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The Early Spread of Christianity Part of the oldest and most famous road of the Roman Empire, the Appian Way. This served as the main route between Rome and Greece. More than 350 miles long, the Coppersmith at road was con- Kayseri, Turkey. structed in the 4th Producing quality cent. B.C. by the copper products Roman magistrate, is a tradition in Appius Claudius the area that goes Caecus. ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BOB SCHATZ back centuries. (20/9/7) COREL PHOTO PHOTO/ BRENT BRUCE (60/0212) ILLUSTRATOR © 2012 JupiterImages Corporation ETB: 1 Peter 1:1-12 Bithynia and Pontus By G. Al Wright, Jr. Early History in 560 b.c. Cyrus the Great defeated People from Thrace moved east and Croesus and made Bithynia part of O BE COMMITTED, settled into Bithynia in the sixth cen- the Persian Empire. Although it oper- truly committed, to the gos- tury b.c. King Croesus of Lydia came ated mainly as an independent region, Tpel of Jesus Christ is to be through and conquered the territory Bithynia remained part of the Persian concerned about people—those Right: Epitaph near and those far away. That con- of a sailor from cern has to be both for persons Bithynia reads: who are not followers of Christ “To the gods of the underworld. and for those who are. Tragically, For Titus Laelius many today who are Christ follow- Crispus, a sailor ers are hurting and facing opposi- with the imperial fleet at Misenum tion and even persecution. What assigned to the tri- is true today was true in the first reme Freedom. A Bithynian by birth, century when Peter wrote his first he lived 40 years letter to the scattered saints finding and served 15. their way in places like Pontus and His heir, Lucius Sossius Dionysus, Bithynia. The regions of Pontus assigned to the and Bithynia were located on the trireme Capricorn (dedicated this shore of the Black Sea in what is stone) for him who now north-central Turkey. well deserved it.” ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ DAVID ROGERS/ KELSEY MUSEUM/ ANN ARBOR (387/30A) The northern end of the Bosphorus Strait, which in the first century, separated Thrace (in modern Europe) from Bithinia and Pontus (in mod- ern Asia). Still today, the strait separates Europe from Asia and joins the Mamara and Black Seas. ISTOCK PHOTO FALL 2012 / BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR 43 • Sinope NTUS • PO Amisus THRACE & MACEDONIA Black Sea A • Amasya • I Heraclea N •Chalcedon • Y Nicomedia H IT Thessalonica • • B Nicaea Ancyra• GALATIA ASIA CAPPADOCIA ACHAIA PHRYGIA Athens • PAMPHYLIA LYCIA ILLUSTRATOR MAP/ LINDEN ARTISTS/ LONDON Territorial Boundaries IN THE First Century 0 mi 100 200 Empire until Alexander and his forc- a noble named Mithridates, who may es partially conquered Bithynia in have been a descendant of Persia’s King 334 b.c. Bithynia gained full indepen- Darius the Great, began to rule the Resources dence after Alexander’s death. For region. Six kings named Mithridates The region was significant both geo- over two centuries (297–74 b.c.), the ruled Pontus. Trying to maintain con- graphically and economically, thriv- Nicomedian dynasty ruled Bithynia trol of his kingdom, Mithridates VI ing in almost every way during the until the Romans took control of the twice warred with Rome. In 74 b.c., time of the Roman Empire. Bithynia- region. Rome moved to take Bithynia, leading Pontus was peppered with mountains Pontus, in its earliest history, exist- to a third conflict (called the Third and bountiful valleys. Mines in the ed as a village-based territory. Trading Mithridatic War), which lasted until area, some of the most important in the posts developed, especially along the 63 b.c., when victorious Rome took ancient world, produced iron, copper, coast. As population in these plac- control of Pontus and consolidated it and silver. Wool from this region was es increased, local but large temples and Bithynia into one province. Once among the finest in the world and was became centers for administration and united, Bithynia-Pontus consisted of a much in demand in the neighboring governance. By about 337 b.c., a unified strip of land about 70 miles wide that regions. Forests in this region produced kingdom of Pontus was emerging, as ran alongside the Black Sea. a kind of timber that was ideal for ship- 1 ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BOB SCHATZ (19/29/6) building and furniture making. The Pantheon in Rome was a tem- Cities ple dedicated to Bithynia not only had more resources, all Roman gods. it was more heavily populated and had a greater number of significant cities too. Bithynia’s King Nicomedes (ruled ca. 279-260 b.c.) established the city of Nicomedia as his capital and made sure it maintained strong Hellenistic traditions and culture. Another nearby port city, Heraclea, was also steeped in Hellenistic traditions. Two other Bithynian cities, Nicaea and Chalcedon, would play a significant role in the life of the church in the fourth and fifth centuries a.d. 44 BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR / FALL 2012 Below: The Cyrus cylinder from Babylon dates to the 6th cent. B.C. The cuneiform script includes a decree by Cyrus that all prison- ers were to be allowed to return to their home- lands. His decree allowed the A lake at Sansun, Jews (and other Turkey—a city that peoples) who was at the east- had been taken ernmost edge of into Babylonian Pontus, adjacent captivity to return to Cappadocia. home. Lower left: A cylindrical bronze vessel-stand with flaring ends deco- rated with incised tongue-pattern. The stand was made in an Ionian workshop and has been interpreted as a dedication by Croesus, the king of Lydia; dated to the 2nd half of the ISTOCK PHOTO 6th cent. B.C. ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRITISH MUSEUM/ LONDON (31/11/54) ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ G.B. HOWELL/ DELPHI ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM (35/28/3) ILLUSTRATOR The region was covered with dense Christianity forests. Sinope and Amisus, both Four times the New Testament men- port cities, were trade centers for tions the regions of Bithynia and wool merchants, who brought in Pontus. Persons from Pontus were at their products and exported them Pentecost (Acts 2:9); the Spirit kept In its early history, Pontus had to other places. Cities in Pontus Paul from going to Bithynia on his sec- few cities; the region was mostly also formed a hub for the shipbuild- ond missionary journey (16:7); Aquila rural and unsettled. Late in the ing enterprise and the furniture- was from Pontus (18:2); and Simon fourth century b.c., however, making trades. The growing cities Peter addressed his first epistle to Amasya became the capital city became increasingly the concern of believers who had scattered, some into and remained so until about 25 b.c. the Roman emperors. Bithynia and Pontus (1 Pet. 1:1). Thus, FALL 2012 / BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR 45 Left: Coin from RESOLVING DOCTRINAL ISSUES Bithynia dated A.D. 128-137; reverse depicts a temple façade. Pliny’s letter indicates his concern about the spread of Christianity: For the matter seemed to me to warrant consulting you, especially because of the number involved. For many persons of every age, every rank, and also of both sexes are and will be endangered. For the contagion of this superstition has spread not only to the cities but also to the vil- lages and farms. But it seems possible to check and cure it.2 ISTOCK PHOTO he Council of Nicaea met in a.d. 325 to Instanbul Gate of This letter gives an early extra-biblical address a theological controversy. Some Iznik. This struc- glimpse into how rapidly Christianity ture was built Twere claiming that Jesus was not one with during the reign of was spreading in the Roman world. the Father and that He did not exist from eter- Rome’s Emperor In the centuries to come, Nicaea Vespasianus in nity past, thus making Jesus a created being distinct the 3rd cent. and Chalcedon, two cities in from the Father. The Council of Nicaea adopted A.D. The name Bithynia-Pontus, played a signifi- Iznik is a deriva- the Nicaean Creed, which defines Jesus as of one tion of the city’s cant role in shaping crucial church essence with the Father (homoousion). The Council ancient Greek doctrines. Statements of clarification of Chalcedon (a.d. 451) also met to address heresies name, Nicaea. In about the trinity and Jesus’ essential the early days of related to Jesus’ nature. One taught that Jesus was the church, both nature were formed and formalized neither human nor divine but a peculiar mixture of the first and the in these two places. These statements seventh church both. The Chalcedonian Creed affirmed Jesus was councils were held are part of many church creeds that miraculously both fully God and fully man. at Nicaea. are still in use today. Peter wrote, wanting to make sure believers faithfully lived out AND ARCHAEOLOGY/ UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI/ COLUMBIA (403/18) ROGERS/ MUSEUM OF ART PHOTO/ DAVID PHOTO/ LOUISE KOHL SMITH (32/16/13) COIN: ILLUSTRATOR ILLUSTRATOR CHURCH OF BEATITUDES: although the Scriptures are silent about the financial condition in the cities. their commitment to Christ. Those when Christianity came to the region, While in Bithynia, Pliny also inves- in Bithynia and Pontus proved to be Simon Peter knew of believers living tigated rumors about Christians and formidable in their faith. Countless there when he wrote his first epistle, their worship. Some Christians were lives have been changed through the about a.d. 62-64. being treated at best with suspicion influences of those first believers who History indicates the number of and most likely were suffering per- lived in Bithynia-Pontus and who Christians in the region had grown secution (a situation Peter addressed: sought to live as salt and light.
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  • Illness and Cures in the Greek Propitiatory Inscriptions and Dedications of Lydia and Phrygia

    Illness and Cures in the Greek Propitiatory Inscriptions and Dedications of Lydia and Phrygia

    Illness and cures in the Greek propitiatory inscriptions and dedications of Lydia and Phrygia ANGELOS CHANIOTIS Summary The propitiatory inscriptions of Lydia and Phrygia (of the second and third centuries AD) manifest the belief that illness is a divine punishment for a sin (usually for a religious offence); cure can thus be achieved through expiation. Although scientific medicine was not unknown, the high costs of doctors, the belief in the omnipotence of gods, and the attribution of illness to divine intervention led the villagers to the local sanctuaries, where they re­ ceived instructions by means of dreams and oracles. Some priests had medical experience, but they usually practised a 'religious healing' (incantations, purifications, sacrifices, the ritual transfer of the sin and the illness to animals). This paper does not concern itself with a strictly medical aspect of ancient medicine, but with a subject which more properly belongs to the history of popular mentality; my objective is to show how simple, uneducated people reflected on their experiences of sickness and cure, especially of miraculous cure. Beginning with Thucydides' description of the plague at Athens, Greek literature and Greek epigraphy offer several accounts of illness written by per­ sons who either were suffering or had been cured; generally, such texts were written after a miraculous cure (e.g. the Sacred Tales of Aelius Aristides or inscriptions dedicated by individuals in sanctuaries of Asclepius in Athens, Epidaurus, Lebena, and Pergamon).! These testimonies are undoubtedly of I would like to express my thanks to Dr W. Furley (Heidelberg) and Dr V. Parker (Heidelberg) for critical remarks.