e. Adaptation to the Lack of privacy microgravity environment gender, size, artificially personality, etc.) engineered environment

Sensory / Alteration in Multicultural issues Food restriction / Isolation from Perceptual sensory stimuli limitations support system deprivation of varied natural resources

Sleep disturbance Disruption in sleep “Host-guest” Technology phenomenon interface challenges

Space adaptation Limited habitability Social Conflict Use of equipment in (e.g. limited microgravity Hygene) conditions

Isolation is one of the most prominent factors that affect workers in both professions. This isolation can even be as extensive as sensory deprivation, as is the case of offshore oil rigs in summer that can go a full worker rotation inside dense fog. The dangers of isolation heavily rely on the psychological impact the work and location can have on health of the workers. Some of the consequences include anxiety, depression, sleep disturbance, withdrawal, regression, and hallucinations (Kellerman, et al., 1977). Any of these psychological states represent great risk to the worker and therefore, to any task they are expected to perform.

The necessity of a social oriented communication system available to workers arises, as to decrease the sense of isolation and the potential effects of isolation. Space agencies deal with isolation by having a very controlled work and leisure schedule. Astronauts are expected to work 5 days a week, 10 hours maximum daily, with allotted time that can last from 1 to 2 hours a day where they are able to utilize the communication systems for personal use. Astronauts are given time to call their families frequently and are encouraged to engage in group activities. These activities are carried out to mitigate the negative effects of isolation. In contrast, the oil rig workers generally work in rotations of 21 days: 7 days in daytime work time (12 hours), 7 days in night time (12 hours) work time and finally 7 days to rest for the next rotation (RigTech, n.d.). Reviewing this schedule from a medicine perspective is not ideal to maintain good mental health since there is poor consideration for the circadian rhythm of the body. This may result in sleep deprivation and cause negative effects on the overall health of an individual. A recommendation coming from the space sector would be to consider a better scheduling for the workers to encourage good physical and mental health, and to minimize the fatigue created from this demanding work environment.

In an interview conducted with an Exxon Mobil worker at an offshore oil rig located in Newfoundland, Canada, the employee mentioned that the communication facilities can be quite varied and are proportional to the remoteness of the oil rig. For example, the oil site off the coast of Newfoundland uses a fiber optic system to provide internet service to the rig. The same system is used for personal communications, but that time was more specific and dependent on the operations of the facility (Mate, 2017). However, there are rigs located in highly remote locations, around 340 km from land, where this type of communications system is not possible to maintain. Forcing the oil rig to ration their communication systems to emergency oriented calls only. This is where investing in constellations, such as the O3b satellite constellation, becomes of paramount importance to not only decrease emergency response times, but also to provide the workers with communication to deal with the isolation of the site.

From a safety perspective, proper training and preparation should decrease the chances of many physical hazards. However, it is well known that psychological health has a great impact on the activities people perform in general, this means that training and technical preparation only contribute partly in mitigating the health risk for a worker on an oil rig. This accentuates the importance of having a good strategy to keep good physical and psychological conditions for the workers becomes of paramount importance. Due to the similarities of the working environments between astronaut crews and oil rig crews, analog strategies may be implemented to increase corporate social responsibility of the companies.

From a physical health perspective, there is no mention of any required physical activities conducted on site although the workers have the facilities available. In the ISS, for example, astronauts are required to perform a certain amount of exercise per day as to avoid the negative effects of microgravity, this include muscle atrophy and bone loss. On an oil rig, the workers are not concerned with microgravity effects on their muscles, however, they should worry about lack of physical activity and the subsequent effects this has on the human body. As a result, having a good physical activity schedule should be considered as a necessity on gas and oil rigs, as they are in space activities. Astronauts are also checked on a routine basis to ensure that they are handling their stay well, and that they are physically and mentally fit. This strategy could be very useful to ensure that the workers at an oil rig are healthy, both mentally and physically. Based on an interview conducted with an employee of Exxon Mobil, there is an assigned nurse available on-site for workers who can communicate with doctors off-site in case of an emergency.

Accidents may be rare in the oil and gas industry, however, health and safety regulations should be created to eliminate the remaining potential as much as possible, and this should be an iterative process. International regulations used today were made in the 1990s and point the necessity of an update in the international regulations of the growing oil and gas industry. Although there are differences in the space and oil industries, it is recommended that the space related protocols be applied, as space regulations are very strict due to the dangers of the environment. Since the oil and gas industry is moving to more remote and unwelcoming places, it would seem logical to update these regulations to ensure the health and safety of the workers. Keeping workers in the optimum physical and mental conditions reduces the risk of having an accident, and in turn reduces the potential for catastrophic effects.

5.7 Alternative Energy Sources

5.7.1 Description

Lastly, the following discussion will consider alternative sources of energy that are derived from space. Conceived in the 1970s by the Czech-American engineer Dr. Peter Glaser, space-based solar power is a concept that considers the collection of solar power from space for subsequent transmission to Earth and distribution (ESA Advanced Concepts Team, n.d.). However, this concept is being actively pursued in the space industry and presents a technology of interest for possible impact assessment in the oil and gas sector.

In March of 2015, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) announced they had converted electrical signals to microwaves, beamed them to a remote receiver, and finally converting them back into electrons (equating to wirelessly beaming 1.8 kilowatts 50 meters) (Tarantola, 2015). In 2016, China’s Lt Gen. Zhang Yulin, the deputy chief of the Armament Development Department of the Central Military Commission, announced that China will begin to occupy space between the Earth and moon for solar power resources upon completion of the country’s space station in 2020 (Jayalakshmi, 2015; Xuequan, 2016).

Evidently, the existence of large structures that serve to convert solar energy and to transmit the captured solar irradiation is becoming increasingly likely in the coming decades. Therefore, some components of this report will consider the impact of this space industry technological development to the oil and gas industry for its possible implications concerning power availability.

5.7.2 Applications

There is an increasing demand for energy as more countries continue their exponential development and worldwide populations are growing. The renewable energy industry is gradually becoming a more important actor as public trends are leaning towards “green” types of energy production and sustainable development. They will be of crucial importance in helping tackling climate changes and satisfying the growing worldwide demand.

“Sunlight has by far the highest theoretical potential of the earth’s renewable energy sources” (Sandia, 2005). As this quote suggests, solar energy is currently being researched as one of the main renewable energies that could be used in the long-term. This source of energy, being unlimited and “clean,” make it a very attractive option for future energy needs. Moreover, the potential of the energy available is extremely significant, exceeding by far what the energy sources originating on Earth, as shown stated by Sandia (2005): “This theoretical potential represents more energy striking the earth’s surface in one and a half hours (480 EJ) than worldwide energy consumption in the year 2001 from all sources combined (430 EJ).”

Oil companies, like Total, are already positioning themselves on the solar energy sector by investing in photovoltaic technology (Total SA, 2012). The majority of those investments are for Earth-based solar energy production. However, space-based solar energy production could have potential for use in oil and gas companies’ operations, as well as being implemented into their CSR activities and global public support. The space-based solar energy systems consist of three main principles of functioning (U.S. Department of Energy, 2014):

1) Collecting solar energy in space by using mirrors and solar cells; 2) Wireless power transmission via microwave or laser;

3) Collecting and receiving the power on Earth via the use of microwave antennas.

One of the advantages of the space-based part of this technology is that it is not affected by gravity and therefore is free of many of the constraints that limit Earth-based technology. This of course, under the condition that heavy launcher technology makes similar progress and be ready by the time space-based solar energy can be implemented. Moreover, there is no night and day in space, therefore this system could run continuously and provide very reliable energy towards Earth.

Many projects using this new kind of technology have been undertaken already. Space agencies such as NASA, have been involved, via the Solar Power Exploratory Research and Technology (SERT) program launched in 1999, with the aim to provide feasibility assessments about this new technology for producing electricity. JAXA also has a program regarding this new kind of technology and has recently succeeded in transmitting energy wirelessly from space (The International News, 2015). This is a major milestone achieved in regards to bringing this technology to into the present and providing it for commercial/common usage.

Being active in the use of “green” energies shows a lot about the commitment of a company to fight against climate change and protect the natural environment. As those trends are becoming one of the main focuses of the international community, companies that invest into space-based solar energy could gain a lot of public support by showing investments in the sector. The use of space-based solar energy could allow companies with remote or offshore operations to provide a reliable source of electricity. A transfer of this technology to remote populations and those close oil and gas exploitation sites could help enhance their general quality of life and provide the energy needs to allow the training of potential on site manpower for oil and gas companies.

Space-based solar energy production could also represent a great drop in infrastructures needs and costs that are related to providing electricity to communities, in terms of energy production and storage. As only microwave receivers are needed on the ground, with the infrastructure to distribute power to users, this method uses less sizeable and intrusive equipment than current methods which can occupy large areas in local communities (i.e. power stations). Therefore, this new technology could liberate space (on the ground) for additional or new infrastructure for the local populations e.g. hospitals, water management systems, schools.

Possessing “cleaner” electricity sources, with also less intrusive equipment, could greatly enhance the workers’ safety during work. Risks and consequences of accidents would be greatly reduced, since this technology solely requires the presence of a receptor for microwave signals and do not use in-situ production or burning of some fossil fuel to produce any kind of electricity.

Using solar energy would definitely be a big addition in regards to the reduction of emissions and toxic products released in nature during the operations of these companies. As drilling and mining projects consume a lot of energy, the supply from space could greatly mitigate the risk of diseases related to pollution, that communities surrounding exploitation sites are facing.

6 Recommendations

The above discussions in Sections 5.2-5.6 considered the employment and labor practices, environmental impact, and social and community benefits components of CSR for applications of space technologies and knowledge to the oil and gas sector. The following discussion will highlight the key impacts of these emerging space-derived solutions and will subsequently provide a series of recommendations that seek to encourage the consideration and reflection from oil and gas sector corporations who employ CSR. Each of the following solutions’ discussions consider the three components of CSR that were analyzed throughout this report in an integrative manner across each of the described technologies. The associated matrix tables that assess each of the aforementioned criterion is provided in Appendix A.

6.1 Internet of Things

Having analyzed the potential impacts of the introduction of the Internet of Things in the oil and gas sector, team TerraSPACE recommends its use. Much of the requisite technology currently exists, and with the advent of large-scale next generation satellite systems, the capacity for the introduction and inclusion of IoT will be even greater. As the technology matures, and becomes more pervasive, the resolution of the data available will allow for an unparalleled view into the low-level operations of oil and gas companies.

6.2 Spinoff Technologies

Of the numerous spinoff technologies identified and discussed in this work it is clear that spinoffs from the space sector can have a net positive impact on the CSR practices of the oil and gas sector. However, the three most impactful spinoffs that we recommend are: the Cellmic diagnostic test reader, the CASPOL coating, and International Safety Standards. These three systems would help to prevent health and safety problems through the augmentation of existing safety standards, improve the local ability to detect and prevent the spread of disease, and improve the living and working conditions in emergency situations. They are all relatively cost-effective and have the potential to greatly improve the quality of work and life for many people in the industry.

6.3 Next Generation Satellite Constellations

Next generation satellite systems would dramatically improve wireless communications and remote observations infrastructure of the world. Following our analysis, it is recommended that these

technologies be taken advantage of by oil and gas companies. While many of the large-scale satellite fleets are yet to be launched, or are in their infancy, we expect their implementation to have far- reaching impacts. However, as the need for high-bandwidth communications services increases amongst the global population, it will be critical for companies like SpaceX and O3b to ensure sufficient availability to cover the demand of large, data-dependent corporations. Considering the remote nature of many oil and gas operations, it is foreseeable that these new communications systems will quickly become commonplace. Improved revisit times for remote observation satellites will allow for more accurate monitoring of greenhouse gas emissions and environmental contaminants, thus also improving the monitoring capabilities for companies and external watchdogs.

6.4 Remote Operations

As the capability and capacity of autonomous and remote-operated systems increase, they are definitely worth considering for the oil and gas sector. Such systems will clearly help to reduce the risk to employees by removing them from hazardous situations, thus warranting a recommendation. However, there would be an adverse effect on employment, as these technologies could also be responsible for the loss of numerous jobs. In economies that are highly-dependent on the availability of oil and gas sector jobs, increasing levels of autonomy could cause adverse economic effects. As such, we recommend that the implementation of remote operations be considered on a case-by-case basis, in order to ensure that positive aspects of improving worker safety are not offset or reversed by damaging local economies.

6.5 Analog Studies

Astronauts and off-shore oil platform workers have much in common with respect to their working environments. The space sector has been dependent on analog studies for anthropological, psychological, and technological information for many years. However, with many of the technologies and practices that have been specifically developed for astronauts aboard the ISS, it would definitely be possible to transfer this knowledge to the oil and gas sector for the benefit of their workers in remote locations. Similarly, the life support systems that have been developed to keep astronauts alive could be used to both help workers in the field, and local communities through the use of technologies, such as those for water recycling. While not all space analogs could be applied to all situations on the ground, we strongly recommend that oil and gas companies try looking to the space sector for analogs that apply to the situation at hand.

6.6 Alternative Energy Sources

Alternative energy sources, such as space-based solar energy production, would be of great benefit, not only for the oil and gas sector, but for the world in general. There are many applications where off-world energy production could be used to improve the availability of power in remote communities and work camps. However, this technology is very much in its infancy, and is not being actively pursued in academia. While it would be excellent to have this technology, and while it would be highly recommended were it available, we would be hard-pressed to definitively recommend that oil and gas companies pursue this for the purposes of CSR at this time.

7 Conclusion

By applying common criteria to assess the impact of a variety of solutions, this report has presented several means by which the oil and gas industry’s CSR activities could be effectively supplemented by space-derived systems. The technologies analyzed included the Internet of Things, space sector spinoffs, next-generation satellite constellations, remote operations (comprising in-situ resource utilization, automation, and robotics), human performance analog studies, and alternative energy sources. These systems were considered for their use and application in the space sector and how they could be applied to assist oil and gas corporations in the interest of three key components of CSR: labor and employment practices, environmental impact, and associated community and social benefits.

To achieve this, analyses of the existing challenges that are currently faced by the oil and gas industry in these three areas were discussed, and how space technology is currently addressing such needs. This allowed for the identification of key gaps that identify what challenges remain to be addressed. Subsequently, each of the chosen space-derived solutions was assessed for their impact on the oil and gas sector. Derived from the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), a list of criteria was used to assess the impact of each respective technology in the interest of the three areas of CSR in efforts of producing a series of recommendations to the industry from an interdisciplinary perspective.

Based on this impact analysis, it is clear that the oil and gas industry should harness the reputation and knowledge provided by the space sector. In three key areas we suggest this be considered. The space industry has developed a generally positive image amongst the public due to its engaging themes of exploration, advancement and innovation. Furthermore, space technology is already used extensively in the energy sector but primarily for aiding discovery and extraction of resources. These are not aspects that garner public interest, as they are commonly seen as unsustainable activities that exploit Earth’s natural resources.

If applied effectively, our recommendations could improve the CSR practices of the oil and gas industry to improve employment and labour practices, environmental effects, and can subsequently offer a variety of community and social benefits. Evidently, the space sector will be developing various solutions to address the oil and gas sector’s challenges, and if integrated with the aforementioned technologies and knowledge effectively, the oil and gas sector can improve its CSR standards and activities to serve the interest of the greater society while also aiding to improve employee satisfaction, productivity, and to minimize poor public perceptions.

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Appendix A

Internet of Things ------= + ++ +++ Quantification Management Give contractors most of the information in a system Relationship with the contractors X either local or remote (E&LP) Analysis based on IoT can give precise requirements on Relationship with the suppliers X facilities to get suitable suppliers (E&LP) Highly integrated systems provide responsible information Relationship with the end-users Х to end-users which can gain trust much more (E&LP) With the improvement of working condition based on IoT, Quality of product Х quality of products will be improved substantially (E&LP) Long-term investment of IoT system can provide much Cost of production Х more return on efficiency and safety thus decrease cost of production (E&LP) With IoT technology, time of production can be controlled Delay of production Х to some extent because less risks (E&LP) Indirect economic impact Economic development of surrounding area Х Application of high technology can increase intellectual Intellectual development of surrounding area Х development of surroundings (E&LP) Material IoT technology increase non recycled material, so the net % of recycled material Х Х effect is minus (E&LP) Packaging Х Has no effect Energy

100

Equipment involved in IoT need consumption energy, but Global energy consumption Х compared to traditional management method it is high efficient, so the net effect is positive (E&LP) % of renewable energy Х Most of the energy used in IoT now is unrenewable(E&LP) Water Volume of water used Х HE&LP to monitor the volume of used water Number of water sources Х HE&LP to controlling and monitoring of water sources Volume of water recycled/reused Х Biodiversity

Quantity of species impacted Х Positive effect by monitoring and reducing problems in time Extent of affected area Х Duration of impact Х Reversibility Х Emission Greenhouse gases (GHG) X Ozone depleting substances (ODS) X Pollutants (NOX, SOX, POP, VOC, HAP, PM, others) Х HE&LP to decrease level of pollution Effluent and waste Quality and treatment of water Х HE&LP to monitor the level of pollution in water Volume of water impacted Х Biodiversity value of impacted water Х Weight of hazardous waste Х Weight of non-hazardous waste Х

Number of spills Х Observation of the pipeline state and status of oil fountains help to reduce the number of spills Volume of spill Х HE&LP to identify spill earlier and help to delay it in time Impact of spill Х Less oil spills - less impact Environment compliance

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Total number of monetary sanctions Х HE&LP reducing sanctions by monitoring Total number of non-monetary sanctions Х HE&LP reducing sanctions by monitoring Employment Decrease the number of full-time employees , because its Full-time employees Х full automatic Part-time employees Х Employees working with such technologies would need Turn-over Х stronger formation so the companies would deploy means to keep them longer Occupational health and safety Control of the work zone by the company Х Make control of work zone easier Severity of injuries X IoT do not act on reducing the severity of injuries Injuries rate Х Occupational disease rate (ODR) X Dangerous exposition could also be avoided Work related fatalities Х Disease due to the workplace Х Human rights Respect of the Human Rights Х Child Labor abolition Х Forced labor Х Diversity/equality Х Local communities Self-sustainable solution Х Independence of the communities Х Improves many aspects of the industry taking into account Priority on stakeholders (vs shareholders) X the environment and social impacts Accessibility of the solution to anybody X Customer health and safety Incidents with the product X

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Spinoffs: Diagnostic Test Reader ------= + ++ +++ Quantification Management Relationship with the contractors X Relationship with the suppliers X Relationship with the end-users X Even at research phase, product already has customers. NASA is happy to support the technology and give more Quality of product X funding to develop the device further. It is a versatile device. Device is already in production to a certain extent, and further development is being supported via funds from Cost of production X NASA again. The company will only have to purchase the end devices, and perhaps pay for specialized tests to be developed. Device is in testing/research phase, but is not yet Delay of production X commercially available or ready. Therefore more development needs to take place. Indirect economic impact Economic development of surrounding area X Much data can be gleaned from the test results. Device Intellectual development of surrounding area X can also map spread of disease. Material % of recycled material X Packaging X Energy Global energy consumption X % of renewable energy X Water Volume of water used X

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Number of water sources X Volume of water recycled/reused X Biodiversity Quantity of species impacted X Extent of affected area X Duration of impact X Reversibility X Emission Greenhouse gases (GHG) X Ozone depleting substances (ODS) X Pollutants (NOX, SOX, POP, VOC, HAP, PM, others) X Effluent and waste Quality and treatment of water X Volume of water impacted X Biodiversity value of impacted water X Weight of hazardous waste X Weight of non-hazardous waste X Number of spills X Volume of spill X Impact of spill X Environment compliance Total number of monetary sanctions X Total number of non-monetary sanctions X Employment Full-time employees X Part-time employees X Turn-over X Occupational health and safety

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The company will be able to know how the disease is Control of the work zone by the company X spreading in the work zone/environment. Also, will be able to try and prevent workers from becoming sick. Severity of injuries X Injuries rate X Should cut rate of certain diseases from workforce by being efficient at diagnosing, and hopefully catching the Occupational disease rate (ODR) X diseases earlier so they do not spread. Also, can map the spread of disease and protect against it. Should hopefully be fewer deaths linked to diseases that Work related fatalities X can be diagnosed by the device. The risk of catching a certain disease due to the location of Disease due to the workplace X the workplace should be lowered. Human rights Respect of the Human Rights X Child Labor abolition X Forced labor X Diversity/equality X Local communities Self-sustainable solution X Independence of the communities X Priority on stakeholders (vs shareholders) X Hopefully even people who do not have a medical degree Accessibility of the solution to anybody X can use the devices in order to at least run diagnostics. Customer health and safety Incidents with the product X

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Spinoffs: CASPOL ------= + ++ +++ Quantification Management Relationship with the contractors X Relationship with the suppliers X Relationship with the end-users X Product has been tested with successful results and ISRO are looking for potential commercial partners to help Quality of product X further develop the technology. The coating does not just prevent fire damage but also reduces water leakage and provides insulation. Cost of production X Coating is quoted as being low cost Delay of production X Indirect economic impact Economic development of surrounding area X Intellectual development of surrounding area X Material % of recycled material X Packaging X Energy Global energy consumption X % of renewable energy X Water Use of CASPOL coating reduces the amount of water Volume of water used X needed for extinguishing fires. Number of water sources X As less water is needed, less water sources are needed. Volume of water recycled/reused X Biodiversity

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Use of the product can help put out fires quickly, reducing Quantity of species impacted X the amount of habitats being destroyed. Quick application of CASPOL after fires break out will Extent of affected area X reduce the area affected by the fires. Properties of the coating will allow for fires to be put out Duration of impact X in a quick and efficient manner. Reversibility X Emission Greenhouse gases (GHG) X Ozone depleting substances (ODS) X Pollutants (NOX, SOX, POP, VOC, HAP, PM, others) X Effluent and waste Quality and treatment of water X Volume of water impacted X Biodiversity value of impacted water X Weight of hazardous waste X Weight of non-hazardous waste X Number of spills X Volume of spill X Impact of spill X Environment compliance Total number of monetary sanctions X Total number of non-monetary sanctions X Employment Full-time employees X Part-time employees X Turn-over X Occupational health and safety

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Company can apply CAPSOL to areas with the largest risk Control of the work zone by the company X of fire and fabrics to protect employees. Self-extinguishing properties of coating (extinguishes in 4 Severity of injuries X seconds) will reduce the damage can do to employees using it. Reduction in fires and damage caused with reduce the Injuries rate X chance of severe injuries to employees. Occupational disease rate (ODR) X The coating will significantly reduce the damage caused by Work related fatalities X the fires and significant reductions in the amount of fatalities caused by fires. Disease due to the workplace X Human rights Respect of the Human Rights X Child Labor abolition X Forced labor X Diversity/equality X Local communities Self-sustainable solution X Independence of the communities X Priority on stakeholders (vs shareholders) X Accessibility of the solution to anybody X Customer health and safety Incidents with the product X

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Spinoffs: International Standards ------= + ++ +++ Quantification Management Relationship with the contractors X Relationship with the suppliers X Relationship with the end-users X Quality of product X Cost of production X Would require coordination, agreements between many Delay of production X countries Indirect economic impact Economic development of surrounding area X Exchange of safety information and practices between Intellectual development of surrounding area X corporations, overall enhancing of industry techniques Material % of recycled material X Packaging X Energy Global energy consumption X % of renewable energy X Water Volume of water used X Number of water sources X Volume of water recycled/reused X Biodiversity Quantity of species impacted X Extent of affected area X Duration of impact X Reversibility X

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Emission Greenhouse gases (GHG) X Ozone depleting substances (ODS) X Pollutants (NOX, SOX, POP, VOC, HAP, PM, others) X Effluent and waste Quality and treatment of water X Volume of water impacted X Biodiversity value of impacted water X Weight of hazardous waste X Weight of non-hazardous waste X Number of spills X Volume of spill X Impact of spill X Environment compliance Total number of monetary sanctions X Total number of non-monetary sanctions X Employment Full-time employees X Increase in prospective employees from the safety Part-time employees X aspects, better health practices for some companies Turn-over X Occupational health and safety Control of the work zone by the company X Definitive protocols Severity of injuries X Injuries rate X Occupational disease rate (ODR) X Worker selection criteria, on-board health monitoring Work related fatalities X International aid during emergencies Disease due to the workplace X Worker selection criteria, on-board health monitoring Human rights Respect of the Human Rights X Agreeing to high level of safety internationally

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Child Labor abolition X Forced labor X Opportunities open for more international employees in Diversity/equality X policy and in traditional posts Local communities Self-sustainable solution X Independence of the communities X Priority on stakeholders (vs shareholders) X Accessibility of the solution to anybody X Emergency procedures consistent internationally Customer health and safety Incidents with the product X More aid during critical relief efforts

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Satellite Constellation ------= + ++ +++ Quantification Management More connected to contractors, both better quality of Relationship with the contractors X connection and more frequent Suppliers would be connected from an onshore facility, Relationship with the suppliers X from a rig perspective there is little direct link with supplier anyway The public image of utilizing a constellation to improve Relationship with the end-users X aspects of operations could be beneficial to a company when offering their services Quality of product X For same cost and time of drilling, efficiency is increased Cost of production X as sensors on drills can detect more precisely where commodities are Monitoring of operations using real time data, issues can Delay of production X be rectified as soon as possible and any emergency situations can be dealt with immediately Indirect economic impact Bringing new services such as internet or high speed Economic development of surrounding area X communications to remote areas where the oil rig is based could be high beneficial to surrounding areas Tele-education and services could have large impacts to Intellectual development of surrounding area X smaller communities which would otherwise be isolated Material % of recycled material X Packaging X Energy Global energy consumption X

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% of renewable energy X Water Production would increase due to more efficient Volume of water used X operations and hence water use would also increase Locations of installations are global, water is sourced from Number of water sources X both marine and freshwater hence usage from a wide number of sources would also increase with production Volume of water recycled/reused X Biodiversity With a more global footprint and more frequent Quantity of species impacted X monitoring of impacts of spills on species, negative impacts on them can be reduced or mitigated Faster communications, emergency services can be notified of an accident faster, increasing response time so Extent of affected area X spill can be limited to smaller area. Areas which are known to spread faster can be avoided. Same as above, emergency services can respond faster. Also duration of impact can be understood better, leading Duration of impact X to better modelling of catastrophic events leading to optimized clean-up operations Reversibility X Emission Increase in production means increase in emissions, even Greenhouse gases (GHG) X though these can be more effectively monitored they will still increase Ozone depleting substances (ODS) X Same as above Pollutants (NOX, SOX, POP, VOC, HAP, PM, others) X Same as above Effluent and waste

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Pipeline leaks can be avoided through monitoring of the Quality and treatment of water X pipes, sewage dumping can also be observed and reduced by involving law enforcement Oil spills have a huge footprint, by improving these Volume of water impacted X operations, the volume of water impacted, be that marine or river can be reduced Spills, pipeline leaks, dumping and fountains all affect different types of bodies of water, hence constellations to Biodiversity value of impacted water X mitigate these would have a global impact which carries a large biodiversity value Weight of hazardous waste X Weight of non-hazardous waste X Number of spills could be reduced through more effective Number of spills X planning of installations and infrastructures to try and reduce failures or predict when they will occur Not only will efficient planning hE&LP reduce spills, but Volume of spill X spill volume could be reduced through faster communications between detection and response Constellations be used to observe the surface footprint and the depth of damage of the spill which would give Impact of spill X better understanding as to what cleanup operations are required Environment compliance Policies mainly outline response criteria such as time to communicate the spill, with constellations this could be Total number of monetary sanctions X improved drastically. Also a more international foundation of policy could be put in place as communications between countries would be more efficient Total number of non-monetary sanctions X Employment

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More remote operations and automation, less employees Full-time employees X required to be physically present on rig Part-time employees X Same as above Turn-over X Occupational health and safety Ability to monitor terrorism, crimes and piracy. Health of Control of the work zone by the company X workers and facility conditions can be better monitored Monitoring of employees would lead to better adherence Severity of injuries X to procedures and hence injuries would reduce Injuries rate X Same as above Control of work zone is much better, however it is not Occupational disease rate (ODR) X priority so an improvement would be observed but not the degree of the other sections above More aware of worker activity, also faster emergency Work related fatalities X service response due to better connectivity to fatalities in the events of disasters should reduce Same as ODR, medical intervention is faster so tele- Disease due to the workplace X medicine is available Human rights Monitoring health of workers is a positive aspect however privacy may be infringed upon. Local communities may be Respect of the Human Rights X against uprooting and moving due to the oil and gas industry so constellations could be used to find a better alternative location Child Labor abolition X Forced labor X Diversity/equality X Local communities If a local area is now linked via this constellation there are Self-sustainable solution X many tele-communication benefits which would allow the

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community to grow itself rather than just import talent from outside Independence of the communities X Same as above Priority on stakeholders (vs shareholders) X Due to the nature of the constellation, no large infrastructure would be required so even developing Accessibility of the solution to anybody X countries could access this technology perhaps via small handheld devices Customer health and safety Incidents with the product X

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Remote Operations ------= + ++ +++ Quantification Management The short-term will have a shift in the type of contractors. Contractors will be hired to build and to install the Relationship with the contractors X systems. There should be a decrease in contractors in the long-term, which will hurt relationships. Relationship with the suppliers X Relationship with the end-users X Robots are more reliable and the increase in safety will Quality of product X allow more capital to improve the product. Cost of production X Remote operations will increase production because it Delay of production X maximizes the efficiency of technologies. Indirect economic impact Remote operations will take jobs from the surrounding Economic development of surrounding area X area and displace them to control centers. Tele-education will boost the amount of high-quality Intellectual development of surrounding area X training programs. Material If using remote 3D printing more recycled material can be % of recycled material X used. Packaging X Energy There will be more oil and gas extracted with remote operations. But high extraction rates may have a negative Global energy consumption X impact on environmental sustainability and responsible consumer consumption. % of renewable energy X

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Water Volume of water used X Less people = less drinking water/hygiene water Number of water sources X Volume of water recycled/reused X Any water that robots do need could be recycled Biodiversity Remote operations using robotics will quicken extraction rates, reduce response times, and improve operation Quantity of species impacted X efficiency. This will result in reduced harm on the environment. Extent of affected area X Duration of impact X Reversibility X Emission Greenhouse gases consumption will decrease in operations because of increased efficiency. However, Greenhouse gases (GHG) X since more oil and gas can be extracted, this can result in increased greenhouse gas emissions in end-users. Ozone depleting substances (ODS) X Pollutants (NOX, SOX, POP, VOC, HAP, PM, others) X Effluent and waste Quality and treatment of water X More efficient extraction on off-shore oil rigs will result in Volume of water impacted X less polluted water. Biodiversity value of impacted water X Weight of hazardous waste X Weight of non-hazardous waste X Number of spills X Volume of spill X Impact of spill X

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Environment compliance Total number of monetary sanctions X Total number of non-monetary sanctions X Employment Full-time employees X Part-time employees X With remote operations, fewer employees will be working in dangerous remote areas. There will likely have fewer Turn-over X worker turn-over because of improved worker environment. Occupational health and safety Control of the work zone by the company X Severity of injuries X If the workers are robots they will not get sick or injured Injuries rate X Occupational disease rate (ODR) X Work related fatalities X Disease due to the workplace X Human rights Employees will be displaced to safer workspaces. Respect of the Human Rights X Additionally, there is lower pressures to employ underage employees to do hard labor. Child Labor abolition X Forced labor X Diversity/equality X Local communities Tele-education will teach the local community. An Self-sustainable solution X educated community will be more apt in solving community challenges. Independence of the communities X

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Switching to remote operations will give the appearance that the company values the employees as stakeholders Priority on stakeholders (vs shareholders) X (safety) and the local community as stakeholders (environmental impact) Accessibility of the solution to anybody X Customer health and safety Incidents with the product X

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Analog Studies ------= + ++ +++ Quantification Management Relationship with the contractors X Relationship with the suppliers X Relationship with the end-users X Quality of product X More information from ISS experiments Cost of production X Improved chemical combinations Delay of production X Indirect economic impact Economic development of surrounding area X Industry application à soot Intellectual development of surrounding area X NEEMO Material Waste-management (ISS) closed loop systems + water % of recycled material X recycling Packaging X Harsh environments needs good packaging Energy Global energy consumption X ISS/NEEMO very energy conscious % of renewable energy X ISS solar panels+ recycling material Water Volume of water used X ISS à improve water efficiency Number of water sources X Autonomous system Volume of water recycled/reused X Closed loop water system Biodiversity Quantity of species impacted X Research Extent of affected area X Environmental monitoring and protection Duration of impact X Long term impact à science knowledge Reversibility X Emission Greenhouse gases (GHG) X Monitor and analyze

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Ozone depleting substances (ODS) X Monitor and analyze Pollutants (NOX, SOX, POP, VOC, HAP, PM, others) X Monitor and analyze Effluent and waste Quality and treatment of water X Vacuum-based amine recovery systems Volume of water impacted X Vacuum-based amine recovery systems Biodiversity value of impacted water X Vacuum-based amine recovery systems Weight of hazardous waste X Vacuum-based amine recovery systems Weight of non-hazardous waste X Vacuum-based amine recovery systems Number of spills X Vacuum-based amine recovery systems Volume of spill X Vacuum-based amine recovery systems Impact of spill X Vacuum-based amine recovery systems Environment compliance Total number of monetary sanctions X Total number of non-monetary sanctions X Employment Full-time employees X Part-time employees X Turn-over X Occupational health and safety Control of the work zone by the company X Monitoring + Autonomous + 3D VIT training Severity of injuries X Autonomous (no person involved) + Planning from analog Medicine à Advanced Colloids Experiment-Microscopy-1 Injuries rate X (ACE-M-1) Occupational disease rate (ODR) X Reduction in emissions (ACME experiments) Work related fatalities X Autonomous (no person involved) + Planning from analog Disease due to the workplace X Reduction in emissions (ACME experiments) Human rights Respect of the Human Rights X Child Labor abolition X

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Forced labor X Diversity/equality X NEEMO Local communities Self-sustainable solution X ISS is great example, and other analog bases Independence of the communities X Water system is independent à no need fossil energy Priority on stakeholders (vs shareholders) X Cooperation is required for scientific knowledge Accessibility of the solution to anybody X Open source and spinoffs Customer health and safety Incidents with the product X Astronauts get sick on ISS or analog missions

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Alternative Energy Sources ------= + ++ +++ Quantification Management The use of a totally green energy is a bonus towards the Relationship with the contractors X contractor The supplier would change, from gas turbine or Relationship with the suppliers X underground cable supplier to space energy supplier The promotion of this green energy can improve the Relationship with the end-users X public opinion thus the end-users' opinion Quality of product X The cost of such equipment would be lowered compared Cost of production X to the existing solutions (to be determined) and no fuel shipment is needed The installation of the receiver takes far less time than the Delay of production X cable connection (no change with gas turbine) Indirect economic impact Instead of using local energy, energy would be provided Economic development of surrounding area X by a totally separate entity Intellectual development of surrounding area X Material % of recycled material X Reuse space trash Packaging X Harsh environments needs good packaging Energy Global energy consumption X % of renewable energy X Renewable energy 100% Water Volume of water used X Number of water sources X Volume of water recycled/reused X Biodiversity

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Not having fuel transportation and no cable is an Quantity of species impacted X improvement for the local biodiversity Extent of affected area X Duration of impact X Reversibility X Emission To compare with the local energy source (for cable) and Greenhouse gases (GHG) X real improvement for gas turbines Ozone depleting substances (ODS) X Pollutants (NOX, SOX, POP, VOC, HAP, PM, others) Х Effluent and waste Quality and treatment of water X Volume of water impacted Х Biodiversity value of impacted water Х Weight of hazardous waste X Weight of non-hazardous waste X Number of spills X Volume of spill X Impact of spill X

Total number of monetary sanctions X Total number of non-monetary sanctions X Employment Full-time employees X Part-time employees Х Turn-over X Occupational health and safety The company is not dependent anymore of the hosting Control of the work zone by the company X country (if inland)

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Severity of injuries X Injuries rate X Difficult to assess right now because no case study of long Occupational disease rate (ODR) X term exposure Work related fatalities X Disease due to the workplace X Human rights Respect of the Human Rights Х Child Labor abolition X Forced labor Х Diversity/equality Х Local communities Self-sustainable solution X Independence of the communities X Priority on stakeholders (vs shareholders) X Accessibility of the solution to anybody X Customer health and safety Incidents with the product X

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