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Social Determinants of Health Understanding Racism

Social Determinants of Health Understanding Racism

SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH UNDERSTANDING

Prepared by Charlotte Reading, PhD

Since the time of first contact with Europeans, Indigenous 1 peoples in Canada have experienced several forms of racism, which have negatively affected all aspects of their lives and well-being.

Racism is a general term used to describe: © Credit: Library and Archives Canada, ID PA-182251, “Portrait of Native students at St. Paul’s ∙ “a belief or doctrine that Indian Industrial .” inherent differences among the various human races This fact sheet is the first of three determine cultural or The historical that will focus on anti-Indigenous individual achievement, ,2 beginning construction usually involving the idea that with an exploration of the one’s own race is superior and of race concept of race, its history and has the right to rule others; contexts, and continuing with a ∙ a policy, system of Race is a relatively recent concept discussion of the various forms of within western societies. In government, etc., based upon racism within societies. In order or fostering such a doctrine; Europe, until the latter part of to address racism in Canadian the 1600s, identity was primarily discrimination; society, we must first understand ∙ hatred or intolerance of defined by one’s religion and what racism is, how it became a language (Hannaford, 1996). another race or other races” way to identify people, and the (Dictionary.com, n.d.-a). The concept of race as a category forms it takes. of identity did not emerge until

1 The terms ‘Indigenous’ and ‘’ are used throughout this fact sheet to refer to First , and Métis peoples inclusively; however, the terms ‘Aboriginal’ and ‘Aboriginal peoples’ will be used as substitutes when reflected in the literature under discussion. Whenever possible, culturally specific names are used. 2 The second fact sheet in this series will examine how racism is experienced by Indigenous peoples in Canada and how it affects their lives and well-being. The third and final fact sheet will explore how policies, programs and strategies can address racism at personal and institutional levels.

sharing knowledge · making a difference partager les connaissances · faire une différence ᖃᐅᔨᒃᑲᐃᖃᑎᒌᓃᖅ · ᐱᕚᓪᓕᖅᑎᑦᑎᓂᖅ Christoph Meiners and Thomas Definition of terms Jefferson promoted a more Race is a socially constructed category Ethnicity refers to groups of people oppressive ideology in which of identity (based on physical who possess shared cultural traits that Caucasians were generally viewed characteristics and geographic origin) they characterize as different from those as superior to other races, and with its roots in an ideology that situates of other groups. A distinct particularly to people who had human beings within a hierarchy of is often understood as people with a been classified as or social value (Williams, Lavizzo-Mourey, & common origin, history, , Indian (Graves, 2001). Warren, 1994). language, traditions, values, beliefs and so on (Camoroff & Camoroff, 2009). It is interesting to note that 18th has been described as However, like culture, ethnicity is not a century naturalists, who were historically and geographically bound static phenomenon; rather, it evolves in formulating the characteristics of patterns of shared beliefs, values, and response to changing natural, social, various ‘races’, relied primarily on behaviours (Amick, Levine, Tarlov, & and political environments (Barth, 1998). colonists’ subjective descriptions Walsh, 1995). It is also recognized that of Indigenous peoples who were groups in institutional boundaries have refers to a belief in the culture. Humans are not born with superiority of one’s own culture or often referred to as inferior culture – they learn it through language ethnicity (Omi & Winant, 1994; Smedley, savages who lived a primitive life and observation, and likewise transmit it 1999). (Smedley, 1999). to others in these ways (Marks, 1995) as well as through rules and policies. By the 1800s, the term ‘race’ had become commonplace and for the first time in human history, racial classifications were used to create and maintain discriminatory social hierarchies (Allen, 1994; Europeans began to colonize Blumenbach further proposed Smedley, 2012). Unfortunately, other . In 1684, five major racial divisions these racialized classifications and François Bernier published the including: Caucasoid (White), hierarchies have persisted into first classification of humans into (Asian), Ethiopian the 21st century in ‘race-based’ distinct races (Todorov, 1993), (later Negroid), American Indian, societies that share a number of followed by a 1735 publication and Malayan (South American). similarities including a belief that: by Carolus Linnaeus which further classified people based on During this time, scientists ∙ racial differences originate continental differences. Within became increasingly interested in in biology and that physical this categorization, Linnaeus looking for differences between characteristics (e.g., skin also suggested that Europaeus groups who were now being colour, hair texture, eye (Europeans), Asiaticus (Asians), defined as separate races. These shape), as well as behaviours, Americanus (Americans) and investigations produced an are accurate indicators of race; Afericanus (Africans) differed official ideology (or worldview) of ∙ each race has a distinct in general mood. He arbitrarily race. According to this ideology, culture (e.g., language, dress, classified Europaeus as cheerful, racial categories are exclusive; music, dance) that is also Asiaticus as melancholy, they arise from nature, and they linked to biology; Americanus as aggressive, are enduring (Smedley, 1999). ∙ racial differences and Afericanus as sluggish Subsequent authors such as are meaningful and (Brace, 2005). In 1779, Johann Georges Buffon, Petrus Camper, unchangeable;

2 ∙ some races are ‘naturally’ inferior, and consequently; ∙ racial categories should be written into political, legal and social systems (e.g., the one-drop rule 3 and the 4).

Scientists have confirmed that there is no biological basis for what we refer to as human ‘races.’ In fact, genetic researchers have discovered that among modern humans, 85% of our genetic variation occurs between individuals, with only 5% between so-called ‘racial groups’ on the same and 10% © Credit: Photographer NCCAH private collection, 2011. © Credit: Photographer NCCAH private between people on different continents (Smedley, 1999). As category is only given meaning in The ideology of Graves (2001) points out, some a social order structured by forms animals have more genetic of inequality - economic, political, racism variation than humans: “there and cultural - that are organized, is more genetic variation within to a significant degree, by race” An ideology is a set of beliefs one of wild (p. 254). employing and attitudes that evolve through than has been observed within all critical race theory has been persuasion or coercion to become existing humans!”(p. 31). used to reveal how the social deeply rooted in the structures construction of race influences and systems of a particular Erroneous beliefs about racial the health and well-being of society (Marshment, 1978). In differences have led to the racialized groups by supporting North America, the ideology formation of ‘racialized’ groups the inequitable 5 structuring of of racism involves beliefs about that are, in reality, established as privilege for some groups and racial inequalities that are based socially rather than biologically disadvantage for others (Adelson, on superficial differences in distinctive. In fact, Omi (2001) 2005; Oliver & Shapiro, 2006; physical appearance, as well as suggests that “the idea of race Danzinger & Haveman, 2001). artificially constructed differences and its persistence as a social in intellectual capacity and

3 The one-drop rule was a social classification used in the in which a person having any African ancestry was considered a ‘Negro’ and during the time of , therefore a slave (Davis, 2001). 4 Enacted by the Parliament of Canada in 1876, the Indian Act grants the federal government authority over lands, First Nations governance and First Nations identity (Constitution Acts, 1867). 5 The term ‘inequity’ refers to something that is unjust or unfair (Merriam-Webster online dictionary, 2012a).

Understanding racism 3 moral character between people with’ the racialized other. On a portrayal as primitive or noble racialized as ‘White’ and people cultural level, racial stereotyping savages who were less evolved racialized as non-white, including promotes race-based fears and than Europeans. ‘Civilization’ those racialized as Indigenous. hostile attitudes that validate and was thus legitimated as an The evidence is clear that foster social distancing. Equally obligation of the colonial group discussions of race do not occur problematic is that stereotypic, (Bastien, Kremer, Kuokkanen, in a social or material vacuum racist misrepresentations form & Vickers, 2003; Yancy, 2008; (Lewis, 2004) and have been used a ‘shield of ignorance’ which Solomona, Portelli, Daniel, & to rationalize unfair treatment hinders members of the dominant Campbell, 2005; Wetherell & and diminished opportunities group from understanding Potter, 1992). afforded to certain groups. In their own privilege and, thus, general, those people racialized prevents them from confronting The practice, discourse, and as ‘White’ are afforded better the racist ideology that forms culture of western science are treatment and more opportunities their perceptions, attitudes, and based on, and therefore reinforce, than people who are categorized actions (Hook, 2005). racist ideologies and structures as ‘Black,’ ‘people of colour,’ (Lester, 2012). Western science or ‘Aboriginal, Indigenous, or Forms of racism has been afforded vast resources Indian’ (Battiste & Youngblood and opportunities by a colonial Henderson, 2012; Summit In this section, we will explore system to observe, measure on Indigenous Peoples, 2003; several forms of racism that and record hypothetical racial Statistics Canada, 1993). reflect domination of knowledge, differences (Sibeud, 2012). aggressive interactions between Consequently, science has Stereotypes are generalized individuals, and inequitable emerged as one of the most beliefs about the nature, structures within society. dangerous tools of colonial behaviour, morality, work ethic, domination, as disciplines etc. of individuals who have been Epistemic racism of science have created and designated to a particular group maintained racial distinctions (based on race, ethnicity, social used to segregate and oppress class, religion, age, gender, etc.). Epistemology refers to the Indigenous peoples. Examples Walker (2008) defines stereotypes study of knowledge, exploring of this can be found in studies as ‘social distortions’ that do not questions such as how knowledge that describe the generalized accurately reflect the diversity is acquired and what assumptions and diminished social, economic within and can have are made in the historical and health status of Indigenous a negative impact on relationships development of knowledge. people, yet fail to consider the between individuals and groups This area of inquiry is critical to detrimental historical, social, and defined as meaningfully different. understanding racism because political determinants of those 6 In particular, racial stereotypes the dominance of western disparities. The findings of this can form a mental framework knowledge systems produces and flawed research are published among members of the dominant promotes beliefs about racialized and offered as facts through racialized group (in the case of as inferior to western academic and popular media, North America, people defined culture. For Indigenous people, which creates erroneous, yet as white) about how to ‘deal these knowledge systems played widely held, negative stereotypes a key and relentless role in their

6 Western civilization, with its roots in European and Mediterranean antiquity, is based on three major traditions including: classical Greek and Roman culture, the Christian religion, and the scientific method (Perry, Chase, Jacob, & Jacob, 2009). 4 and attitudes about Indigenous Relational racism in personal interactions and peoples. Moreover, research includes demeaning language, involving Indigenous people The term ‘relational’ refers discriminatory behavior, and/or continues to be dominated to the context of everyday assault. Yet, by confining racism by certain paradigms while human relationships. Relational to the realm of the interpersonal, Indigenous and other alternative racism occurs when a person we neglect the more insidious 7 worldviews and approaches experiences discriminatory and perhaps destructive impacts are ignored or rejected as behaviour from people he/she of structural racism (Klitgaard, ‘unscientific’ (Walker, 2003). Too encounters in his/her daily life 1972). often, non-Indigenous researchers (e.g., being followed by sales with little or no connection to people in stores; being ignored Structural racism Indigenous communities conduct in a line up when their turn research about Indigenous comes; being denied promotion The term ‘structural’ refers to peoples that is based on western by an employer when others are the economic, social and political disciplinary-specific theories. receiving one for doing less well; institutions and processes of The culturally irrelevant and and having others avoid close society, and the moral and often racist results of these personal contact, particularly in cultural systems that underpin studies are then disseminated isolated locations or at night). them (McGibbon, Waldren, & to an often equally disengaged Unfortunately, relational racism Jackson, In press). A structural and uninformed academic also manifests as more overtly theory of racism is based on audience, thus perpetuating the damaging behaviour, including the notion of racialized social dominance of western research name-calling, as well as physical systems (Bonilla-Silva, 1997), on Indigenous people. In fact, and sexual assault, and sometimes which emerges when a dominant the recent advance of Indigenous murder. Much of this behaviour group is established and its 8 paradigms and methodologies is based on hostile attitudes power is reinforced through by Indigenous scholars, as well as informed by negative stereotypes inequitable laws, policies, rules the development of Indigenous- (Levin, 2011; Dylan, Regehr, and regulations, as well as access specific research ethics guidelines & Alaggia, 2008; Lamontagne, to resources. Structural racism is 9 by the Tri-Council has been Canadian Electronic Library, & perpetrated when policy makers initiated to address this form of Canadian Women’s Foundation, and power brokers [re]produce or epistemic racism. 2011). fail to redress structural inequities between racialized groups. In While it is critical to consider the Relational racism is certainly the this way, the ideological concept dominance of western knowledge most obvious form of racism. of race is given material power systems and practices as a distinct Therefore, we often perceive in the social order, as it becomes form of racism, most people are racism as being associated linked to political and economic familiar with the more obvious with this type of irrational structures and systems (Essed & form of relational racism. bigotry that is demonstrated Goldberg, 2002).

7 Indigenous worldviews are based on ancient and sacred knowledge and traditions about human beings’ interconnectedness with the natural , the spirit world, the past and the future, as well as the need for balance and harmony in all relationships (Turtle Island Conservation, 2012). 8 Methodology refers to the approach taken in research, while methods refer to ways of gathering information. 9 The Tri-Council consists of the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.

Understanding racism 5 emotional, and sexual harm to the children and produced complex intergenerational effects (Milloy, 1999). More recently (1960s to present), child welfare programs continue to apprehend Indigenous children from their homes at rates much higher than non-Indigenous children, often placing them in non-Indigenous homes away from family, community and cultural supports (Blackstock & Trocmé, 2005).

© Credit: fotosearch.com, ID 1798896. © Credit: fotosearch.com, Structural racism frequently McGibbon, Etowa, and Essed and Goldberg (2002) takes the form of exclusion McPherson (2008) describe how suggest that “these practices from social society, social the ideological construction of both adapt to and themselves goods, social production racial difference is frequently contribute to changing social, and social consumption. used to generate and reinforce economic and political conditions structural inequities through a in society” (p. 185). Examples cycle of oppression. Within these of racist structural practice can structures, stereotypes about be seen in political actions that Social exclusion physically and Indigenous people (e.g., they are attempt to maintain dominance socially isolates racialized groups alcoholics, lazy, and irresponsible) over Indigenous peoples (Berger, from equally participating in bring about prejudices (to pre- 2009). For instance, the Indian and benefiting from educational, judge based on a stereotype Act essentially conveys the economic, political, and [Merriam-Webster Online, status of ‘Indian’ on individuals health systems. These actions 2012b]; e.g., every Indigenous through a variety of criteria that disadvantage certain racialized person I meet is a threat to me have never been sanctioned by groups to the extent that they and/or a burden to society), Indigenous peoples. Likewise, create unfair distribution of which produces discrimination the size, location and distribution resources such as housing, (an action or inaction based on of Indian reserves, which are health care, and opportunities prejudice; Dictionary.com, n.d.- lands set aside for residence by for education, employment, b), which leads to oppression status Indians, were often not justice, and social welfare. Wallis, (institutional disregard and/ determined by, or in consultation Sunseri and Galabuzi (2010) or support of prejudicial and with, Indigenous peoples (Alfred describe social exclusion in inequitable treatment of a & Alfred, 2009). The residential four areas: social society, social racialized and stereotyped group; school program established by goods, social production and Dictionary.com, n.d.-c). the federal government and social consumption. Christian churches forcibly Structural racism is removed thousands of Indigenous Exclusion from social society occurs operationalized within the children from their homes in when institutional mechanisms routine practices created and order to ‘educate and civilize’ create social, material and/or supported by racist ideologies. them, yet caused physical, geographic isolation, which limit

6 participation in civil society 10 Exclusion from social production for economic development and political decision-making. refers to the denial of within Indigenous communities. Indigenous people have been opportunities to contribute Moreover, government policies excluded from Canadian society to, or participate in, social and have limited the degree to which through the Indian Act, which cultural activities of a society. Indigenous peoples can engage defines them as wards of the This begins with an historical in economic development and federal government rather than record that essentially ignores the the market economy (Royal as valuable citizens of Canada. harms suffered by Indigenous Commission on Aboriginal This has been accomplished peoples during Peoples, 1996). through centralization, which of Canada and does not physically isolated Indigenous respectfully acknowledge the Symbolic racism people on remote First Nations past or present contributions reserves and Inuit hamlets, and made by Indigenous peoples Symbolic racism was defined through policies that limit or to the cultural (music, dance, relatively recently to describe curtail Indigenous peoples’ ability art, spirituality), environmental explicitly negative public to make decisions for their own (protection, sustainable response to forms of relational communities (Royal Commission resource development), and racism (Henry & Sears, 2002). on Indigenous Peoples, 1996). political (democratic government) Symbolic racism persists in development of Canadian some members of the dominant Exclusion from social goods society (Royal Commission on racialized group who might not represents a failure to provide Aboriginal Peoples, (1996). be labeled as racist because they for the needs of a particular abhor overt relational racism, yet or measures to restrict Exclusion from social consumption they often hold similar, albeit others from doing so. Several manifests as inadequate access to less aggressive, attitudes that examples of the exclusion of the usual forms of employment serve to maintain the inequitable Indigenous people from the and participation in the racial status quo (Tarman & attainment of social goods can economy and labour-market. Sears, 2005; Trepagnier, 2001). be found in the poor quality For Indigenous people, this is In this case, prejudices are of housing provided on First revealed as a lack of educational revealed in less direct ways such Nations reserves and Inuit and employment opportunities as opposition to social justice- communities, the lack of adequate resulting from inadequate based racially targeted policies federal investment in critical investment in the education and such as affirmative action policies infrastructure such as water retention of Indigenous students, or the Non-Insured Health treatment and accessible roads, as well as inaccessible (physically Benefits program for status First as well as lack of protection from and/or culturally) training or Nations people (Vala, Pereira, ecologically unsafe extraction advanced education for those & Costa-Lopes, 2009). Those and/or development of natural living in remote communities. individuals who believe that resources on traditional Furthermore, as a result of Indigenous people should not lands (Royal Commission on relocation to isolated and/or be given ‘special’ treatment and Aboriginal Peoples, 1996). inadequately resourced locations, who make statements about their there are very few opportunities ancestors coming to Canada with

10 Civil society refers to non-governmental, special interest or faith-based organizations (e.g., Friends of the Earth, World Vision) that reflect the interests and goals of the public.

Understanding racism 7 nothing and “climbing their and, on the surface, this is Blair, 2008). Some scholars have way to the top through hard obviously true. This notion even suggested that the , work and perseverance” are said of ‘racelessness’ is regularly as an institution of higher to be demonstrating symbolic promoted in social science learning, is implicated in the racism (Shuman, Steeh, Bobo, & discourses that present race as maintenance of Krysan, 1997). a social construction and focus through the discourse of colour- instead on differences between blindness (Zamudio & Rios, Embodied racism ethnic groups (Harrison, 1995). 2006). However, although the theory of Embodied racism is experienced biological race has been refuted, Conclusion through the reactions of these discourses fail to consider the body to the anxieties of the very real social experience of Race is not a biological fact but discrimination, alienation and racism (Shanklin, 1998; Bernard, rather a socially constructed social violence (Hook, 2006). 2011). Consequently, this concept that was created and is philosophy actually perpetuates Aside from creating inequities maintained to establish disparities in the material conditions of inequities because it does not in the distribution of resources life, the injustices of racism recognize that people are, in fact, and power (Smedley & Smedley, also exert powerful, physical, treated differently based on the 2005). The roots of inequities and psychological responses racialized or ethnic category to within structures, systems within individuals. Likewise, the which they are socially assigned; and individual behaviours are social isolation and residential racialized people experience deeply embedded in erroneous segregation of structural racism discrimination and systemic beliefs about innate differences is experienced in the body as oppression, whereas people between groups of people. physical and psychological categorized as white are imbued This is particularly evident in pathogens such as increased rates with an unearned privilege as relationships between people of chronic disease and mental a result of their skin colour. of European ancestry and health challenges (Collins & National statistics related to Indigenous peoples in North Williams, 1999; Trocmé, Knoke, education and employment America. Racism exists in & Blackstock, 2004). An example fully support the reality of this several, often intersecting, of this kind of racism can be differential treatment (Galabuzi, forms including: negative and found in the racially motivated 2006). Rather than promoting stereotypic attitudes about formation of an ‘Indigenous social justice, colour-blindness or ‘racialized’ groups, the dominance welfare ,’ which has captured racelessness essentially ignores of western knowledge systems, Indigenous people within the social realities of racialized overt aggression and more subtle punitive colonial systems that inequities experienced within discriminatory behaviours, as are directly and indirectly linked relationships, systems and well as structural inequities and to the disproportionate burden structures, thereby maintaining social exclusion. In the next fact of illness, injury, and premature the status quo. Civil rights sheet, we will explore how a death (van Krieken, 2004). activists claim that this is racist ideology and diverse forms simply a new form of racism of racism create and perpetuate Colour-blindness that manifests in more subtle disadvantage and poor health and indirect ways than the among Indigenous peoples. more explicit forms of racial The recent concept of ‘colour- segregation and antagonism blindness’ suggests that racial (Leach, 2005; Bonilla-Silva, 2006; differences are not important

8 References

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Trocmé, N., Knoke, D., & Blackstock, C. (2004). Pathways to the overrepresentation of Aboriginal children in Canada’s child welfare system. Social Service Review, 78(4): 577-600.

11 HOW TO USE THIS FACT SHEET REFLECT ENGAGE SHARE

Talk to others in your Find local friendship centers, Request a hard copy of this community, reflect on the community organizations or fact sheet for yourself, your content of this fact sheet, and groups where you can volunteer clients, your students or your contemplate how you could or participate in healthy positive organization’s event or office. make a difference in the health actions. You too can share Share the link to this publication and well-being for yourself, your knowledge and make a difference through your social media family or your community. in the health and well-being of networks. Like, pin or favourite First Nations, Inuit, and Métis this fact sheet on one of the Peoples’ of Canada. NCCIH social media channels.

sharing knowledge · making a difference partager les connaissances · faire une différence ᖃᐅᔨᒃᑲᐃᖃᑎᒌᓃᖅ · ᐱᕚᓪᓕᖅᑎᑦᑎᓂᖅ

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