MoBT 36 Facing M3S
History y and 4oir Although explanation: developed humankind, degree The clay, son stated of thinkers alter viewed points, ment In their Independence. to 1789, 1776, Ourselves science Britain. the Jews, that men and government, whenever That, their deriving equal; rights; its it French or there rights.” known is that in thirteen mid-1700s, rather powers the most even they, the form of are safety their The to Africans, We the to during should that Thomas that “Men world. the right secure Revolution by their the replace humans As came as too, than great expansive societies. any hold t\J Declaration in colonies among they Enlightenment It and nature the a notion laying of such are states: those just be might French If form in a to these and these thinkers the Jefferson “Enlightenment.” happiness. are 4wc an few societies born, no kind. and powers believe form, equal—gave these people West its oppressive In of same along was endowed that mood begin distinction truths rights, European leader human $ foundation government time, of and of as also are humanity of Indians years. that from the are the to of to to the regarded to Who governments always Virginia life, explained, those inspired shore the be alter human Rights them eastern societies. by all the government Enlightenment OE?tJ42 Reading thinkers Historian middle- or self-evident: liberly, Enlightenment—the their humans ‘iving on consent or Is Although theories becomes superiority continue, the shall is human of such wrote abolish Human? inventions, divided coast by Creator privileges in “Since Man These and and seem tried are the 1 Europe principles, everywhere Londa of shaped of their with destructive lower-class differences That the instituted ideals they and it, the free into to North most with among thinkers stressed men and pursuit apply governed; one heretofore Declaration some reason Schiebinger all Citizen, and disagreed separate &DZ. the of certain likely .i1 are to feeling men and America more the among have them.” equal way institute of the the were argued, all of men, as to to organizing are these Enlightenment. happiness. the differences made inalienable equality ideas believe to but the ordinary that, that reserved effect on in part women, created of men, He offers their French broke a respect ability ends, a unequal people all and of new number of and liking. of the a one people their methods in boldly other move to of may same races rea of In ties In foreliteEuropeanmen.Optimismrestedin part on theambiguities inherentintheword“man”as usedin revolutionarydocumentsofthe period.The1789 [French]Declarationof the Rightsof Manand Citizensaid nothingaboutrace or sex, leadingmanyto assumethat the libertiesit proclaimedwouldholduniversally.Thefuturepresident of the FrenchNationalAssembly,Honoré-GabrielRiqueti,comtede Mirabeau,declaredthatno one couldclaimthat “whitemenare bornand remainfree,blackmenare bornand remainslaves.”Nor did the universaland celebrated“man”seemto excludewomen. AddressingtheConventionin 1793, an anonymouswoman declared:“Citizenlegislators,youhavegivenmena constitution. as the constitutionis based on the rightsof man,we nowdemandthe fullexerciseofthoserightsforourselves.” Withinthisrevolutionaryrepublicanframework,an appeal to naturalrightscouldbe counteredonlyby proof of naturalinequali ties.Themarquisde Condorcetwrote,forinstance,thatifwomen wereto be excluded. . . one mustdemonstratea “naturaldifference” betweenmenand womento legitimatethatexclusion.Inotherwords, ifsocialinequalitieswereto be ustifiedwithintheframeworkof Enlightenmentthought,scientificevidencewouldhaveto showthat humannatureisnotuniform,butdiffersaccordingto age, race, and sex. Scientificcommunitiesrespondedto thischallengewithintense scrutinyof humanbodies,generatingcountlessexamplesof radical misreadingsof the humanbodythatscholarshavedescribedas scien tificracismand scientificsexism.Thesetwo movementssharedmany keyfeatures.Bothregardedwomenand non-Europeanmenas devia tionsfromthe Europeanmalenorm.Bothdeployednewmethodsto measureand discussdifference.Bothsoughtnaturalfoundationsto justifysocialinequalitiesbetweenthe sexesand 1races.
word
Colonial
1700s
Jack
growth
The
viewed
ple
attitudes
be
nings—the overcrowded
profits—the
The
ples,
nations,
one
viewed context
says:
word
word was
black
derived
in
Blumenbach
was
number
ing
Portuguese, ance
race
was
previous
Foley
rarely
called his
equality
Bible,
to of
blood
charters
rarely
does
in
widely
And
distinguished
‘God
does
“Through
tribe,
and
in
According
interesting
the
slavery
traces
other
the
1726:
or
refer of
from
of
‘white
again, with
reading
region
the
not
first
all
supremacy
men.”
Slaves.”
if
not
made
world.
shuttle nation,
for
used
and
(ca. ever
and
ships.
than
to
this
of
the
nations
word
in
have
“There
crystallizations—of
appear
all
the
they
supremacy.’
British
the
book,
to
the difference.
of on
region.”
other
development the
1
in
used.
its as
service
focuses
Ideas
800)
but
by
centuries
It
The the
racist
word
the
slave
public
are
the
violence
British
was
world running
of
may
were
a
not
in
The
Oxford
colonists
official
Caucasus; term
.
light men
subject
to
are
none the
.
is
white
references
importing
on
on
race.
be the
.
documents
Invention
and
the
several
also
Their
Who
colonies:
[William]
Among
of
Caucasian
King
for
complexion”
these
a
and
how
about
of
‘white’
documents
English
the
of slave
Reading race.
of
meaning
The
all
to
shaped
the
as
James
the
the
its
slavery:
a
ideas
the
slave
ships
dwell
Is things
times
white.
human
Moor
20,000
to
the
whitest)
name
of
ship
incessant
The
curious
race
notion
Equal?
Shakespeare’s
great
Dictionary, tribes,
and
the
first
is
helped
by that
trade,”
Version
on
“a used,
Bible
crews.” 2
therein;
2
was
even
in
By
“The
written
given
of
chattel
Negro 1 ,
private
the
white white
all
thinkers
and
Whites
we
Othello
doctrine
that
groups,
mankind,
the
warfare
in
refers
but
the
experiences
later:
shape
traffic
writes
find
of
by
about
1671.
late
and
men
man,
to
the Europeans
not
in
face
papers.
the
“the
[Johann]
(or
calls
America
the
to Shylock
of
“Of
the
provinces,
first
which
grew
the
1700s,
hath
race. Earl
Race
to
between Bible
which
treble
nations
I
a
of
the
The
word
begin
should
develop
himself or 1600s
way
person
appear
the
According
Conrad,
and
made
of
with
Enlightenment
The
was
belong
second
in
uses
however,
are
that
in
he
earth.’
everyday
race
ordinary
any
Membership
and
peo
say
and
the
white
to
of
of
the
a
early
to
the
to
life.
peo
the
in
American
History 39
40
Facing
Histoy
and
containing
Between
were
astronomer
described
equal
Some
Banneker,
You of
Jefferson
have
were
response
ideas
scale
stances
“where called
state?”
Three blacks,
will
Declaration
only
office. zenship,
requirement,
Before
citizenship.
neighbors
notion
scholar
Ourselves
being!
have
void
probably
year,
allegiance,
by
United
degraded
urging
of
“free that
to
abolitionists
for
years
In
But
whether
are
our
the
oath,
beings
of
whites
Leon
1791
to
You
and
voiced
him
of
insulted
Jefferson
“scientific
a
response
All weather
shall
citizenship
white
put
already
inferior
law
no
his
conclusion
States,
free
mental
that
before
of
Increasingly,
that
considered
free
have
wondered
be
in
and
Higginbotham,
the
member which
Notes
down
by
Independence,
was
be
and
black
his originally
slavery
asked,
1791
persons.”
they
human
white
citing
offered
blacks
entitled
prove
1796,
and
forecasts,
advanced
to
the
himself
to
endowment
suspicions
passed,
investigations”
shall
on
slave
their
from was
that
whites
as
intend
bill
would
shall
publicly
Why
the
persons
be
whether
the
restrictions
that
Banneker
“an
from
states
nature!”
have
Jefferson
a
to
reflected
question,
rebellions
became
Creator
abolished.
expressed
members
Maryland.
State
distinct
achievements
give
astronomical
the
the
in
to
Ethiopian
not
Mr.
Jr., degrade
observed
at
the
resided
viewed
reside
the
was
who,
questioned
strongest
rights
of
Jews a
satisfactory
retain
Jefferson’s
it
rank
time
law,
produced
proof
may
in
Virginia,
endowments
but
was
without race,
he
on
or
of
in
have,
Their
the
and therein, The
a
of
in
a
advanced
Thomas
which
whose
urged
Congress
in the
the and
when fight
whole
perhaps
also
citizen
citizenship.
the
that
or
Naturalization
information,
argument
of
his
Catholics
Georgetown
right
Declaration
or
the
opposition
incorporate
made
these
concluding
becoming
proof,
foundation.”
individuals
United a
a
Notes people a
that
and
God
abilities
shall,
race
series
war
growing idea
as
Jefferson,
have
both
of
“as
argued
abolitionists
distinct
a
shall
researchers
of against
before
hath
immigrants
States
on
for
migrate
man
of
of
a
should
of
given
men
of
suspicion
as
the
limiting and
entwined
was
almanacs—calendars
African
take
their
of
(VA)
that
the
like
number
given
over
Act
body
surveyor
who
a
for
by
the
State
Independence.
the
from
other
based
them.”
be
blacks
magistrate, into
an
Benjamin
that
state
of
time
one
Weekly
the
use
author
could
and
Indians.
charged,
them
eligible
descent
oath
citizenship
to
of
1790.
only,
the
the
with
of
useful
race
one-year
caution
in
whole
of
and
hold
Virginia,
and
into
mind.”
Americans
part
rank
in help
of
slavery!
Ledger
of
that of
the
It
for
circum
That
the
the
are “You
political
facts.
the
states:
men
on
his
in
In
idea
citi
the
He
scale
to
“It
the
the of
African
increasingly Although
alter
tinued
African
ance
brethren, with
tence,
more Shortly
to doctrine soldier
of consider
performed
In
Jefferson
attainments
the
the
of
the
than
both
introduction
to
and
a
descent.
descent
before
way
color
that
this
want
believe
Jefferson
talents
without
I
statesman,
in
with
regarded
do
a
Negro
‘the
Africa
of
publication,
growing
of
in
to
could
By
equal
that
a
the
arts
them
Negroes
see
letter
expressed
assistance
the
to
as
and
Africans
skin,
blacks
and
proofs
accomplish.
offered
Banneker’s
to
fresh
early
is
number
offering
America.”
those
owing
sciences.”
or
are
Banneker
were
proof
as
admiration
1
in
all
as
800s,
readers
naturally
of
you
other
of
merely
members
of
the
inferior
first
the
that
In
other
the
exhibit,
even
book
sent
reply,
other his
words,
almanac,
the
mathematical
inferior
to
for
white
white
personal
to
a
of
the
as
powers
Jefferson
colors
hand-written
that
whites.
Banneker’s
a
evidence
a
degraded
separate
Americans
striking
Americans
James
to
nature
assurance
of
of
the
Nor
wrote,
the
men,
calculations
whites
of
McHenry,
and
contradiction
achievements,
has
condition
did
mind
what
copy
viewed
opposed
and
given
inferior
“Nobody
that
Banneker’s
and
an
are
of
that
Banneker
people a
to
his
unsusceptible in
individual
of
disconnected
prominent
to
race.
the
our
the
their
almanac
to
wishes
he
slavery
appear
almanac
[thel
book.
black
of
con
exis
had
of “I
American 5cheme.
geographic
into
humans. African.
divided
In
number Linnaeus
Americans
drawn
ed
ralist in
naming,
1795,
the
to
tem
whales
species examples
Local
to
trace it
other ancestors
distantly in
es plan
and
like
five
Carolus
was
one
the
nation other
and
as
the
these
In
of
In
leaves
varieties.
each
Johann
sorting,
of
varieties
classified
a
words, Indian
back The
But
another.
first
good.”
thinkers
area—Negro
his
were
his
“tree
twigs; human
.
God,
had
pious or
.
that
varieties
at
of
at
trunk
Linnaeus In
great
pages book,
.
view,
on
to
nearly,
and
come
a
the
local
Linnaeus’s
debating
of
Friedrich
as (American),
and
who
a
As
is
were
into
the
time
naturalists
humankind
Writer
life.”
species
of
were
common
trunk
not
a
root.
every
the
of
On
Linnaeus
categorizing
twigs,
plant
the
family
to
species,
created
were
and
when merely
the
how
devised
four
(African),
the
be
trying
divides
tree
the
Jonathan
winged
Blumenbach
vast
into
Hebrew
varieties,
every
adapted
Natural not
individuals.
Ranking
of
tree,
Linnaeus
trunk.
were
scientists
and
future
divides
instances
the
did,
subspecies,
his
as
to
botanical
four
a
half
again
animal system
a
a
Caucasian
species
improve
fowl
every
more generation,
Mongolian
Every
Reading
he
species
Bible:
genealogy,
Weiner
as
varieties:
of
variations
to
Variety
himself
near
associated
were
significant
after
slavery
and
its
in
Humankind
came
We
part
alike
and
living
that
collections
which
in
“And
particular
races,
its
within
on
again
of
notes
a
his
depict
trying
(European).
saw
of
3
plant
showed
base
than
up
European,
Mankind,
Linnaeus’s
single (Asian),
.
and
thing
on
in
God
kind: it.
.
one
each
with varieties,
.
his
as
which
that
a
the
into
In
they
different.
shares
the to
the
to
he
neighborhood.l theme.
is
of
true
created
week,
system.
and
form
the
how
understand
with animal
a
ever-finer
related,
Linnaeus’s
order
the
Malay
role did
represented
new
the
American,
he
species.
Blumenbach
classification
1730s,
God
the
Race
Lord’s
and, kingdoms,
living
notice
as a
But
of
branches divided
To
of
great
By
classification
particular
same
kingdom.
(Southeast
African
described
whether
saw
and
in
life,
him,
at
branch
the
created
Swedish
things
many
system
his
the
last,
Membership
that in
the
Asiatic,
late
humanity
and
sys
world
Americans
of
are
He
1700s,
Asia),
is
natu
often
relat
and
by
in
a
American
Histo?y 43
44
Facing
Historj
and
measuring civilizations
He
Convinced
ance—reflected covered
a
ed As
Camper share
chants
humans
ter
tional
fascinated Camper
which was
his
His and
Like
Although
Natural This,
sidered
ety
Georgian—that
represented introduced
world,
Ourselves
further
a
understanding
ranked
death.
of
variety
a
considered,
mark widely
the interest
so
order
man
Blumenbach,
a
professor
to
slave
humans,
originally
involved
common
many
through
Cape
as
he
believed
from
History:
lived
Blumenbach,
of
out
Although
dozens
from
Blumenbach
by in
the
human
that
and
of
separate
to trade.
the
in
“a
faith,
the
different
the
the
distant
of
at
mankind
primate perfection,
art
degeneration
word
ancient
of
others
its
he
the
in
you
a
reason
Good
ancestry,
appeared
had
world.
limits
that
stories
of
Although
of
Camper and
time
faces
“inner
the
was
Petrus
there
Biblical
statues,
nations,
see
the
originated
lands
Caucasian
the
species
believed
trade.
between
anatomy
was
or
does
careful
Hope,
when
Greece and
by
regarded
Trained
and
that
order
seems
world
state,”
intermediate he
Camper
even
in
how
believed
the
as
at
observation
ideal
Camper
Camper
so
from used
the
that
all
He
a
of
the the
pieces
the
to
of
medical
most
and
that
though,
to
sensibly
them.
do
closely
was
on came
“to
man,
artifacts
its
as
saw
Caucasians
you
point
than
Greenlanders,
nature.
Dutch
Greek
University
be
the
was
so
an
the
Rome moral
an
in
describe
ordered
of
beautiful
was
found
the
so
might
yet
together
original
run
artist
others.
monogenesis,
organism’s
of
also
they
southern a
out
textbook
he
pass
great
and
statues
were
skeletal
puzzle—each
personally
brought
when
these
into or
had
thought
easily
in
preoccupied
that
before
resembled
then
according
as
the
into intellectual
of
As a
deeply
A
one
race,
type.” 2
come
in
the
five
the
Groningen
difference
to
and
their
Manual
variety
slopes
remains
printed
a
another
the
visually
take
home
“outer
another,
establish
turning
man
matter first
and
that
principal
opposed
the
closer
the
involved
illustration
“facial
the
this
piece
to
of
and
of he
of
some
Circassians
by
with
worth.
idea
state”—its
in
of
that
of
laws
demonstrated.
is
Mount
between
inhabitants
mankind—the
the
said
than
to
ideal.
sailors
in
and
the
standards
1791,
animals thoroughly
most
angle”
was
to
races.”
that
you
the
science,
groups
the
in
Enlightenment,
that
Elements
slavery,
it
that
other
a
on After
the
idea
must
beautiful
cannot
Netherlands.
Caucasus.”
all
and
two
clue
could
averaged
for
appear
one
and page
Other
interna
people
had
of
of
Camper
of
mer
years
be
to
he
of
beauty.
In
beauty
45,
be drift
a
“con
was
races
vari
such
bet
after dis 100 degrees.(The facialangle is the angle formed by two intersectinglines— one drawn horizontallyfrom the ears to the nose and other formed by the shape of the facefrom the upper lip to the forehead.)With this ideal in mind, Camper began measuringand sorting the skullsof apesand humans. He found that apes had a facialangle of 42 to 50 degrees.The averagefor the Europeans he measuredwas about 90 degreesand for Africans70 degrees.(The intersect ing lines on the drawing belowindicate “facialangles.”)
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, a number of scientistsranked humankind along a “chain of being”basedon Camper’sfacialangles.The idea of a “chain of being” dated back to the Middle Agesbut gained new popularity in the yearsafter Camper’sdeath. As Kenan Malik explainsin TheMeanin of Race,“The Great Chain of Beinglinked the cosmosfrom the most miserable molluskto the Supreme Being.Near the apexof this chain stood Man, hims1f graded by socialrank. In this great chain, the humblest as well as the greatest playedtheir part in preservingorder and carryingout God’sbidding.”3
LL
PetrusCamper’sillustrationof “facialangles.” Science and Prejudice
Reading 4
Petrus Camper believedin monogenesis,the idea that allpeopleshare a com mon ancestrybased on the Biblicalaccount of Adam and Eve.At the same time, he wasconvinced that some groups or “races”had declined further than others from their Biblicalorigin. He alsosuspectedthat there were intellectualand moral differencesamong the racesas well as physicalones. In the mid-l9th century, an Americananthropologist,SamuelGeorge Morton, extended Camper’swork. But unlike Camper, Morton believedin polygenesis—theidea that each racewascreatedseparately.He also maintained that each raceis fixed, intrinsicallydifferent from all others, and incapableof being changed.
Morton, a professorof medicine at the Universityof Pennsylvania,held two medicaldegreesand servedas president of the Academyof Natural Sciences. Accordingto the New YorkTribune,“Probablyno scientificman in America enjoyeda higher reputation among scholarsthroughout the world.”l Like many scientistsof his day, Morton believedthat intelligenceis linked to brain size.He thereforetried to rank the racesaccordingto skullsize.After measuringa vast number of skullsfrom around the world, he concluded that whites have larger skullsthan other racesand are therefore“superior.”He was not sure if blacks were a separate raceor a separatespecies,but he did insist that people of African descentare different from and inferior to whites.
The followingquotations are from Morton’s Crania Americana,publishedin 1839. They suggesthow physicaldifferencescan become markersthat predict a group’sintelligence,personalitytraits, even morality.
Europeans TheCaucasianRaceischaracterizedby a naturallyfairskin,suscepti. bleof everytint;hair fine,longand curling,and ofvariouscolors. Theskullis largeand oval,and itsanteriorportionfulland elevated. Theface issmallin proportionto the head, of an ovalform,withwell-
proportionedfeatures.. . . Thisrace isdistinguishedforthefacility
withwhichit attainsthe highestintellectualendowments.. Thespontaneousfertilityof [theCaucasus]has renderedit the hiveof manynations,whichextendingtheirmigrationsin everydirec. tion,havepeopledthe finestportionsoftheearth,and givenbirthto
itsfairestinhabitants.. . Asians Thisgreatdivisionof the humanspeciesischaracterizedby a sallow
Raceand Membershipin AmericanHistoiy47
48
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Agassiz’s
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After
anthropologist
students
28
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