LEVEL OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT AND ITS IMPACT ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATION– A CASE STUDY OF MALDA DISTRICT (W.B.)
THESIS
SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
Doctor of Philosophy In Geography
BY CHAND SULTANA
UNDER THE SUPERVISON OF PROF. SHAMSUL HAQUE SIDDIQUI (CHAIRPERSON)
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH (INDIA)
2017
CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION
I, Chand Sultana, Department of Geography, certify that the work embodied in this Ph.D. thesis is my own bona fide work carried out by me under the supervision of Prof. Shamsul Haque Siddiqui at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. The matter embodied in this Ph.D. thesis has not been submitted for the award of any other degree.
I declare that I have faithfully acknowledged, given credit to and referred to the research workers wherever their works have been cited in the text and the body of the thesis. I further certify that I have not willfully lifted up some other’s work, para, text, data, result, etc., reported in the journals, books, magazines, reports, dissertations, thesis, etc., or available at web-sites and included them in this Ph.D. thesis and cited as my own work.
(Chand Sultana) En. No. GC- 0576 …………………………………………………………………………………………..
CERTIFICATE FROM THE SUPERVISOR This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of my knowledge.
(Prof. Shamsul Haque Siddiqui) (Supervisor and Chairperson) Department of Geography Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, U.P.
(Signature of the Chairperson of the Department with seal)
PROF. (DR.) SHAMSUL H. SIDDIQUI DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY M.Sc., Ph.D. (Alig.) ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY Chairperson ALIGARH (U.P.), INDIA -202002
Dated:………………
Certificate
This is to certify that Chand Sultana has completed her Ph. D. thesis entitled “Level of Agricultural Development and its Impact on Socio-Economic Transformation - A Case Study of Malda District (W.B.)” under my supervision. The work embodied in this thesis is an original record of research work and distinct addition to the existing knowledge of the subject. She is allowed to submit the work for Ph.D Degree at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh (India).
Prof. Shamsul Haque Siddiqui (Supervisor & Chairperson)
Phone : Office 0091-571-2700683, Internal : 1316, Residence : +91-0571-2720189 Mob. : 09412673640 E-Mail : [email protected], Fax : +91-0571-2700528
COURSE/COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATION/PRE-SUBMISSION SEMINAR COMPLETION CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mrs. Chand Sultana Department of Geography has satisfactorily completed the course work/comprehensive examination and pre- submission seminar presentation which is a part of her Ph.D. programme.
(Prof. Shamsul Haque Siddiqui) Chairperson Department of Geography Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh. U.P
COPYRIGHT TRANSFER CERTIFICATE
Title of the Thesis: “LEVEL OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT AND ITS IMPACT ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATION – A CASE STUDY OF MALDA DISTRICT (W. B.)”
Candidate’s Name: CHAND SULTANA
COPYRIGHT TRANSFER
The undersigned hereby assigns to the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh copyright that may exist in and for the above thesis submitted for the award of the Ph. D degree.
(Chand Sultana)
Note: However, the author may reproduce or authorize others to reproduce material extracted verbatim from the thesis or derivative of the thesis for author’s personal use provide that the source and the University’s copyright notice are indicated.
Dedicated To My Beloved Parents & Supervisor
CONTENTS
Page No. Acknowledgements i-ii List of Tables iii-v List Figures vi-viii
INTRODUCTION 1-11 Statement of the Problem Objectives of the Study Research Hypotheses Research Design Database Tools of data collection Methodology Study Area Organization of Research Work
CHAPTER 1: PHYSIO-CULTURAL SETTING OF THE STUDY AREA 12-43 1.1. Location 1.2. Historical Background 1.3. Administrative Division 1.4. Physiography 1.5 Drainage Pattern 1.6. Climate 1.7. Geology 1.8. Natural Vegetation 1.9. Agriculture 1.10. Soil 1.11. Demographic Personality 1.12. Growth of Population 1.13. Distribution of Population 1.14. Density of Population 1.15. Sex Ratio 1.16. Literacy 1.17. Industry 1.18. Transport and Communication 1.19. Economy
CHAPTER 2: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE 44-68 REVIEW 2.1. Conceptual Framework 2.2. Review of Literature
69-101 CHAPTER 3: DYNAMICS OF AGRICULTURE 3.1. Concept of Land use 3.2. Conceptual Framework of Land use 3.3. Land use pattern in Malda District 3.4. Cropping Pattern 3.4.1. Cropping Pattern in Malda District 3.4.2. Cropping pattern during 2000-2001 3.4.3. Cropping pattern during 2010-11 3.5. Growth rate of area, production and yield of major crops during 2001-2011 3.6. Cropping of Intensity 3.6.1. Spatial Pattern of Cropping Intensity in Malda District
(2001-2011) 3.7. Diversification of Cropping 3.7.1. Crop Diversification by Gibbs and Martin 3.7.2. Pattern of Crop Diversification in Malda 3.7.3. Pattern of Crop Diversification in 2000-2001 3.7.4. Pattern of Crop Diversification in 2010-11 3.8. Crop Combination Regions 3.8.1. Spatial Pattern of Crop Combination Regions (2000-2001) 3.8.2. Spatial Pattern of Crop Combination Regions (2010-2011)
CHAPTER 4: SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF TECHNOLOGICAL AND 102-148 INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS 4.a. Technological Factors 4.1. Tractor 4.1.1. Spatial distribution of Tractor (2000-01) 4.1.2. Spatial distribution of Tractor (2010-11) 4.2. Power Tiller 4.2.1. Spatial distribution of Power tiller (2000-01) 4.2.2. Spatial distribution of Power tiller (2000-01) 4.3. Pumpset 4.3.1. Spatial distribution of Pumpset (2000-01) 4.3.2. Spatial distribution of Pumpset (2010-11) 4.4. Sprayer/Duster 4.4.1. Spatial distribution of sprayer/duster (2000-01) 4.4.2. Spatial distribution of sprayer/duster (2010-11) 4.5. Thresher 4.5.1. Spatial distribution of thresher (2000-01) 4.5.2. Spatial distribution of thresher (2010-11) 4.6. Fertilizers 4.7. Irrigation 4.8. Sources of Irrigation in Malda District 4.8.1. River lift irrigation (RLI) 4.8.2. Deep Tube well (DTW) 4.8.3. Shallow Tube well (STW) 4.8.4. Tanks 4.8.5. Others 4.9. Agricultural Labourer 4.9.1. Spatial distribution of Agricultural Labourer (2000-01) 4.9.2. Spatial distribution of Agricultural Labourer (2010-11) 4.10. Cultivator 4.10. 1. Spatial distribution of cultivators (2000-01) 4.10.2. Spatial distribution of cultivators (2010-11) 4.b. Institutional Factors 4.11. Literacy 4.12. Co-Operative Societies 4.12.1. Spatial distribution of co-operative societies (2000-01) 4.12.2. Spatial distribution of co-operative societies in (2010-11) 4.13. Fair Price Shop 4.13.1. Spatial distribution of fair price shop (2000-01) 4.13.2. Spatial distribution of fair price shop (2010-11) 4.14. Fertilizer Depot 4.14.1. Spatial distribution of fertilizer depot (2000-01) 4.14. 2. Spatial distribution of fertilizer depot (2010-11) 4.15. Seed Store 4.15.1. Spatial distribution of seed store (2000-01) 4.15.2. Spatial distribution of seed store (2010-11)
CHAPTER 5: MEASUREMENT OF AGRICULTURAL 149-180 PRODUCTIVITY 5.1. Concept of Agricultural Productivity 5.2. Measurement of Agricultural Productivity 5.3. Productivity Regions – Cereals (2001) 5.4. Productivity Regions – Pulses (2001) 5.5. Productivity Regions – Oilseeds (2001) 5.6. Productivity Regions – Cash Crops (2001) 5.7. Productivity Regions Based on Composite Index (2001) 5.8. Productivity Regions – Cereals (2011) 5.9. Productivity Regions – Pulses (2011) 5.10. Productivity Regions – Oilseeds (2011) 5.11. Productivity Regions – Cash Crops (2011) 5.12. Productivity Regions Based on Composite Index (2011) 5.13. Pattern of areal change of Agricultural Productivity (2000-01 to 2010-11)
CHAPTER 6: LEVEL OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT 181-216 6.1. Agricultural Development 6.2. Factor Analysis 6.2.1. Factor Analysis 2000-01 6.2.2. Spatial Variation in Factor Scores of Agricultural Development
2000-01 6.2.3. Factor Analysis 2010-11 6.2.4. Spatial Variation in Factor Scores of Agricultural Development
2010-11 6.3. Inter-relationship among independent variables (2000-01) 6.4. Inter-relationship among independent variables (2010-11) 6.5. Level of Agricultural Development 6.5.1. Level of Agricultural Development (2000-01) 6.5.2. Level of Agricultural Development (2010-11) 6.6. Change in Levels of Agricultural Development 2000-01 to 2010-11 6.7. Level of Socio-Economic Development 6.7.1. Level of Socio-Economic Development (2000-01) 6.7.2. Level of Socio-Economic Development (2010-11) 6.8. Agriculture and its impact on Socio-Economic Development 6.8.1. Agricultural Development vis-à-vis Socio-economic
Development (2000-2001) 6.8.2. Agricultural Development vis-à-vis Socio-economic
Development (2010-2011)
CHAPTER 7: SOCIO-ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATION – A MICRO 217-269 LEVEL ANALYSIS 7.1. Socio-Economic Transformation 7.2. Village Profile 7.3. Personal and Household Characteristics of Respondents 7.3.1. Age Composition of Respondents in decision making process 7.3.2. Educational Status of Respondents 7.3.3. Family Size of the Respondents 7.3.4. Size of Landholdings of the Respondents 7.3.5. Level of Innovativeness 7.4. Level of Social Transformation 7.4.1. Preference of the Quality of Education 7.4.2. Preference of Location of School 7.4.3. Attitude towards Marriage 7.4.4. Attitude towards Family Planning 7.4.5. Level of Religiosity 7.4.6. Political Awareness and Involvement 7.4.7. Level of Social Mobility 7.4.8. Overall Level of Social Transformation 7.5. Level of Economic Transformation 7.5.1. Level of Per Capita Income 7.5.2. Level of Standard of Living 7.5.3. Level of Housing Condition 7.5.4. Level of Exposure to Mass Media 7.5.5. Level of Occupational Transformation 7.5.6. Overall Level of Economic Transformation 7.6. Level of Socio-Economic Transformation 7.7. Village wise Level of Socio-Economic Transformation
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS 270-285
BIBLIOGRAPHY 286-304
APPENDICES 305-317
PLATES 318-320
GLOSSARY 321
Acknowledgement
Above all, I owe it all to Almighty Allah for granting me the wisdom, health and courage to undertake this research task and enabling me to its completion.
Firstly, I express my sincere gratitude and thanks to my supervisor & Chairperson Prof. Shamsul Haque Siddiqui, Department of Geography, Aligarh Muslim University for his erudite, scholastic and constructive guidance, sincere criticism, precious suggestions, constant inspirations and encouragement throughout the course of this study. His guidance helped me in all the time of research and writing of this thesis. I could not have imagined having a better advisor and mentor for my research.
I am also grateful to my teachers Dr. Tariq Mahmood Usmani, Dr. Mumtaj Ahmed, Dr. Fazlur Rahman for Dr. Nooruzzaman for their valuable suggestions. I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to all the teachers of the department for their support and for developing healthy academic environment in the department. Thanks are due to all non-teaching staff at the Department of Geography, AMU, Aligarh, for extending the helping hand at times during my research. It was a very nice and memorable association with all the technical stuff research scholars of the departments I wish to give them my heartfelt thanks for their constant support and help. I convey my thanks to Q.I. Hashmi, seminar librarian, Department of Geography, AMU, Aligarh
I take this opportunity to sincerely acknowledge to the University Grants Commission (UGC) for providing financial assistance in the form of Junior Research Fellowship (MANF-JRF) which buttressed me to perform work comfortably.
Special and sincere recognition to my caring and loving husband Dr. Nasim Aktar for always standing by my side as big support and helped me to complete my research work. He also helped me in improving my whole Ph.D work. Without his support and encouragement it would have not possible to complete my research work.
I take this opportunity to thanks my close friends and seniors Dr. Jakir Hossain, Md. Akhtarul Haque, Rajni Sharma, Faiyaz Afzal and Sk Ajim Ali. They were always supporting and encouraging me with their best wishes and timely help.
My special thanks to Tanvirus Sahar and her daughters Sharmin Siddiqui & Saami Siddiqui for their support, prayers, love and words of encouragement during my research work.
My sincere thanks to my in laws (Mr. Nazrul Islam, Mrs. Rofina Bibi, Tahera Khatun, Sayema Yeasmin & Abdul Kuddus) for the support and Dua in completion of my thesis.
i Finally, I am also thankful greatly and whole heartedly to my family members whose encouraging words helped me to complete this work. I am proud of my father Mr. Mostak Sk, mother Mrs. Nounara Bibi, my sisters (Tahida Khatun & Wahida Khatun) and brothers (Asadul Islam & Sahanowaj), I also wish to thanks to my brother in laws (Anowar Hossain and Anikul Islam) for their constant support, prayers, love and words of encouragement during my research programme. They are my strength and constant source of inspiration for the completion of this work and whole life. Besides them it was the tender love and affection of my niece (Diya, Piya, Dina & Ayan) which cuddled my times of excessive work load.
Chand Sultana
ii LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. DESCRIPTION PAGE NO. INTRODUCTION Methodology of Calculating Yield Index Method as proposed by 1 8 W.M. Yang’s. CHAPTER-I Administrative Divisions (Schematic Composition) of Malda 1.1 18 District, 2011 1.2 Physiographic Division of Malda, 2011 19 1.3 The Drainage System (Main Rivers) of Malda District, 2011 23 1.4 Mean Monthly Rainfall and Temperature of Malda District (2011) 28 1.5 Total Population Growth Rate of Malda District (1901 - 2011) 35 1.6 Population Dynamics in Malda District and West Bengal, 2011 36 Block wise Total Population and Density of Population in Malda 1.7 37 District, 2011 1.8 Block-wise Sex Ratio in Malda District 38 1.9 Literacy Rate: The State and the District 39 1.10 Literacy Rate in Malda District 39 CHAPTER-III
3.1 Land Use Pattern of Malda District (2000-01 to 2010-11) 73 3.2 Block wise Cropping Pattern of Malda district (2000-2001) 75 3.3 Block wise Cropping Pattern of Malda District (2010-2011) 77 3.4 Growth Rate of Area, Production and Yield of Major Crops in Malda 80 3.5 Cropping Intensity of Malda District (2001 and 2011) 86 3.6 Categories of Cropping Intensity in Malda 86 3.7 Block-wise Crop Diversification Index of Malda District 91 3.8 Categories of Crop Diversification in Malda District 91 3.9 Categories of Crop Combinations Region in Malda District 95 CHAPTER - IV 4.1 Block-wise Distribution of Tractor in Malda District 103 4.2. Spatial distribution of Tractor in Malda district 103 4.3 Block-wise Distribution of Power Tiller in Malda District 106 4.4 Spatial distribution of Power Tiller in Malda district 106 4.5 Block-wise Distribution of Pumpset in Malda District 109 4.6 Spatial distribution of Pumpset in Malda district 109 4.7 Block-wise Distribution of Sprayer in Malda District 112 4.8 Spatial distribution of Sprayer in Malda district 112 4.9 Block-wise Distribution of Thresher in Malda District 115 4.10 Spatial distribution of Thresher in Malda district 115 Consumption of Different Types of Chemical Fertilizer in Malda 4.11 119 District and West Bengal, 2000-01 to 2010-11 Block- Wise Number of Different Types of Irrigation in Malda 4.12 123 District
iii 4.13 Area Irrigated by Different Sources of Irrigation in Malda District 125 Block – Wise Percentage of Agricultural Labourer to total workers in 4.14 127 Malda District 4.15 Spatial distribution of Agricultural Labourer in Malda district 127 Block-Wise Percentage of Cultivator to Total Worker in Malda 4.16 130 District 4.17 Spatial distribution of Cultivators in Malda district 130 4.18 Block Wise Literacy rate in Malda District 133 4.19 Spatial distribution of Literacy rate in Malda district 133 4.20 Block-Wise Percentage of Co-Operative Societies in Malda District 136 4.21 Spatial distribution of Co-operative societies in Malda district 136 4.22 Block-Wise Percentage of Fair Price Shop per in Malda District 138 4.23 Spatial distribution of Fair Price Shop in Malda district 139 4.24 Block-Wise Percentage of Fertilizer Depots in Malda District 141 4.25 Spatial distribution of Fertilizer Depots in Malda district 141 4.26 Block-Wise Percentage of Seed Store in Malda District 144 CHAPTER-V Methodology of Calculating Yield Index Method as proposed by 5.1 158 W.M. Yang’s. Number of Blocks under Different Productivity Regions with their 5.2 165 Indices (2001) Number of Blocks under Different Productivity Regions with their 5.3 175 Indices (2011) Areal Change in Agricultural Productivity in Malda from 2000-01 to 5.4 177 2010-11 CHAPTER-VI 6.1 Variables of Agricultural Development in Malda District 181 Factor Structure of Agricultural Development in Malda District 6.2 183 through Rotated Factor Matrix, 2000-01 6.3 Standardized Factor Scores of Agricultural Development, 2000-01 184 Factor Structure of Agricultural Development in Malda District 6.4 186 through Rotated Factor Matrix, 2010-11 6.5 Standardized Factor Scores of Agricultural Development, 2010-11 187 Correlation Matrix of twenty two variables of Agricultural 6.6 190 Development, 2000-01 Correlation Matrix of twenty two variables of Agricultural 6.7 192 Development, 2010-11 6.8 Levels of Agricultural Development in Malda District, 2000-01 196 Spatial Pattern of Agricultural Development in Malda District (2000- 6.9 196 01) 6.10 Levels of Agricultural Development in Malda District, 2010-11 199 Spatial Pattern of Agricultural Development in Malda District (2010- 6.11 199 11) 6.12 Variables of Socio-Economic Development 202 Spatial Pattern of Socio-Economic Development in Malda District 6.13 203 (2000-01)
iv Spatial Pattern of Socio-Economic Development in Malda District 6.14 205 (2010-11) Agricultural Development vis-à-vis Socio-Economic Development in 6.15 208 Malda District (2000-2001) Agricultural Development vis-à-vis Socio-Economic Development in 6.16 211 Malda District (2010-2011) CHAPTER-VII 7.1 Profile of Selected Villages in Malda District, 2016 223 7.2 Age Composition of all Respondents 228 7.3 Educational Status of all Respondents 230 7.4 Family Size of all Respondents 232 7.5 Operational Size of Land Holdings of all Respondents 233 7.6 Level of Innovativeness of all Respondents 235 7.7 Preference of School for their Children 236 7.8 Preference of Location of School of Respondents for their Children 238 7.9 Preference of age of Marriage for Boy Child 239 7.10 Preference of age of Marriage for Girl Child 240 7.11 Index of Family Planning 242 7.12 Level of Religiosity of all respondents 243 7.13 Political Awareness of all Respondents 244 7.14 Level of Social Mobility of all Respondents 245 7.15 Composite Index of Social Transformation 247 7.16 Index of income level of all respondents 248 7.17 Level of Standard of living of all respondents 250 7.18 Level of Housing Condition of all respondent 251 7.19 Level of Exposure to mass media of all respondents 253 7.20 Level of Occupational Transformation 254 7.21 Composite Index of Economic Transformation 256 Composite Index of Socio-Economic Transformation of the 7.22 257 Respondents 7.23 List of Variables of Agricultural Development 258 7.24 Spatial Pattern of Agricultural Development in Selected Villages 259 Spatial Pattern of Socio-Economic Transformation in Selected 7.25 261 Villages Agricultural Development vis-à-vis Socio-Economic Transformation 7.26 264 in selected villages of Malda District (2016) 7.27 Hypotheses Testing (H1) 266
7.28 Hypotheses Testing (H2) 266
7.29 Hypotheses Testing (H3) 267
v LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE THEME/DESCRIPTION NO. NO. CHAPTER-I 1.1 Location Map of Malda District, 2011 13 1.2 Physiographic Division of Malda District 21 1.3 Drainage Pattern of Malda District 24 1.4 Climatic Condition of Malda District 27 1.5 Mean Monthly Rainfall and Temperature of Malda District (2011) 29 1.6 Major Soil Types of Malda District 32 1.7 Population Growth Rate in Malda District (1901-2011) 35 CHAPTER-III 3.1 Cropping Pattern of Malda District, 2000-01 76 3.2 Cropping Pattern of Malda District, 2010-11 76 3.3 Growth rate of area, Yield and Production of Major Crops (2001-06) 82 3.4 Growth rate of area, Yield and Production of Major Crops (2006-11) 82 3.5 Growth rate of area, Yield and Production of Major Crops (2001-11) 82 Growth Rate of Cropping Intensity in Malda District (2000-01 to 3.6 87 2010-11) 3.7 Cropping Intensity of Malda District, 2000-01 88 3.8 Cropping Intensity of Malda District, 2010-11 88 3.9 Crop Diversification Based on Gibbs & Martin, 2000-01 92 3.10 Crop Diversification Based on Gibbs & Martin, 2010-11 92 3.11 Crop Combination Region of Malda District, 2000-01 97 3.12 Crop Combination Region of Malda District, 2010-11 97 CHAPTER-IV 4.1 Distribution of Tractor in Malda District, 2000-01 104 4.2 Distribution of Tractor in Malda District, 2010-11 104 4.3 Distribution of Power Tiller in Malda District, 2000-01 107 4.4 Distribution of Power Tiller in Malda District, 2010-11 107 4.5 Distribution of Pumpset in Malda District, 2000-01 110 4.6 Distribution of Pumpset in Malda District, 2010-11 110 4.7 Distribution of Sprayer in Malda District, 2000-01 113 4.8 Distribution of Sprayer in Malda District, 2010-11 113
vi 4.9 Distribution of Thresher in Malda District, 2000-01 116 4.10 Distribution of Thresher in Malda District, 2010-11 116 4.11 Number of different types of irrigation in Malda District, 2000-01 124 4.12 Number of different types of irrigation in Malda District, 2010-11 124 4.13 Percentage of Agricultural Labourer in Malda District, 2000-01 128 4.14 Percentage of Agricultural Labourer in Malda District, 2010-11 128 4.15 Percentage of Cultivator in Malda District, 2000-01 131 4.16 Percentage of Cultivator in Malda District, 2010-11 131 4.17 Literacy Rate in Malda District, 2000-01 134 4.18 Literacy Rate in Malda District, 2010-11 134 Percentage of Co-operative societies per 10,000 population in Malda 4.19 137 District, 2000-01 Percentage of Co-operative societies per 10,000 population in Malda 4.20 137 District, 2010-11 Percentage of Fair price shop per 10,000 population in Malda District, 4.21 140 2000-01 Percentage of Fair price shop per 10,000 population in Malda District, 4.22 140 2010-11 Percentage of Fertilizer Depots per 10,000 population in Malda 4.23 142 District, 2000-01 Percentage of Fertilizer Depots per 10,000 population in Malda 4.24 142 District, 2010-11 Percentage of Seed Store per 10,000 population in Malda District, 4.25 145 2000-01 Percentage of Seed Store per 10,000 population in Malda District, 4.26 145 2010-11 CHAPTER-V 5.1 Productivity Regions- Cereals, 2000-01 160 5.2 Productivity Regions- Pulses, 2000-01 161 5.3 Productivity Regions- Oilseeds, 2000-01 163 5.4 Productivity Regions- Cash Crops, 2000-01 164 5.5 Productivity Regions- Composite Index, 2000-01 166 5.6 Productivity Regions- Cereals, 2010-11 168 5.7 Productivity Regions- Pulses, 2010-11 169 5.8 Productivity Regions- Oilseeds, 2010-11 171 5.9 Productivity Regions- Cash Crops, 2010-11 172 5.10 Productivity Regions- Composite Index, 2010-11 173
vii CHAPTER-VI 6.1 Levels of Agricultural development in Malda District, 2000-01 197 6.2 Levels of Agricultural development in Malda District, 2010-11 200 6.3 Levels of Socio-Economic development in Malda District, 2000-01 204 6.4 Levels of Socio-Economic development in Malda District, 2010-11 206 Agricultural Development vis-à-vis Socio-Economic Development in 6.5 209 Malda District (2000-2001) Agricultural Development vis-à-vis Socio-Economic Development in 6.6 212 Malda District (2010-2011) Chapter- VII 7.1 Location Map of Sampled Villages of Malda District 221 7.2 Age Composition of all Respondents 229 7.3 Educational Status of all Respondents 231 7.4 Family Size of all Respondents 232 7.5 Operational Size of Land Holdings of all Respondents 233 7.6 Level of Innovativeness of all Respondents 235 7.7 Preference of School for their Children 237 7.8 Preference of Location of School of Respondents for their Children 238 7.9 Preference of age of Marriage for Boy Child 240 7.10 Preference of age of Marriage for Girl Child 241 7.11 Attitude towards Family Planning 242 7.12 Political Awareness of all Respondents 244 7.13 Level of Social Mobility of all Respondents 245 7.14 Index of income level of all respondents 249 7.15 Level of Standard of living of all respondents 250 7.16 Level of Housing Condition of all respondent 252 7.17 Level of Exposure to mass media of all respondents 253 7.18 Level of Occupational Transformation 255 Level of Agricultural Development in Selected Villages of Malda 7.19 260 District (2016) Level of Socio-Economic Transformation in Selected Villages of 7.20 262 Malda District (2016) Agricultural Development vis-à-vis Socio-Economic Transformation 7.21 265 in selected villages of Malda District (2016)
viii
Introduction
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is the science of cultivating the soil in order to grow the crops, dairy farming, poultry farming, piggeries and other allied activities, whereas development is a process of change aiming at socio-economic transformation of traditional society into modern one which is greatly influenced by human beings. Agriculture in India through its multifarious relationships has bearing on the industrial, urban, technological and social development. Agriculture was started near about 10,000 B.C. Present day agriculture in India, as in other countries representing ancient civilizations, has evolved itself through ages. The origin and development of agriculture witnessed a boom in agriculture and trade much before significant developments took place as a result of the application of modern scientific methods in agriculture. During the early periods, an increase in production of food and other agricultural commodities came about mainly by increasing the area under cultivation. There has been an awareness all over the world, especially since the last 200 years, that the land resources are not unlimited and that in the business farming too the law of diminishing returns operates as it does elsewhere. In spite of this despair looming large all over the world, it has been possible so far, to meet the needs of the increasing population although catastrophes have resulted on some occasions. Agriculture itself is a system composed of multiple components.
Agriculture has been the oldest as well as the dominant profession in our country. Historical records bear testimony to the fact that agriculture in India had a highest level of development quite early as compared to the levels achieved in many of the countries. The dependence of Indian Agriculture on empirical methods continued until the early part of this century.
Dr. J.A. Voelcker (1898), an eminent British chemist who made a detailed study and gave a report in which he observed that the “ Indian ryot or cultivator is as good as and in some respects superior to the British farmer, while at his worst it can only be said that this state is brought about largely by an absence of facilities for improvement which is probably unequalled in any other country; and the ryot will struggle patiently and uncomplainingly in the face of difficulties in a way that no one else would. The native, though he may be slow in taking up an improvement, will not hesitate to adopt it if he is convinced that it constitutes a better plan and one to his advantages”.
1 Introduction
A landmark development of agriculture in India occurred in 1926 when the Royal Commission on Agriculture was appointed to conduct a detailed enquiry and make recommendation for the development of agriculture in the country. The commission made valuable and significant recommendation but their implementation was not possible because of economic depression during 1930s and the Second World War thereafter.
A statement made in the report of the Royal Commission on Agriculture in 1929 is noteworthy. It said “our enquiry has convinced us that given the opportunity the cultivators of India will be found willing and able to apply in progressive degree the services of science and organisation to the business of agricultural production”.
Indian agriculture has witnessed significant changes since independence. Whereas the expansion of area was the main source of growth until mid-sixties, it is mainly the growth in productivity achieved as a result of introduction of new seed- fertilizer technology that has sustained the tempo of growth during the more recent period. As a consequence of the agricultural sector recording a trend rate of growth of output that is slightly higher than the growth of population, Indian‟s dependence on imports of foodgrains has been reduced considerably since the mid-seventies. Nevertheless these developments, the fact remains that the rate of growth has remained far short of the needs of the economy and has been lower than the plan targets. Further, the pattern of agricultural development in India is characterised by several serious distortions. Firstly, because of unequal distribution of assured irrigation facilities and other infrastructure across regions, the spread of new seed- fertilizer technology has been quite uneven. This has led to increasing inter-regional disparity in the levels and growth of agricultural output in India. Secondly, the gains of development have not been shared equitably among various strata of peasantry due to iniquitous structure of land ownership. Due to these distortions, quite a large proportion of landless labourers and small and marginal farmers continue to live below the poverty line, more so in slow growing regions of the country.
Recognising that the overall performance of agriculture hides the fact that there could be large inter-regional variations in both the level and growth of agricultural output, the achievement of a balanced regional development of the economy has been high on the agenda of policy makers in India since the inception of
2 Introduction planning process in the country. Balanced regional growth was sought to be promoted, among others, through agricultural development programmes that were expected to spread over the entire area within the shortest possible time.
Agriculture constitutes an important activity of people to earn livelihood in Malda district of West Bengal. Agricultural breakthrough provides a base in the form of research and technological application in increasing the quantum of production and productivity per unit area and per person engaged in agriculture. Agricultural development should be evaluated or assessed by the agriculture production and productivity yield per hectare and also by the various inputs like extent of cultivated area, consumption of fertilizers, irrigation, high yielding variety of seeds, labour, degree of mechanization etc. Agricultural development may constitute as one of the very important and dynamic component of socio economic transformation. Because it provides increase of food surplus to the growing population helps to expand the secondary and tertiary sectors, which raises the rural income and purchasing power which transform the society and improve the welfare of the population of the region. Land use is one of the vital aspects of development in agriculture fields, which is a multi-dimensional concept. Diffusion of agriculture innovation has a very strong bearing upon the agricultural efficiency and productivity in any region. Diffusion of agriculture innovation varies from one social system to another and also within the social system itself because of the way in which it is perceived is more important. Keeping this view in mind an attempt has been made to examine the level of agricultural development and its impact on socio-economic transformation in Malda district of West Bengal.
Statement of the Problem:
Development is an innovative process leading to the structural transformation of social system (Friedman, 1969). However, development is a state of mind, which emphasize on an individual to use national resource for the benefit of the society (Mishra, 1985). The motive of development is the context of regional development refers to a value positive concept, which aims at enhancing the level of the living of the people and general condition of human welfare in a region. The concept of diffusion of innovation forms an important aspect in geography, which is a model of time and space relationship. Not only geographers but also sociologists and
3 Introduction economists are also paying much attention towards diffusion studies because of its inter-disciplinary approach. Development implies not only expansion in qualitative terms but also structural change in the society. Structural changes include institutions, social and economic aspects. Development means change in a desired dimension and at a desired speed. The direction and rate of change will depend upon the goal and objective of development. Development involves policy interventions and includes socio-psychological transformations of human being to prepare them for eventual as well as current benefits. It involves temporal, sectoral and spatial planning as well as integrated planning. Diffusion of agricultural innovations varies from one social system to another and within the social system itself because of the way, in which it is perceived more important. It takes time for innovations to diffuse throughout a social system, because not all farmers in a community ever adopt an innovation just affect introduction. There is always variations among the members of a social system in the way they respond to an innovation i.e. idea or practice due to variation in nature and behaviour of different members within the society and any other societies. The World population has been continuously increasing and according to UN estimates, by 2030 A.D. the population of world is likely to be about 8 billion. Increasing population naturally necessitates more food, more water and more power which are the three basic ingredients for smooth functioning of the metabolic system. Interestingly with the increase of global population, the population of poor people has also been witnessing a phenomenal growth. It is estimated that nearly 25 per cent of the World‟s poor population live in the Indian sub continents. There is, therefore, the need to enhance the agricultural development process in order to meet the challenges of increasing population. Agricultural development is much more comprehensive concept than generally understood. It is the manifestation of the combined effect of many factors viz; physical, environmental, institutional and technological. It also implies a process through which the real income of farmers is increased over a long period of time. Obviously, the term agricultural development refers to the growth and overall changes in agriculture resulting in vertical expansion. The level of agricultural development, therefore, may be considered as the degree to which agrarian structure gets strengthened leading thereby to increase production. There are various dimensions of agricultural development in which agricultural productivity is one of the most important dimension of agricultural development. The study area i.e. Malda district is very important geographical and administrative region
4 Introduction lies in north-central part of West Bengal, where about 70 per cent of the working population is directly or indirectly engaged in agriculture. Agriculture not only provides food to the people but also raw materials to numerous agro-based industries. In last three decades, agriculture has shifted from subsistence to commercial agriculture. Malda is one of the fertile regions of the state of West Bengal, but comparatively the yields of crops are below than the other districts of West Bengal. Developing agriculture and reducing gaps between regions with regard to the efficiency of the agricultural system can only achieve regional development in an overwhelmingly agricultural situation. Progress in agriculture releases resources, labour as well as capital for use in industry and services. Progress also leads to the modernization and social development and better living through education and generating tendency to consume other than agricultural goods. Findings of this research may help to design plans and formulate policies for the development of the area in general and reducing spatial inequalities at micro level in particular. Therefore, there is considerable scope for the improvement of agricultural production and productivity per hectare and per agricultural worker, particularly for small and marginal farms, which will help to increase income levels and improve the quality of life of the people particularly in the rural areas. In this context, the agriculture and it‟s all aspects should be explained with reference to Malda district.
Objectives:
The present study is intended to fulfil the following objectives: 1. To analyze the importance of physical setting of the region that facilitates the basic necessities for agricultural practices. 2. To analyze the land use pattern, cropping intensity and growth rate in area, production and yield of major crops in the study region. 3. To examine the spatial pattern of crop combination regions in the study area. 4. To assess the spread and diffusion of technological and institutional factors in the study area. 5. To measure the agricultural productivity in the study region. 6. To measure the level of agricultural development in the study region. 7. To identify the level of socio-economic transformation in the study area.
5 Introduction
8. To assess the impact of agricultural development on socio-economic transformation of the study area.
Research Hypotheses:
Agricultural development of the study region is directly related to agricultural technology. The farmers having adequate and assured irrigation are more adoptive of agricultural technology as compared to others. Socio-economic transformation is positively related to agricultural development.
Research Design:
The present work, which has been organized into seven chapters, is based on following steps: The reference material was collected from various Universities and the departmental library and reference cards were prepared for detailed study. Secondary data are collected from various departments of Government of West Bengal. Primary data are collected from field survey at village level. Classification and analysis of data. Preparation of maps, graphs, charts and diagrams through different cartographic and statistical techniques. Report Writing.
Data Base:
The present study is based on secondary as well as primary source of data. In the present study, the secondary data has been obtained from the published literature, government reports and district statistical bulletin and unpublished records of the public administration of government offices. The primary data has been obtained by conducting the field survey in some selected villages based on questions and personal interview.
6 Introduction
Tools of Data Collection:
Both quantitative and qualitative methods were used in the data collection. The quantitative methodology used for socio-economic survey to collect data from 450 households over the 15 villages in the district. The qualitative methodology used to highlight ethnographic reports and case studies of the selected households. These methods are useful for identifying location specific pattern. The data also provided a qualitative explanation on the results of the household‟s survey.
Methodology:
The following methods have been used for the study: Descriptive approach has been adopted to put down the account of physio- cultural account of Malda district. Gibbs-Martin index of crop diversification has been used to find out the different regions of crop diversification. J. C Weaver‟s Least Square Method has been used to find out different crop combination regions. To process and analyse the data Z score and correlation techniques have been used. Standard Z Score represented by
_ X X Z= Where, Z= Standard Score X= original value of the observation _ X = Mean of all variable of X = Standard Deviation of X
After standardized the variables, its score has been added together for each block and divided with number of variables considered which give the composite score of that blocks. The composite standard score is expressed as: Zij C.S.= N
7 Introduction
Where: C.S. = Composite Score, N = No of variables, Σ Zij = Z- score of all variables i in district j. The indices of crop productivity have been calculated on the basis of Yang‟s yield index method for two periods 2000-01 and 2010-11. To compute agricultural productivity the present study is based on Yang‟s „Crop Yield Index‟ method (1965) due to the fact that it considers the yield of all crops compared with the average yield of crops in the entire region. Initially it is needed to take the yields of all the crops considered in the district and compare them with the average yields of the same corps grown in the state, the average yield of each of crop cultivated in the entire region should be considered. Then, by dividing the yield per hectare of a crop in the district by the average yield of the same crop in the state, a percentage figure is obtained, which is multiplied by 100, gives an index number, as shown in column 5 of Table 1. By incorporating the area devoted to each crop as a weight to multiply this with the percentage index, the products are obtained as listed in column 6 of the table. By adding the products (of column 6) and dividing the sum of products by the total of crop area in the district (the sum of column 4). Table 1: Methodology of Calculating Crop Yield Index Method as proposed by W.M.Yangs' Area of Crops Yield in kg per hectare Crop yield in the Percentage Name of Crops in the Block in Average yield Average yield distt.as % to the multiplied by hectare in the block in the district region area in hectare 5=Col.3/Col.4x10 1 2 3 4 6=Col.5 x Col.2 0 Rice 6021 7665 3140 244.12 1469825.81 Wheat 7631 3909 3027 129.15 985556.13 Masur 428 1024 983 104.18 44589.07 Maskalai 1829 1571 917 171.36 313409.22 Khesari 257 1107 916 120.85 31058.28 Gram 716 1101 1096 100.42 71903.12 R & M 3046 1030 1094 94.15 286780.62 Sesamum(Til) 52 600 360 166.67 8666.67 Potato 189 22309 28835 77.37 14622.29 Jute 1509 2194 2696.00 81.38 122802.15 Total 21678 3349213.36 Computation of Crop Yield Index of Kaliachak-III Block = 3349213.36/21678 = 154.50 Source: Yang, W.M. (1965): Methods of Farm Management Investigation For Improving Farm Productivity, No. 80, F.A.O., Rome
8 Introduction
For measuring agricultural development 22 variables were taken at block level. Composite Index was used to calculate agricultural development in Malda district. In addition to the above mentioned methods other methods like Karl Pearson‟s coefficient of correlation (r) and Factor Analysis with the help of SPSS have been used. For conducting primary survey, the sampled derived for the study is based on purposive random sampling technique. For the quantification of socio- economic transformation 30 respondents were interviewed from each of 15 villages of the district i.e. one village from each block of the district. Therefore, total 450 respondents were surveyed. These villages have been selected on the basis of following criteria: i. The village should be, as far as possible, the representative of its own region especially with respect to the concentration of agricultural occupational structure because the focus in this study was on agricultural development and socio-economic transformation. ii. The village should be easily accessible by road. iii. The village should be inhabited by the different caste and religion. iv. The village should be having minimum 250 households. After completing field survey of selected villages, the processing of data was carried out, first of all entries of questionnaire was done. Moreover, Arc View 3.2 software has been used for digitization of relevant maps and diagrams and necessary analysis are being carried out to acquire meaningful results. The other important steps like cartographic works in preparing maps, diagrams, graphs, charts, report writing, data processing and analysis, have been carried out through computer operations.
Study Area:
For the present study Malda district of West Bengal has been taken which lies between latitudinal and longitudinal figures of 240 40΄20˝ N to 250 32΄08˝ N and 87045΄50˝ E to 88028΄10˝E respectively and surrounded by Bangladesh and Dakhsin Dinajpur in East, Santhal Parganas of State of Jharkhand in West, Uttar Dinajpur in North and Murshidabad in South. The district of Malda has total area of 3733 sq.km
9 Introduction
(Census 2011) and the total population of Malda district is 39, 88,845 (Census 2011). For administrative purpose the district has been divided into fifteen Blocks. Three broad sub-regions can be defined physiographically within Malda district on the basis of nature of topography and soil, i.e. Tal, Barind and Diara. Tal region consists of 6 community development blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-I, Chanchal-II, Ratua-I and Ratua-II whereas Barind region comprises the blocks of Old Malda, Gazole, Bamongola and Habibpur. The southern part of the district consists of 5 community development blocks namely, English Bazar, Manikchak, Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-II and Kaliachak-III is known as Diara region.
Organization of Research Work:
The present study “Level of Agricultural development and its impact on Socio- Economic Transformation – A case study of Malda district (W.B)” has been organized into seven chapters these are as follows:
Chapter first deals with the various physio-cultural setting of the study area which includes locational extent, relief and topography, soil characteristics, drainage system, climate, natural vegetation, population growth and density, literacy, sex-ratio and transportation system of the study area. Chapter second focuses on conceptual framework and literature review Chapter third deals with the dynamics of agriculture Chapter fourth describes the spatial distribution of technological and institutional factors Chapter five is devoted to measurement of agricultural productivity Chapter six focuses on the level of agricultural development Chapter seven is devoted to socio-economic transformation - a micro level analysis At last researcher has incorporated conclusion and suggestions regarding the development of agriculture in Malda district.
10 Introduction
References: Census of India, 2011 Comprehensive District Agricultural Programme, Malda, West Bengal Datt, R. and Sundharam, K.P. (2009), Indian Economy, S. Chand and Company Ltd., New Delhi District Statistical Handbook of Malda Friedman, J. (1969): A General Theory of Polarized Development, School of Architecture and Planning , Los Angles, UCLA, p.4 Malda District Gazetteer Mishra, K.K. (1985): The Introduction of Appropriate Technology for Integrated Rural Development, Transaction, Vol. 15, p. 35 Quoted in United Nations (1955), Process and Problems of Industrialization in Under Developed Countries, New York. p.3. Roy, S.K. (2010). Agricultural Growth in India, Serial Publications, New Delhi Samuelson, P.A. and Solow, R.W. (1953). Balanced Growth under Constant Returns to Scale, Econometrica, Vol. 21, No.3, pp. 412-424 Sengupta, S. (2008), Indian Agriculture, ABD Publishers, Jaipur
11
Chapter – I Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area
Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area
CHAPTER – I
PHYSIO-CULTURAL SETTING OF THE STUDY AREA
One time capital of Bengal, the district maintains the tradition of the past in culture and education. Apart from agriculture, sericulture and mango cultivation earns a lot for its inhabitants. It lies just east of the confluence of the Mahananda and Kalindri river and 347 km. (215 miles) north of Kolkata, the state capital. Mango and silk are notable products of the district. The special variety of mango produced in this region, popularly known by the name of the district, is exported across the world and is acclaimed internationally. The folk culture of Gombhira is a feature of the district, being a unique way of representation of joy and sorrow of daily life of the common people, as well as the unique medium of presentation on national and international matters. District headquarter is English Bazar, also known as Malda, which was once the capital of Bengal. The district maintains the traditions of the past in culture and education. Old Malda, the town which lies just east of the confluence of the Mahananda and Kalindri rivers, is part of the English Bazar urban agglomeration. The town rose to prominence as the river port of the old capital of Pandua. During the 18th century it was the seat of prosperous cotton and silk industries. It remains an important distributing centre for rice, jute and wheat. Historical monuments include the mosque Jami Masjid (1566) and the landmark Nimasari tower across the river. Constituted as a municipality in 1867, it has several colleges affiliated with the University of North Bengal. Rice, jute, legumes, and oilseed are the chief crops in the surrounding area. Mulberry plantations and mango orchards occupy large areas; mango trade and silk manufacture are the main economic activities. The Independence Day of Malda is 17th August 1947.
1.1. Location:
The District Malda is the gate way of northern part of West Bengal. During sixteenth century, this place was treated as capital of Bengal, when it was ruled by the Hindu King Sasanka. The word ‘Malda’ derived from the Arabic word ‘Mal’ which means ‘wealth’, so ‘Malda’ in Arabic indicates a place where financial transactions are performed and where wealth is concentrated in the hands of large number of persons (Census of India, 2011). Although part of a very old settled region Malda came into being as a separately constituted district within provisional Bengal in the year 1813, taking out some area of the districts of Purnia (Bihar), Dinajpur (the then Bengal), Rajsahi district of adjoining country like Bangladesh.
12 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area
Fig: 1.1
13 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area
Chanchal) which are divided into 15 blocks in total. This district Malda exists on the North – East bank of the River Ganga and its geographical location is in between 24o 40′ 20″ N and 25o 32′ 08″ N latitude and 87o 45′ 50″ E and 88o 28′ 10″ E longitude, covering an area of 3733 Sq. Km. of total land areas of West Bengal (4.2 per cent of the total area of the state of West Bengal). The district is bounded to its south by the district of Murshidabad across the river Ganga, Bangladesh and Dakshin Dinajpur district to its east and north-east, Uttar Dinajpur district to its north and the states of Bihar to its west and Jharkhand across the Ganga to the south-west. The present district represents a region of great antiquity which was once the cradle of state and society within Bengal.
The name Malda was formerly applied to the town which is now known as Old Malda. The present headquarters of the district has originated from the factory which was built by the East India Company to carry on trade, mainly in silk and cotton textiles. The town which sprang up around the factory came to be known as Englezavad. Englezavad was converted to English Bazar in course of time, and being the headquarter of the district, it came to be known as ‘Malda’ in the beginning of the present century.
The district does not contain any outlying sub-division. The Sadar sub- division is conterminous with the district. The district is divided into the Police Stations of (i) English Bazar, (ii) Kaliachak, (iii) Malda, (iv) Habibpur, (v) Ratua, (vi) Manikchak, (vii) Harba, (viii) Harishchandrapur, (ix) Gajol, and (x) Bamongola.
1.2. Historical Background:
The composite township of Malda or English Bazar, presently the headquarter of Malda district stands a few kilometres northwest of the ancient city of Gaur, once capital of the ancient bhukti or political division of Bengal known as Pundravardhan which lay on the eastern extremity of the Gupta Empire. No authentic historical record for this influential region is found, however, till 607AD, when Sasanka ruler of Vanga and former vassal of the Guptas – established independent control over the region that comprises the modern districts of Malda and Murshidabad, ruling over it from his citadel at Karnasuvarna which lay southwards of Gaur. As the power of the Guptas was on the wane by this time, Sasanka spent most of his reign expanding his new kingdom westwards, thus coming into direct internecine conflict with Harsha,
14 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area king of Kanauj. At their zenith, his territorial conquests extended from Kamtapur in the northern sub-montane region to Kalinga in the south, and from the Brahmaputra river in the east to Mithila in the west. His embattled reign for about 32 years, however, proved too brief for the foundation of a lasting empire to be laid, and upon his death, the kingdom dissolved into complete anarchy during the period known to the historical record as ‘Matsyanyaya’ (Rule of the Fishes). To restore peace and stability in the land, the leaders of people living in the region met and elected Gopala to take over the throne. Thus in the 7th century, the foundations of the Pala dynasty were laid. The Pala kings ruled over an extended dominion that included Bengal and many other principalities spread over northern India up to the Vindhya hills in the south, most of which were annexed to their empire during the reign of Dharmapala. During their sustained rule which lasted over several consecutive centuries, notable advances were made in the spheres of art & architecture, education and statecraft, and the Bengal region left a permanent impress on the historical record of northern India. Since the Palas were devoted adherents of Buddhism, several large monasteries and Buddhist universities were built across their dominions which spanned present-day Bihar, West Bengal and Bangladesh, as well as a part of Jharkhand state. The ruins of one of these have recently been excavated near the banks of the Punarbhava river at the village of Jagajibanpur in Habibpur block, within Malda district. The monasteries became renowned centres of learning, where scholars from many parts of the Buddhist world – such as Hiuen Tsang (Yuan Chwang) – arrived to partake of lessons in religion and philosophy. The ruins of palaces and temples constructed during the rule of Palas and the vast reservoirs and storage tanks excavated by them lie scattered across many parts of Malda and Dinajpur. During this period of history, the region also played a dominant economic role because of the easy access it had to the channels of riverine navigation. After the decline of the empire during the rule of the later Palas, the southern Sena dynasty established a brief sway over parts of their dominions, including the region of Rarh and also present-day Malda. During their reign, the ancient city of Gaur was rebuilt and extended as Lakshmanawati (later Lakhnauti), becoming the hub of the Sena empire. Once again, the riverine location of this city as a major trading port on the Ganga made the region the commercial heartland of eastern India. The Senas were, however, replaced in quick succession by new Turko-Afghan rulers following the conquest of Gaur by the forces of Bakhtyar Khalji in 1205. Over much of the subsequent Turko-Afghan period, these new rulers
15 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area functioned as independent Sultans, because of the inability of their erstwhile suzerains at Delhi to reassert military supremacy over the Bengal-Bihar region. The city of Lakhnauti or Gaur continued to function initially as their capital but was abandoned in 1342 by the Iliyas Shahi sultans in favour of Pandua because of major disturbances along the river course of the Ganga. Pandua then lay on the banks of the Mahananda, which was the major waterway of the sultanate at the time. However, when the Mahananda too began to veer away from the site of Pandua in the mid 15th century, Gaur was rebuilt and restored to the status of capital city by the Hussain Shahi sultans. During this extended period of independent rule by the Bengal sultanate, when the Malda region formed the heartland of Bengal, there was considerable development of art & architecture which survive today in the ruins of Gaur and Pandua. Hussain Shah, who laid the foundations of the dynasty that subsequently bore his name, is widely regarded to have been the greatest of the Bengal sultans. His reign was characterised by peace and harmony between all religious communities, and Sri Chaitanya Deva is believed to have visited the city of Gaur during his time. As a noted patron of the liberal arts, Hussain Shah also laid the development of Bengali as a major literary language. For a short period during the 16th century, the Karranis under Sher Shah extended their dominion over the sultanate from their citadel at Biharsharif. The power of the Hussain Shahi rulers had declined considerably by this time, following a change in the fortunes of the city of Gaur which by then had been abandoned completely by the river. Hence, Sher Shah established a new city for his subedars at Tandah. With the ascent of Akbar to the Mughal throne at Delhi, a new historical course was set for the ancient region of Gaur after the Mughals annexed it to their vast empire in 1576 and created the Diwani of Bengal. The centre of regional power shifted across the Ganga to Rajmahal, from where Mansingh established the Mughal subedari over Bengal and Todarmal brought the lands of the former sultanate under Mughal revenue settlement. Following the demise of the independent sultanate, the regional importance of the Gaur or Malda region declined irreversibly and the city of Gaur was eventually abandoned yet once more, presumably because of the permanent shift of the river as well as a series of epidemics brought on by gradual conversion of the erstwhile river bed to water soaked bogland. Migration of the rich elite from Gaur to other commercially important places left only the poor agriculturists, mango growers and cocoon-rearers behind. The balance of regional power in the new Subah- i-Bangal gravitated towards Murshidabad and Dhaka until the foundation of the new
16 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area
British trading port at Kolkata altered this imperial equation permanently. British trading and commercial interests now came to focus on the new cities of Malda and English Bazar, from where the course of Malda as a district was recharged.
Thus despite its former glory, the district of Malda has continually witnessed a series of political and geographical vicissitudes that have brought it to its present day position as the most backward district in West Bengal. The people who reside in the district at present are thus inheritors of this proud heritage as well as its modern consequences. Whatever the change in its fortunes, Malda nevertheless continues to be a key region in the modern state of West Bengal, forming the middle ground that links the more developed districts in the southern part of the state to the economically backward districts that form northern West Bengal. For this reason, the human development situations in Malda district demand close study, since they also hold the key to the economic development of the entire region of North Bengal.
1.3. Administrative Division:
The administrative region is important to gather statistical information and for the purpose of planning, mechanization and implementation. The entire state of West Bengal is physically divided into two parts by the river Ganga i.e. North Bengal and South Bengal.
The district of Malda is starts to the immediate North of the Ganga river. Malda district is in the southern most of the North Bengal and 347 km. away from the state capital Kolkata towards north. Administratively, Malda is a part of the Jalpaiguri division of the state of West Bengal. The district covers a geographical area of 3733 sq. km. and consists of two sub-divisions, i.e. Chanchal and Malda Sadar. English Bazar is the headquarter of the district as well as the Malda Sadar sub-division. Presently the district includes eleven police stations namely Harishchandrapur, Chanchal (Kharba), Ratua, Gazole, Bamongola, Habibpur, Malda, English Bazar, Manikchak, Kaliachak and Baishnab Nagar. The district is comprised of fifteen community development blocks which divided into two sub divisions. These are Chanchal sub-division and Malda Sadar sub-division. Under the Chanchal sub division there are six blocks namely Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-I, Chanchal-II, Ratua-I and Ratua-II. The blocks of Manikchak, English Bazar, Old Malda, Habibpur, Bamongola, Gazole, Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-II and
17 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area
Kaliachak-III fall under the Malda Sadar sub-division. The apex institution for local governance of the district is the Malda Zila Parishad (District Council). Every development block corresponding local governance institution is the respective Panchayat Samiti. At grass root level there are 146 Gram Panchayats and 2008 Gram Sansads are in the district, covering the 1814 mouzas and 3701 villages that fall within the jurisdiction of the Zila Parishad. There are two municipalities in the district namely Old Malda and English Bazar with 17 and 25 wards respectively. Urban governance develops upon the municipalities. The district is primarily rural, so that there are no statutory town. Although, there are three small fast urbanizing clusters at Kendua, Kachu Pukur and Ahio in Habibpur block have acquired the informal status of census towns in 2011 census.
Table 1.1: Administrative Divisions (Schematic Composition) of Malda District
Sub- Gram Gram No. of No. of Name of the Blocks Total Area Division Panchayat Sansads Mouzas Villages Harishchandrapur-I 176.59 7 105 105 104 Harishchandrapur-II 223.77 9 120 74 73 Chanchal-I 167.04 8 121 94 98 Chanchal-II 211.42 7 108 91 90 Chanchal Ratua-I 237.5 10 148 100 95 Ratua-II 179.19 8 103 52 48
Six Blocks 1195.51 49 705 - 508
Manikchak 331.49 11 154 88 72 English Bazar 259.12 11 144 121 108 Old Malda 222.18 6 87 125 112 Habibpur 408.04 11 143 285 233 Bamongola 212.13 6 89 142 141 Gazole 529.17 15 196 293 286 Kaliachak-I 108.55 14 195 66 49 Malda Kaliachak-II 229.46 9 108 63 40 Sadar Kaliachak-III 267.98 14 187 76 65 Nine Blocks 2568.12 97 1303 - 598 Rural Area 3351.63 146 2008 - 1106 English Bazar 9 - Old Malda 13.63 - Urban Area 25.37 - Malda District 3377 - Source: Malda Zila Parishad, 2011
18 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area
1.4.Physiography: The district of Malda consists mainly of low-lying alluvial plains, sloping towards the south. The North Eastern part of the district contains a few elevated tracts. Parts of these high lands have elevation up to 40 metres from the mean sea level. These elevations are intersected by deep water channels thereby giving the appearance of small hills. The river Mahananda flowing from north-east to south-east and divide the district into eastern and western regions. Each of the regions has its own distinctive characteristics. Three broad sub regions can be defined physiographically within Malda district on the basis of nature of topography and soil. These are Barind, Diara and Tal (Fig.2). Table 1.2: Physiographic Division of Malda, 2011 Regions Barind Diara Tal Manikchak, Harischandrapur-I, Old Malda, English Bazar, Harishchandrapur- Habibpur, Blocks Kaliachak-I, II, Chanchal-I, Bamongola and Kaliachak-II and Chanchal-II, Ratua- Gazole Kaliachak-III I and Ratua-II Source: Census of India, 2011
Barind: The region of mature alluvium that had given North Bengal its old historical name of Varendri or Barendri is known today as the Barind. The Barind tract of Malda district is of comparatively high lands, lying to the east of Mahananda River. The highest elevation of the district measuring 39.7 meter from the Sea level is situated in Gazole Block near Pandua under this tract. The tract extends over a wide area in the district of Malda in West Bengal and Rajsahi, Dinajpur and Bogra in Bangladesh. The characteristic features of this tract is wild undulations with successive ridges and depressions seamed with small water course in the valleys, and is practically devoid of shade except for small patches of Sal forest here and there in Habibpur Block. The ground is hard and drinking water is scarce during the hot season. Except in autumn when winter rice is produced, the region is generally arid. The Barind tract comprises an area of 1,32,851 hectares. This region is made up of the ancient alluvial humps that are remnants of old riverine flood plains that remained unaffected subsequently by inundation and renewed silting. Besides the eastern and north eastern fringes of the district, the Barind tract also extends into parts of Uttar and Dakshin Dinajpur and adjoining areas within Bangladesh. The cumulative area of
19 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area the Barind spanning Uttar and Dakshin Dinajpur and Malda districts in North Bengal is 1621sq.km. The major portion of this contains two sharply rising and isolated topographic units that fall within Malda district, which collectively comprise Old Malda and Gazole blocks in the Mahananda-Tangan interfluves area, and Habibpur and Bamangola blocks in the Tangan-Punarbhava interfluves, provide the best examples of the typically matured Barind. In this tract ground is hard; ground water level is very low except in rainy season. Main crops of this tract are kharif rice, Jute, autumn Rice. The soil of these regions is hard silty clay of a reddish hue that has developed through the accumulation of sesquioxides. Organic residues in this soil are highly decomposed, leading to non-acidic soil pH at levels as low as 6.8 in the Barind tracts of Malda. Organic carbon content is also generally low at 0.54 percent in these Malda tracts, as a result of which overall soil fertility remains at modest levels under unirrigated conditions. Nevertheless, since the hummocky or undulating terrain in the Barind promotes a fair amount of runoff and the hard impervious clayey Barind soils permit little percolation, most of the monsoon runoff accumulates in the large natural beels or pools in the ravines formed by the courses of the Tangan and Punarbhava rivers, covering the lowlands here until long after the monsoon is over. The remainder of the district covers an adjacent tract of flat lowland between the 27m and 21m contours, forming the local catchments of the Mahananda and Ganga.
Diara: The Diara consists of a strip roughly 12.87 miles in width along the western and southern sides of the district. Its formation is the result of centuries of fluvial action by the Ganges. The Diara is a relatively well-drained flatland formed by the fluvial deposition of newer alluvium in the transitional zone between the Barind upland and the marshy Tal tract of the Ganges and the old channels of Bhagirathi River for centuries, covers an adjacent tract of flat lowland between the 27m to 21m contours. This region lies to the south of the river Kalindri, spanning Manikchak, English Bazar, Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-II and Kaliachak-III blocks of the district. The soil is light with sandy appearance and very fertile. Mango gardens are common and mulberry is also grown in this natural division. In the older alluvial area that is to say, the eastern side of the diara strip, the villages are of average size and fairly thick
20 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area
Fig. 1.2
21 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area populated. Main crops of this tract are Jute, Aus, Wheat, Pulses and Oilseeds. It encompasses 1152.3sq.km. (32.16 per cent) area includes 22.3 per cent settlement and 42.81 per cent population of the district.
Tal:
Towards the west of Mahananda the land slopes gradually down to what is known as the Tal, a word meaning literally ‘lake’. Tal is mostly composed of bog lands formed in many marshy pockets around vestigial inland drainages. It lies to the west of the river Mahananda and to the north of the river Kalindri. The Tal region gradually slopes down towards the south-west and merges with Diara region. The streams of this zone have switched over to new courses, leaving many dead or dying channels that only retain a water flow during the monsoon.
Consequently, the Tal is strewn with innumerable marshes, beels and oxbow lakes. Most of Tal tract remains submerged under considerable depth of water during the monsoon rains. Inter braided streams with multiple channels also occur quite commonly along the Kankhor, Kalindri, Punarbhava and other rivers that traverse this land unit – the Kalindri, particularly, displaying an amazing capacity to meander. Because of the lack of gradient and consequently of runoff, most of the Tal track remains submerged under considerable depths of water during the monsoon rains. Large sections of it then turn into mud banks during the dry season, while the many marshy pockets that still remain become relatively shallow. These tract comprises the blocks namely Ratua-I, Ratua-II, Chanchal-I, Chanchal-II, Harishchandrapur-I and Harishchandrapur-II. It accounts 1,084.4 sq.km. (30.21 per cent) area, 30.4 per cent settlements and 32.74 per cent population of the study area. Since topographic gradients along the Tal region are barely minimal at an average of 0.050 the Ganga is the only fast-moving river that traverses this tract, with an average gradient of 1:14500. The other minor regional rivers of the Tal barely manage to crawl across the tract at extremely low gradient. All local rivers are prone to inundate the Tal during the monsoon, and the Mahananda with its large upstream catchment has often wreaked flood havoc in the Tal tract. The soil of this tract is of clay to clay loam type with heavy texture. Major crops grown in these tracts are Paddy, Jute, Pulses, Wheat and Oilseeds.
22 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area
1.5. Drainage Pattern: The main river of the district, constitute an important feature upon its landscape. The rivers of the district follow the general slope of the land and traverse the area from north, north-east and north-west to south-east. The main rivers of the district are Ganga, Mahananda, Punarbhaba, Tangon and Kalindri. Among all the rivers of the district Ganga is the main river with its total length of 172 km. (including its tributaries), enter the district at Gaduri of Bhutni Char of Manikchak block and flowing over the blocks of Manikchak, Kaliachak-II and Kaliachak-III. Its main tributaries are Fulahar, Bhagirathi and Kalindri. Due to devastating flood particularly in western side of the district, huge amount of life and property, human establishments, and agricultural land goes into the Ganga each year. Table 1.3: The Drainage System (Main Rivers) of Malda District, 2011 Name of the Branches of Runs through the Entry point End point River River Blocks Gaduri of Fulahar, Kaliachak-I, Pardeonapur Ganga Bhutnichar Bhagirathi and Kaliachak-II and (Kaliachak-III) (Manikchak) Kalindri Manikchak Junction of English Bazar, Old Kalindri and Aiho Mahananda Chanchal-I, Ratua- Malda, Habibpur Pagla (Habibpur) II and Gazole and Gazole North-eastern Eastern boarder Punarbhaba portion of Haria Bamongola of Bamongola Bamongola Junction of Bamongola, Old Chunakali and Tangon Bamongola and Malda, Habibpur Mahananda Khal Gazole and Gazole HCP-II, English Mahananda at Kalindri Mihaghat (HCP-II) Fulahar Bazar, Manikchak Bachamari (Old and Ratua-I Malda) Source: Official Records, Office of the Assistant Engineer (Irrigation), Malda, 2011
Ganga: It originated from Gaduri of Bhutni Char of Manikchak block. Ganga River covers the blocks of Kaliachak-II, Kaliachak-III and Manikchak of Malda district. The length of the river in the district is 172 km. (including the tributaries). The tributaries of the Ganga River are Fulhar, Bhagirathi and Kalindri. It drained into Pardeonapur of Kaliachak-III block of Malda district.
Mahananda:
It enters into the district from the north. The origin of Mahananda river is the junction point between Chanchal-I, Ratua-II and Gazole block of Malda district.
23 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area
Fig. 1.3
24 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area
It runs through only the block of Bamongola. The length of the river including the tributaries in the district is 886 km. The branches of the river are Kalindri and Pagla. The end point of the river in the district is Aiho which is in Habibpur district. Punarbhaba: This river originated from the north-eastern portion of Bamongola block of Malda district. This river covers only Bamongola block of Malda district. 64.4 km. is the total length of the river including its tributaries. Haria is the only tributary of this river. Eastern boarder of Bamongola is the end point of this river.
Tangon: The junction of Bamongola and Gazole is the originating point of this river. It runs through the blocks of Bamongola, Old Malda, Habibpur and Gazole block of the district. Chunakali and Khal are the tributery of the river. Including all the tributary Tangon river has the length of 64.6 km. It drained into Mahananda river. Kalindri: The Kalindri is taken as an offshoot of the eastern branch of the Ganges but actually it is a branch of Mahananda. Kalindri river originated from Mihaghat of Harishchandrapur-II block. It covers the blocks of Harishchandrapur-II, English Bazar, Manikchak and Ratua-I of Malda district. Fulahar is the only tributary of this river. The end point of this river is at Bachamari of Mahananda of Old Malda block.
Apart from the main river and tributaries, there are many other large and small beels (shallow depression filled with water covering large area) and tanks are found in the district. Largest beel is Ahora in the Tangon river valley covering an area about 3 sq.km. Some beels are also found in the Diara tract due to depression left by the Ganges, e.g. Gadai beel in which there are approximately thirty thousand tanks of different sizes out of which eleven thousand are irrigation tanks.
1.6. Climate: The climate of the district is very hot and sultry during summer season, with plentiful rains and moisture in the air throughout the year. The proximity of the Bay of Bengal in the south and the alignment of the Himalaya in the north largely determine the climatic character, i.e., the distribution of the weather elements in the district. Irrespective of the general vagaries and mechanism of the monsoon, seasonal distribution of the elements such as temperature, rainfall and relative humidity are too
25 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area uneven (Census of India 2011). An important feature of the climatic conditions of the district is the periodic wind that blows across it. The seasonal winds are known as monsoon wind. Basically, there are four seasons in the year. The cold season starts about the middle of November and continues till the end of February. The period from March to May is the summer season. The rainy season starts in June with the coming of south - west monsoons and continues till the middle of September. October and the first half of November constitutes the post monsoon season. The normal rainfall is 1453.1 mm. The maximum precipitation occurs during the period from June to September. Annual precipitation decreases from northern to southern parts of the district and is only 1440 mm per annum around the vicinity of English Bazar. The uneven spatial distribution of rainfall in the district occurs because of the patterns of variation in its topographic profile and the tracks followed by monsoon depressions. Rainfall is also unevenly distributed over the year, as a consequence of which over 90 per cent of the annual precipitation descends during the monsoon months. Runoff too falls off drastically from the north to the south. The climate of the district can be described under the four seasons recognized by the meteorological departments, government of India. The successive seasons of the district are:
Summer Season (March to May) Advance Monsoon (June to September) Retreating Monsoon (October to November) and Cold Season (December to February) Summer Season: The summer season roughly covers the period between March-May, the normal date of arrival of the monsoon. Temperature starts increasing from the month of March and May is the hottest month. In the district, the thunder storm that rise between April and May are locally known as ‘Kal Baisakhi’, such storm do not affect extensively and may be considered as local atmospheric disturbances. These storms bring down the temperature for a short and give relief to the people in hot summer evening. Both during summer and the rainy months, very deep water tables occur in the Barind upland tracts. Deep aquifers descend into the district along the basin of the Mahananda reaching a depth of 150 m interspersed by intervening layers of clay.
26 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area
Fig.1.4
27 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area
While the Barind, water-saturated granular material generally occurs in a depth-range between 90 m to 110 m and a continuous underground aquifer is found at adepth between 950m to 1000m in the trcat lying west of the Mahananda and Kalindri rivers. The maximum mean monthly temperature i.e. 320C was recorded during the month of April followed by 310C was recorded during May. Rainfall occurred during this season varies from 13 cm and 130 cm in the month of April and May respectively. The summer season starts from March with mean monthly temperature of 270 C but without any rainfall. Advance Monsoon: The natural causes that guide monsoon wind, present a complex study. By the 15th June, the district is under the influence of monsoon winds. The summer monsoon carries moisture from Bay of Bengal and brings rainfall. Heavy rain starts all over the district from the advancing roll of dark clouds with a little thunder. The bursting of the monsoon is a joyous phenomenon for the farmers in the district as their crops depend on the mercy of rainfall which enhances the agricultural production and prosperity. The intensity of rainfall increases in successive months, and highest (631 cm) recorded during September (last month of the season).
Table 1.4: Mean Monthly Rainfall and Temperature of Malda District (2011) Month Rainfall (mm) Temperature (0C) January 10 15.5 February 12 22 March 20 26 April 39 29 May 124 29 June 255 31 July 347 30 August 277 30.5 September 242 31 October 159 27.5 November 3 24.5 December 2 20 Source: District Statistical Handbook, Malda, 2011
28 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area
Autumn Season: Autumn season or the season of returning monsoon starts after the months of September, overhead position of the sun shifts to the sun to the southern hemisphere and hence the intensity of low pressure over the north-western part of India decreases. As a result, the south-west monsoon winds start moving back towards south. This is called the retreating of the monsoon winds.
Mean Monthly Rainfall and Temperature of Malda District (2011) 400 35 350
30 C) 300 25 0 250 20 200 15 150
100 10 Rainfall(mm)
50 5 Temperature ( 0 0
Rainfall (mm)
Fig. 1.5
Cold Season:
The cold season starts from the last week of November to the end of February the district is under the influence of cold season. This wind is offshore and has no moisture. As a result there is no rainfall in the winter season. The weather remains cool and sunny during January, temperature ranging between 290C – 090C, with mean monthly temperature 190C. Occasional cool spell occurs accompanied with the western disturbances. The Fog appears during the last week of December and first week of January. This is the most pleasant season in the district.
1.7. Geology:
The district is situated on the western part of the alluvium filled gap between the Rajmahal hills on the west and the Garo hills on the east. The entire area is covered by alluvium which, however, is of two different ages displaying different
29 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area physical and physiographic characteristics. Each of the Mahananda which bisects the district roughly along a north-south line is found older (Pleistocene) alluvium forming the Barind. This is flanked on the west by the more recent flood plains of the Mahanada and the Ganges. In the north is the alluvial fan surface of the Himalayan foot-hills, the piedmont alluvial plain, formed by the streams descending from the mountains. The recent alluvium found in the western part of the district is typically dark, loosely compacted and has a high water content and variable but appreciable quantities of organic material. The Pleistocene deposits can be readily distinguished from the recent alluvium. They generally stand above a monsoonal floods and are drained by relatively few streams which have developed distinctive meandering courses. Local relief is also much greater. They consist of well oxidised massive argillaceous beds typically reddish brown or tan and mottled and sometimes weathering yellowish Kankar and pisolitic ferruginous concretions are plentifully distributed throughout this formation. Formations similar to the Pleistocene of the Barind are also found west of the Mahananda up to the Kalindri underlying part of the Tal depressions showing that the present surface of the district is the result of partial denudation of the old alluvium of North Bengal between which and the Rajmahal hills the Ganges and other Himalayan rivers forced their way southwards. The alluvium is seen to consist of silt, sand, gravel and clay.
1.8. Natural Vegetation:
The district of Malda has a small vegetation cover, extending from the river of Kosi to the Brahmaputra. Barind region is generally dry and is covered by abundant natural vegetation excepting the sandy beds of rivers. Some portions of Barind area are covered by jungles, which consist chiefly of thorny scrub, bush, jungles mixed with bamboos and common Indian trees like Pipal, Vat, etc. However, with time, the jungle region has been gradually shrinking. The areas which are subjected to frequent inundation are usually covered with seedy grasses. Species of thorny bamboos are also seen in Pandua areas near villages and embankment area of Gour thickest or shrubberies, ordinary Neem, Jack-fruit trees, Tamarind, Bamboo, Pipal and Mango trees are seen in plenty. Malda is famous for its silk and mangoes, both of which are produced in the western region of the district, due to the favourable soil conditions for the growth of Mango and Mulberry trees. Mulberry leaf is the staple food for silk worm.
30 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area
1.9.Agriculture:
Because of abundance of rivers both large and small, and consequent alluvial soils, Malda has been an important agricultural district since antiquity and commands dense human settlements within its boundaries. Rice yields have traditionally been high in the district, making it the bread basket of Bengal. Diversified topography offers the potential for the production of a wide variety of agricultural, horticultural and sericulture produces shifting river and overall ecological changes have however left an inevitable stamp on the present patterns of human settlement, as a consequence of which settlement density varies considerably across the district. A large part of the Diara, now the most intensely settled region of Malda, began to attract habitations from the early 20th century, after the alluvial ‘Chars’ (lands vacated by a river shifting its course) exposed by the Ganges’s west side migration were opened for revenue settlements. The region on the other hand was in earlier times sparsely habituated and had a substantial forest cover. Relative scarcity of water in this region had made it unsuitable for intensive agriculture. The overall growth of agriculture and allied sectors in Malda has been very slow.
Malda also has areas consisting of old river beds, ponds, marshy land and other watery regions. The rivers Ganga, Mahananda, Fulahar and Kalindri flow through the district. As such, some areas of the district are subject to frequent inundations. Agriculture is the main occupation of the populace; the main crops are paddy, wheat, jute and rabi-crops. The soil of the western region of the district is particularly suited for the growth of mulberry and mango. Malda district has become famous for the production of mango like sundri and mulberry.
1.10. Soil:
Soil is the natural medium for the growth of healthy plants under favourable condition. There are several factors which are responsible for the development of different kinds of soils with variable texture, structure, colour, depth, concretions etc. According to broad classification of soils, the district of Malda has three kinds of soils (i) Do-ash soils (17130 hectares) (ii) Red soils (77700 hectares) and (iii) Matial soils (243540 hectares) with a total of about 338440 hectares only.
31 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area
Fig. 1.6
32 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area
The river Ganges is the principal river of the state and it played a major role in the economy of the district of Malda since ages. The district is situated on the Western part of the aluminium field gap between the Rajmahal hills on the west and Garo on the east. The entire area is covered by alluvium, which however is of two different ages displaying different physical and physiographic characteristics. Do-Ash Soil: West of Mahananda, the soil is a light loam called do-ash. It is latter alluvial formation, and consists of an admixture of clay and sand. On the eastern side the proportion of clay is greater, but the further west one goes towards the Ganges, the greater becomes the proportion of sand. Along the Ganges itself the chars and other areas which are liable to inundation are often covered with a thin deposit of silt over the sand, locally known as Chakma.
Red Soil: East of the Mahananda, the soil of the Barind is the red soil of old alluvial formation. It is found in the neighbouring districts of Dinajpur and Rajshahi and other Bengal districts. It is composed of stiff clay, containing iron and lime, and becomes extremely hard in the cold weather. Even a heavy shower will not do more than make it slippery on the surface. It produces winter rice and a variety of rabi crops.
Matial Soil: A third kind of soil is found in the low-lying areas, beels and valleys. This is a dark loam called matial. In the Tangan and Punarbhaba valleys this soil is also found but it has a greater admixture of clay. It is fertile and produces chiefly aman or boro paddy according to the level of the land and rabi crops. The do-ash type of soil is the most fertile in the district and produce jute, aus paddy and a large variety of rabi crops and vegetables. It is also the most suitable for mango gardens.
1.11.Demographic Personality:
Demography is interdisciplinary study of population- especially birth rate and death rate, growth pattern, migration etc. The present analysis is an attempt to study the demographic characteristics of population in Malda district in terms of spatio- temporal variation of population growth, population density, rural-urban differences, sex-ratio, and literacy rate. The total population of Malda is 39, 88, 845 and it constitutes 4.38 per cent of the state population. The population density of the district
33 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area is 1,071 inhabitants per square kilometre (2,770 /sq mi) as compared to West Bengal. The total number of male and female population is 2051541 (51.43 per cent) and 1937504 (48.47 per cent) respectively. The total number of villages is 1,771. The percentage of SC and ST population of the total population is 20.9 per cent and 7.9 per cent respectively. The population of agricultural labourers is 5, 45,759. With a history of colonial rule, the education awareness among the people has generally been high. This is reflected in the high literacy rate of the district. Out of a total 640 districts in India, Malda is ranked 58th in terms of population.
1.12. Growth of Population:
Table 1.4 and Figure 1.6 reveal a high fluctuation in decadal growth rate of population in the study area. It registered a negative growth rate i.e., -1.86 percent during 1911-1921, which happened only once throughout the demographic history. The high mortality during this period in India was the product of epidemics of influenza, plague, small pox, cholera etc. wherein Malda district was not exceptional one. After that growth rate shows a continuous increasing trend up to 1971 with an exception of declination at 11.05 percent 1941-51 from 17.19 percent in 1931-41. The declination during 1941-51 was due to the partition of India in 1947 subsequently shifting and migration of people to the East Pakistan (presently Bangladesh). After 1971, the district experienced continuous declination of growth rate and finally recorded at 24.76 percent during 1991-2001.
1.13.Distribution of Population:
The distribution of population among the blocks of the district is an even and range of variation is very large as it runs from 3, 92, 517 in Kaliachak-I block to 1, 43, 906 in Bamongola block of Malda district in 2011 census (Table 1.5).
The average population of the district is about 4 million, three blocks of the district having a population of more than 3 lakhs. There are nine blocks each of which have a population of more than 2 lakhs, whereas there are three blocks with more than 1 lakh populations apiece.
34 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area
Table 1.5: Total Population Growth Rate of Malda District (1901 - 2011)
Year Total Pop. Growth Rate in Per Cent 1901-1911 15.73 1911-1921 -1.86 1921-1931 4.96 1931-1941 17.22 1941-1951 11.14 1951-1961 30.28 1961-1971 32.00 1971-1981 25.98 1981-1991 29.77 1991-2001 24.76 2001-2011 21.25 Source: Statistical Handbook of Malda District, 2011
Population Growth Rate in Malda District (1901-2011) 35
30
25 20 15 10 5
Growth Rate in Per Cent Perin Rate Growth 0 -5
Fig. 1.7
35 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area
Table 1.6: Population Dynamics in Malda District and West Bengal, 2011
Malda West Bengal
in
Km. Km.
in % in % in % in %
Year
Lakh Lakh
Sex Ratio Sex Ratio
Total Pop. Total Pop.
Density of Density of
100 males) 100 males)
(number of (number of
Total Rural Total Rural Total Rural Total Rural
femalesper femalesper
Total Urban Total Urban Total Urban Total Urban
Pop. (per sq. Pop. (per sq.
Pop. in Lakh Pop. in Lakh Pop. Growth Pop. Growth Pop. in Lakh Pop. in Lakh Pop. Growth Pop. Growth
Growth in % Growth in %
Total Pop. Total Pop. in
1901 6.04 5.86 0.17 - - - 162 101 16.94 14.87 2.07 - - - 191 945
1911 6.99 6.8 0.18 15.73 16.04 5.88 187 100 18 15.65 2.35 6.25 5.21 13.7 203 925
1921 6.86 6.69 0.17 -1.86 -1.62 -5.56 184 99 17.47 14.95 2.52 -2.91 -4.43 7.16 197 905
1931 7.2 7.01 0.2 4.96 4.78 17.65 193 99 18.9 16 2.9 8.14 6.98 15.01 213 890
1941 8.44 8.17 0.27 17.22 16.55 35.00 226 98 23.23 18.49 4.74 22.93 15.55 63.69 292 852
1951 9.38 9.02 0.35 11.14 10.40 29.63 251 97 26.3 20.02 6.28 13.22 8.27 32.52 296 865
1961 12.22 11.71 0.51 30.28 29.82 45.71 327 96 34.93 26.39 8.54 32.8 31.81 35.97 394 878
1971 16.13 15.45 0.68 32.00 31.94 33.33 432 95 44.31 33.34 10.97 26.87 26.38 28.41 499 891
1981 20.32 19.35 0.97 25.98 25.24 42.65 544 95 54.58 40.13 14.45 23.17 20.36 31.73 615 911
1991 26.37 24.5 1.87 29.77 26.61 92.78 706 94 68.08 49.37 18.71 24.73 23.01 29.49 766 917
2001 32.9 30.5 2.41 24.76 24.49 28.88 881 95 80.18 57.75 22.43 17.77 16.97 19.88 903 934
2011 39.89 34.47 5.42 21.25 13.02 124.90 1071 94 91.27 62.18 29.09 13.83 7.67 29.69 1030 950 Source: Statistical Handbook of Malda District, 2011
36 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area
1.14. Density of Population:
Density of population is a better measure of understanding the variation in the distribution of population. It is expressed as a number of persons per unit of area. The population density has gone up from 881 persons per sq. km. in 2001 to 1071 persons per sq. Km. in 2011, (Table 1.6). The distribution of population density among the blocks of the district varies from 669 persons per sq. km. in Gazole block to 3725 persons per sq. km. in Kaliachak-I block (Table 1.7). Table 1.7 Block wise Total Population and Density of Population in Malda District, 2011 Total Rural Total Urban Pop. Density Blocks Total Pop. pop. Pop. (persons/sq.km.) Harishchandrapur-I 199493 162406 0 1164 Harishchandrapur-II 251345 198039 0 1157 Chanchal-I 275388 174204 5570 1195 Chanchal-II 202080 165192 0 1162 Ratua-I 204740 217356 0 1263 Ratua-II 205333 160904 0 1001 Gazole 343830 294715 11639 669 Bamongola 143906 127252 0 699 Habibpur 210699 171125 25357 1023 Old Malda 156365 131255 20510 725 English Bazar 274627 226236 31830 1092 Manikchak 269813 214127 0 839 Kaliachak-I 392517 310935 123459 3725 Kaliachak-II 210105 211406 3838 943 Kaliachak-III 359071 284376 29924 1380 Malda 3988845 3447185 541660 1071 Source: Statistical Handbook of Malda District, 2011
There are ten blocks which have density of population more than 1000 persons per sq. km. The wide variation in density is the result of physical, social, economic and historical factors. The density of population is high in the north and southern parts of the district and low in the eastern part of the district. The reason for the high concentration of population in the blocks are the fertile soil, supply of water by rivers and rainfall, high urbanization, high industrial development etc. The high pressure of population in the district ensure ample supply of labour which may be taken advantage of in a developing economy but it also requires much larger resources for the economy to grow fast on a per capita basis.
37 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area
The general pattern of density of population distribution has been rightly observed that low densities are accounted for by forest or mountainous and swampy nature of the areas, little cultivable land and unhealthy climate, while high densities are found in the places with good alluvial soil, healthy climate and excellent water supply for agriculture. Population densities exceeding more than 1000 persons per sq.km across the entire Tal and surpassing 3735 persons per sq. km in Kaliachak- I in the Diara point towards rural saturation in these regions. The urbanisation levels in Malda district remain low, with the twin towns of Old Malda and English Bazar constituting only significant urban region. Both townships have grown relatively steadily over the century, but have only lately begun to show an outward spread. Because of the lack of other developed urban areas in the blocks, the concentration of the urban in English Bazar and its vicinity is particularly intense. The future trend towards urbanisation will be vital to the district, since it will offer an economic alternative to the landless population. Such trends are already visible in the Kaliachak area, where there has been a remarkable shift from farm based to non-farm based occupations under the inexorable influence of river erosion and land loss. 1.15. Sex Ratio: Sex ratio defined by the total number of females per thousand males. The sex ratio of Malda district shows a dominance of male population. Table 1.8: Block-wise Sex Ratio in Malda District Sex Ratio (Number of Females per 1000 Males) Blocks 2001 2011 Harishchandrapur-I 954 933 Harishchandrapur-II 940 928 Chanchal-I 953 950 Chanchal-II 962 949 Ratua-I 934 937 Ratua-II 955 963 Gazole 961 970 Bamongola 950 943 Habibpur 976 974 Old Malda 942 952 English Bazar 943 949 Manikchak 939 933 Kaliachak-I 943 958 Kaliachak-II 941 954 Kaliachak-III 936 949 Malda 948 950 Source: Statistical Handbook of Malda District, 2011
38 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area
In 2001, the sex ratio of the district was 948 females per 1000 males compared to 950 in 2011. Many socio-economic factors contribute in the disparity in sex ratio. Table 1.8 has shown that in 2011 highest sex ratio recorded in Ratua-II (963), Gazole (970), Habibpur (974) and Kaliachak-I (958) block, while minimum sex ratio recorded as Harishchandrapur-I (933), Harishchandrapur-II (928), Ratua-I (937) and Manikchak (933) block. 1.16. Literacy: According to Census, literacy rate is defined as the percentage of literates to the total population of age 7 years and above. Table 1.9: Literacy Rate: The State and the District Literacy Rate in Percent(2011) State/District Total Male Female West Bengal 77.08 82.67 71.16 Malda 61.73 55.21 44.79 Source: Statistical Handbook of Malda District, 2011
Table 1.10: Literacy Rate in Malda District
Literacy Rate in Per Cent Blocks 2001 2011 Total Male Female Total Male Female Harishchandrapur-I 44.10 53.10 34.60 52.47 56.66 43.34 Harishchandrapur-II 40.70 47.70 33.30 54.34 54.78 45.22 Chanchal-I 56.10 47.90 63.80 65.09 54.16 45.84 Chanchal-II 44.50 37.40 51.30 57.38 53.65 46.35 Ratua-I 45.00 53.10 36.20 60.13 55.22 44.78 Ratua-II 47.80 54.50 40.80 56.18 52.90 47.10 Gazole 51.00 61.50 40.10 63.07 56.20 43.80 Bamongola 56.10 67.50 44.10 68.09 57.13 42.87 Habibpur 48.20 59.70 36.40 58.81 57.37 42.63 Old Malda 47.70 56.60 38.10 59.61 56.17 43.83 English Bazar 50.40 57.90 42.50 63.03 54.60 45.40 Manikchak 44.10 55.50 31.90 57.77 57.57 42.43 Kaliachak-I 54.30 61.60 46.60 65.25 53.31 46.69 Kaliachak-II 46.10 53.80 37.80 64.89 54.99 45.01 Kaliachak-III 41.80 52.10 30.70 54.16 56.86 43.14 Malda 50.28 58.80 41.25 61.73 55.21 44.79 Source: Statistical Handbook of Malda District, 2011
39 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area
Literacy rates of any area has the great significance since it serve as indicators of the capacity of people to learn and adopt new techniques and methods of production both in agriculture and industry, and to live a more healthy, prosperous and active life. From Table 1.9, it is clear that the literacy rate of Malda district is lagging behind than the state literacy rate. For the district as a whole, the literacy rate for males is much higher than that of females, 58.80 per cent of males are literates, while females account only 41.25 per cent in 2001 where as the literacy rate among male and females are recorded 55.21 per cent and 44.79 per cent respectively in the year 2011. Table 1.10 gives a visual impression of inter-block variations in literacy rate in the district. The percentage of literates to total population in the district has gone up from 50.28 per cent in 2001 to 61.73 per cent in 2011. The literacy rate in the district increases through the decades. In 2001 highest literacy found in Chanchal-I (56.10 %), Gazole (51.00%) and Bamongola (56.10%). In 2011, the highest literacy found in Gazole (63.07%), Bamongola (68.09%), English Bazar (50.40%), Kaliachak-I (54.30%) and Kaliachak-II (64.89%) block Low literacy rate is observed in the blocks of Harischandrapur-I, Harischandrapur-II, and Kaliachak-III in 2001 as well as in 2011.
1.17. Industry: The economy of Malda district is basically agrarian based. It is very much less developed in terms of industries. Under registered factories, there are only 71 working factories, while only 2717 factories under average daily employment factories (Census of India, 2011). Most important out of all the industries in the district are silk and tobacco. The small scale industries are developed in (a) goods manufacturing, (b) Tobacco and beverages manufacturing, (c) wool, silk and man-made fiber textiles manufacturing, (d) jute-fibre textile manufacturing, (e) chemical and chemical product, (f) non-metallic mineral products, (g) metal products and parts except machinery, (h) repair and capital goods and (i) storage and warehousing services. Malda is said to be one of the industrially backward districts in the State of West Bengal. Everywhere the declining trend of the economy of the district is observed. Few blocks like English Bazar and Old Malda are comparatively developed in terms of industry. Sericulture industry developed in the district. In 2010-11 the production of cocoons is 12693 metric tonnes. There is a great regional imbalances or inter block
40 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area disparities in the development of industries. Few blocks have huge number of working factories and number of persons employed in this is very high in respect of other blocks of the district. Number of small scale industrial units registered with directorate of cottage and small scale industries with corresponding employment in the district 2188 in the year of 2010-11.
1.18. Transport and Communication: Transportation and communication plays a vital role in development of a region. The district is functioned by road and rail ways both. The National Highway No.34 that connects Kolkata (capital city) and Siliguri (second largest city of the state and lie in north of the state) passing through the district and total length is 108 km. National Highway No.81 is newly constructed connecting Harishchandrapur-I and Gazole blocks via Chanchal (Head of Chanchal Sub-Division) and Shamsi. There are three state high ways in the district. They are 32 km. long connecting Manikchak and English Bazar, 26 km. long passes by the side of Adina and Pandua of Gazole block, and third one is about 32 km. connect Gazole and Bonodpur of Dakshin (south) Dinajpur district. Another important metalled road of 42 km. length connects Gazole, Bamangola, Habibpur and Bulbulchandi. While another road of 16 km. length links Manikchak with Ratua. Ratua is also connected with Tulshihata via Bhaluka by another road. Railway is an important means of transportation in the district. The main track crosses the district in north-south direction with six main stations i.e., Lakhsmipur, Malda Town Junction, Aklahki Junction, Shamsi, Harishchandrapur and Kumedpur Junction. After Kumedpur it is bifurcated into two tracks, one towards Katihar Junction (Bihar) and another towards NJP (New Jalpaiguri). Another newly constructed railway track crosses the district in east-west direction and joins Aklakhi Junction with Ganga Rampur railway station of Dakshin Dinajpur district. 1.19.Economy: The economy of the district is basically an agrarian one and ranks as one of the most underdeveloped district in West Bengal. The backwardness is characterised by low per capita income, low yield per acre of land, backwardness in industrialisation, shortage of capital and entrepreneurship, and also lack of infrastructure and large labour surplus. The district has no known mineral resources and agriculture remains the main stay. The main agricultural products are paddy, wheat, jute and rabi-crops.
41 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area
Despite this backwardness, Malda occupies an important place in the map of the State for the production of raw-silk yarn. The annual estimated production of raw-silk yarn in this district is about 85 % of the total output of the State which, if taken in terms of money amounts to approximately rupees 4 crores. Production of mango is another important aspect of Malda's economy. About forty five thousand acres of land are covered by mango orchards which, in normal years, bear fruit to the extent of 3, 60, 000 tonnes the value of which in money terms comes to about Rs. 5.5 crores. It will not be out of place to put in a few words about the mango production of Malda district, which has earned fame for this district. Mango is abundantly grown over the whole district with the exception of "Barind' area. English Bazar is by far the highest and the best mango-growing block. It is followed by other thanas namely, Ratua, Manickchak, Kaliachak, Chanchal, Malda and Harischandrapur in that order. There are mainly two varieties of mangoes (i) the gooti or the ordinary varieties of mango grown from 'seed' and (ii) 'Kalam' which is grown from grafting .The latter is of superior-quality and fetches higher price. The finest variety is the Gopalbhog, though there are other varieties namely, Brindaboni, Langra, Kshirshapati, kishanbhog and Fazli. The mango trade is one of the most important feature of the economy of this district and one which leaves important impact on the economy of this district. The price of mango varies according to its class and the effect of weather on the crop, for hailstorm and heavy rains are most injurious to the formation of a goods fruit. In recent years, there have been several failures of crops and there seems to be a cycle of good and bad years.
42 Chapter-I: Physio-Cultural Setting of the Study Area
References: Azmi. A (2011): “Educational Status of Aligarh District – a block wise study, unpublished thesis, Department of Geography, A.M.U., Aligarh Baig, M. W. B. R. (2014): ‘A Study of Regional Planning, Statistical Variations and Distribution of Socio-Economic Facilities in Malda District of West Bengal’, unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Shri Jagdishprasad Jhabarmal Tibrewala University, Rajasthan Census of India Comprehensive District Agricultural Plan of Malda, West Bengal Development & Planning Department Government of West Bengal District Gazetteer of Malda District Human Development Report of Malda Hussain, N (2011): ‘Dimensions of Education, Employment and Fertility Status of Muslim Population in Malda District (West Bengal)’, Unpublished Ph.D.Thesis, A.M.U., U.P Office of the Assistant Engineer (Irrigation), Malda District, 2011 Statistical Handbook of Malda District, Govt. of West Bengal
43
Chapter- II Conceptual Framework and Literature Review
Chapter-II: Conceptual Framework and Literature Review
CHAPTER- II CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Conceptual Framework:
Agriculture has features that make it a unique instrument for development. Agriculture can work in concert with other sectors to produce faster growth, reduce poverty, and sustain the environment. Agriculture can be the lead sector for overall growth in the agriculture-based countries. Agriculture in India through its multifarious relationships has bearing on the industrial, urban, technological and social development. Agriculture is said to have its root in the innovations that took place about 10,000 years ago. Present day agriculture in India, as in other countries representing ancient civilizations, has evolved itself through ages. The ancient countries witnessed a boom in agriculture and trade much before significant developments took place as a result of the application of modern scientific principles in agriculture. During the early periods, increased production of food and other agricultural commodities came about mainly by increasing the area under cultivation. There has been awareness all over the world, especially since the last 200 years, that the land resources are not unlimited and that in the business farming too the law of diminishing returns operates as it does elsewhere. In spite of this despair looming large all over the world, it has been possible so far, to meet the needs of the increasing population although catastrophes have resulted on some occasions. Agriculture itself is a system composed of multiple components.
Agriculture has been the oldest as well as the dominant profession in our country for centuries. Historical records bear testimony to the fact that agriculture in India had a highest level of development quite early as compared to the levels achieved in many of the countries. The dependence of Indian Agriculture on empirical methods continued until the early part of this century.
Indian agriculture has witnessed significant changes since independence. Whereas the expansion of area was the main source of growth until the mid sixties, it is mainly the growth in productivity achieved as a result of introduction of new seed- fertilizer technology that has sustained the tempo of growth during the more recent period since 2001-2011. As a consequence of the agricultural sector recording a trend rate of growth of output that is slightly higher than the growth of population, Indian’s
44 Chapter-II: Conceptual Framework and Literature Review dependence on imports of foodgrains has been reduced considerably since the mid- seventies. Notwithstanding these developments, the fact remains that the rate of growth has remained far short of the needs of the economy and has been lower than the plan targets. Further, the pattern of agricultural development in India is characterized by several serious distortions. Firstly, because of unequal distribution of assured irrigation facilities and other infrastructure across regions, the spread of new seed-fertilizer technology has been quite uneven. This has led to increasing inter- regional disparity in the levels and growth of agricultural output in India. Secondly, the gains of development have not been shared equitably among various strata of peasantry due to iniquitous structure of land ownership. Due to these distortions, quite a large proportion of landless labourers and small and marginal farmers continue to live below the poverty line, more so in slow growing regions of the country.
Recognizing that the overall performance of agriculture hides the fact that there could be large inter-regional variations in both the level and growth of agricultural output, the achievement of a balanced regional development of the economy has been high on the agenda of policy makers in India since the inception of planning process in the country. Balanced regional growth was sought to be promoted, among others, through agricultural development programmes that were expected to spread over the entire area within the shortest possible time.
Agriculture constitutes an important activity of people to earn livelihood in West Bengal as well as in Malda district. Agricultural breakthrough provides a base in the form of research and technological application in increasing the quantum of production and productivity per unit area and per person engaged in agriculture. Agricultural development should be evaluated or assessed by the agriculture production and productivity and also by the various inputs like extent of cultivated area, consumption of fertilizers, high yielding variety of seeds, labour, degree of mechanization etc. Agricultural development may constitute as one of the very important and dynamic components of socio economic transformation. Because it provides increase of food surplus to the growing population helps to expand the secondary and tertiary sectors, which raises the rural income and purchasing power which transform the society and improve the welfare of the population of the region. Land use is one of the vital aspects of development in agriculture fields, which is a multi-dimensional concept. Diffusion of agriculture innovation has a very strong
45 Chapter-II: Conceptual Framework and Literature Review bearing upon the agricultural efficiency and productivity in any regional area. Diffusion of agriculture innovation varies from one social system to another and also within the social system itself because of the way in which it is perceived is more important. Keeping this view in mind an attempt has been made to examine the level of agricultural development and its impact on socio-economic transformation in Malda district of West Bengal.
Agricultural Development:
The concept of agricultural development is unquestionably a multi- dimensional concept. Agricultural development is much more a comprehensive concept than generally it is understood. It is the manifestation of the combined effect of many factors like physical, environmental, technological and institutional. It also implies a process through which the real income of the farmers is increased over a long period. Obviously, the term agricultural development refers to the growth and overall changes of agricultural development. Agricultural development implies an optimal use of land sources through applying a higher degree of modern inputs. The development of agriculture should be such as to result in the provision of balance and adequate diet to the entire population of the country. It is not enough to provide adequate supply of food to the people but it is also necessary that agriculture should provide sufficient raw materials to a large number of agro-based industries. Agricultural development denotes the quality of agricultural systems of regions in terms of productivity, diversification and commercialization.
A scientific investigation and evaluation of different aspects of development both over space and through time is highly necessary in order to have a clear picture of the nature of agricultural growth and development. Keeping these facts in view the Malda district of West Bengal has been selected as the study region, which exhibits spatial disparity in the level of agricultural development. The agricultural development of the district is lagging behind as compared to some other districts of the State. Constantly the pressure of farming community over the arable land , insufficient irrigation facilities, lack of mechanization etc. are some of problems of agricultural development in the district. In spite of such draw backs, there occurs some spectacular changes in agricultural sector of the district like participation of unemployed youths in plantation and commercial agriculture, introduction of new crops, extension of agricultural activities to wet lands and reverine tracts etc. and so
46 Chapter-II: Conceptual Framework and Literature Review on. Nevertheless development of agriculture achieved so far is not evenly distributed over space and through time, rather there is marked spatio-temporal variation in agricultural development of the district. Considering the different innovative practices in agriculture and variations in agricultural development, the present study has been undertaken in order to examine the spatial and temporal variations in agricultural development and the causes related to it. This study is likely to help in proper agricultural planning for the future socio-economic development in the district.
2.2. Review of Literature:
Review of literature furnishes the spectrum of information on the nature of research work already done by other scholars on the related theme and on the research area. A review of geographical literature reveals that in India very few attempts have been made to define agricultural development and to select criteria of development in light of any conceptual framework.
A. Chatterjee and P. Maitrya (1964) concluded that the variation in agricultural productivity in the two extremely heterogeneous regions of West Bengal was dependent on the closeness with the industrial area.
V.M. Dandekar (1964) attributes the prevalence of tenancy conditions and continuous pressure of population on land as the two main factors inhibiting the pace of development of agriculture in West Bengal.
D. Radhakrishnan (1964) concludes with the remarks that regional productivity in agriculture is largely governed by the nature of soil of the region and that productivity differs considerably from soil to soil and soil on the nature of amounts of inputs.
Bina Roy and T. Maitra (1964) on the basis of the study on regional variation remarks that the yield per acre of principal crop during the decade 1950-51 to 1959-60 have not change by significant extent.
Jain (1966) also concluded that mechanization is highly responsible for raising the agricultural productivity.
B.D. Shukla (1967) in his paper which covers 234 farms of various size group in Jaunpur District of U.P. concludes that the net income per acre increase with the increase in size of farms while female labour income and farm business income is
47 Chapter-II: Conceptual Framework and Literature Review highest on the smallest farms projecting almost the reverse trend because of the relative higher contribution of family labour to total labour on farms in lowest ranges. The study also reveals that the input-output ratio exhibits an increasing trend with the increasing in the size of farms.
Raza (1968) suggested that the output of food per head can be raised out by increasing the yield or productivity per acre. This can be achieved through carrying out necessary land reforms. He pointed out that there are strong reason to support the view that there has been some causal link between the land reform and agricultural productivity.
According to Pal (1968) the irrigation alone cannot increase the required agricultural production; it is the other inputs also used with adequate water supply which can increase the agricultural production.
The immediate outcome of green revolution was in the form of increased agricultural production, but in the view of Arshad (1986) it has failed to make any appreciable differences in the overall rate of agricultural growth. According to him, the introduction of HYV of seeds along with new technology and fertilizers alone cannot balance agricultural production. An all-round production and growth in all crops in all regions is the only solution.
Tara Shukla (1969) pointed out certain problems of growth of traditional agriculture, stages of increasing agricultural production, spread of new technology and bases of technological research.
In view of Kanwar (1969) for maximum output from land, it is required to bring more land under irrigation, fertilizers, high yielding varieties of seeds and better organic technology.
Mathur (1969) has revealed in relation to pests’ studies that the use of high yielding varieties of seeds and seed treatment with organomercury compound is an important step towards the control of a number of seed born diseases.
R.N. Tiwari (1970) attempts to study the relationship between the agricultural development and pressure of population on it. The problem of agriculture has been explicitly examined in the light of internationally accepted norms. The objective of the study was to analyse the trend pattern and sufficiency of agricultural development vis-a-vis population growth from the year 1951 to 1961 in the regional frame work
48 Chapter-II: Conceptual Framework and Literature Review and he observes that unless agriculture is not activated and its rate of growth does not surpass the growth of population the per capita income would not be increased sufficiently. The study does not accept the prevailing pattern of planning which lays stress on schemes rather than on regions in the state.
Sharma (1971) pointed out that agricultural development should be assessed not only by the levels of productivity or trends in agricultural production but also with reference to various physical inputs like irrigation, fertilizers, improved seeds extent of cultivated area.
M. Shafi (1972) has given a formula both to determine the productivity of a particular crop with reference to yield per hectare and the area of that crop in the districts in relation to the national level.
G.P. Mishra (1972) accepting the importance of technology in the field of agriculture concludes with some debatable findings. According to him the introduction of new technology has accentuated not only the problem of inter respect of income but also in respect of employment and production. The study recommends a policy that would not only accelerate the agricultural growth on one hand but also be able to control prices, wages, taxes and credit on the other. In other words the policy measures of the government should be coherently reformulated.
R.P. Singh and K.N. Rai (1973) in their paper attempted to study the impact of rainfall new farm technology and prices on the acreage allocation and agricultural production region (Haryana). The study brings out certain important findings and according to it the rainfall had no significant response to acreage on rice, bajra and wheat. Agriculture was gradually picking up at the cost of traditional cultivation. According to the study the optimum balanced cropping pattern could only be achieved if we take into account the lower and upper limits of prices for all crops having technological break-through.
M.V. Nadkarni (1973) studies the role played by the agricultural prices in the process of economic development. The variation in price levels has been explained with the help of regression analysis. The study also recommends implication of policy measures in clear terms.
Ajit K. Dasgupta (1973) attempted to study the pattern of growth of employment and output in Indian agriculture vis-à-vis the aggregate growth of
49 Chapter-II: Conceptual Framework and Literature Review employment and output in the economy. The study which covers a period of fifteen years from 1955-56 to 1970-71 brings out certain important facts and according to it the rate of growth of per capita income in India could certainly be arrested by increasing the productivity of labour in non-farm sector. The prevailing trend in agricultural sector could certainly be reversed by ensuring technological improvements.
Alam (1974) using data for individual tehsil in his study of disparities in development in the Andhra Pradesh employed six indicators for agricultural sector. Two of these related to productivity (agricultural output per agricultural worker per acre) and four to factors in agricultural development (percentage of gross irrigated, canal irrigated and double cropped area).
D. Singh and R.I. Singh (1974) observed that the main reason for the inequality in the field of agriculture in Uttar Pradesh has been unequal utilization of modern inputs. These differences according to the study hamper the pace of development and encourage differences in income and poverty at regional levels.
C.H. Hanumantha Rao (1975) observed that the output of food grain increased at the rate of 2.5 per cent per annum during the decade 1960-61 to 1970-71 against 3.3 per cent recorded during the previous decade of 1949-50 to 1959-60 to 1970-71 was about 2.7 per cent. Similarly, cropped area recorded an increase of 2.1 per cent during the decade 1949-50 to 1959-60.
H. Singh and O.P. Gurani (1975) concludes that there has been a conspicuous in the marginal and average rate of savings over the last decade on both the traditional and modern types of farm technology, according to the analysis, also in raising the capabilities.
Sharma (1976) has suggested that the development of agriculture should be assessed not only by productivity levels but also with reference to input such as fertilizers improved, high yielding varieties of seeds and irrigation.
V.S. Vyas (1977) on the basis of N.S.S data concludes that when agricultural growth was satisfactory the problem of poverty had mitigated. On the other hand, studies on rural poverty indicate that in 1960’s when agricultural production was sharply fluctuating no significant dent was made on the problem of rural poverty.
50 Chapter-II: Conceptual Framework and Literature Review
P.K. Banerjee (1977) discusses various issues concerning the economy of small farmers in India, especially their credit problems. The study which is empirical in nature has been duly supported by the theoretical analysis. The empirical portion presents a critical appraisal of Indian economy whereas the theoretical or model part provides new measures for calculating the exact government to plan credit policies in respect of small farmers.
S.P. Tiwari (1979) while accepting the importance of balanced growth, aims at studying the disparity in agro-economic structures in different regions on the basis of identified indicators; thereby provide suitable measures for rapid agricultural development. According to the analysis, agricultural production could still be pushed up through the judicious selection of crops and effective irrigation network.
M.S. Bhatia (1979) while accepting the importance of resource structures or input-mix in the agricultural sector in determining the growth and agricultural output attempts to study the changes in the input-mix over the time. The study which provides basis for future policy decisions for modernization of agriculture, observes that agricultural output can be further pushed up through increasing use of fertilizers and irrigation particularly in states where the use of modern input has remained relatively low.
Ali Mohammad (1979) pointed out that the stages of development of agriculture can be measured by two factors of labours and land productivity. It is well accepted that the higher stage of development of agriculture, the greater is the land and labour productivity. Since agricultural development depends on agro- technological determinants like irrigation, fertilizers, high yielding varieties of seeds and agricultural mechanization, it together form a developed kind of agricultural landscape and provide a frame of parameter to measure the level of agricultural development of a region. For agricultural development, the process and diffusion of agricultural innovations must be accelerated and the new farm technology should be made available to the cultivators, so that they understand it easily. A speedy and extensive change could only be brought about technological change and adaptation of innovation and by formulating labour intensive oriented scheme in various sectors.
C. Mukherjee and A. Vaidyanathan (1980) in their analysis attempt to study the impact of various inputs on the productivity or per unit yield of cereals. The study reveals that the level of uncertainty in yield reduces as the level of input in agriculture rises.
51 Chapter-II: Conceptual Framework and Literature Review
Nilkantha Rath (1980) examines the performance of agricultural production in India. The analysis shows that agricultural production had undergone a tremendous change during last two and half decades. The study helps in identifying the factors responsible for growth and permits a board judgement about the overall production possibilities in near future.
Singh (1980), while studying agricultural development of Gujarat, has selected 20 variables for two reference points (1960-61 and 1970-71) and categorized them into four types of resources inputs, viz., the land resource input, water resource input and capital resource input. Applying factor analysis technique, he found that agricultural development experience of Gujarat revealed five salient structural characteristics. Two of these are technology variants-traditional and modern; and the other three institutional variants-agrarian structures, land-use pattern and primary sector predominance.
F.S. Bagi (1981) attempts to study the economic contribution of irrigation to crop production in Haryana. The study which includes 119 individual farms for the year 1969-70 concludes that technical efficiency is higher in the irrigated farms. Irrigation sufficiency improves the allocative efficiency of all variable input and the irrigated farms utilise these variables in large quantities.
Noor Mohammad (1981) has emphasized that the use of modern technology for bringing about a change in agricultural output. He pointed out that the technological factors such as fertilizers, High Yielding Varieties of seeds, pesticides and new farm implements are capable of increasing the agricultural productivity.
D. Singh, V.K. Singh and R.K Singh (1981) in their study, based on a sample as 100 farmers selected randomly who use new farm technology from the village of Sikara Block of Jaunpur district of U.P. attempt to study the changes in the level of use of inputs in the selected crops. Analyse the extent of labour use and employment of male-female labour in different agricultural operations under selected crop technologies and analyse the effect of holdings on labour absorptions. The analysis concludes with the remarks that technologies need to be perfected and made remunerative so that more labour employment opportunities can be generated. Spatial attempts for employment of farm-women also need to be made.
52 Chapter-II: Conceptual Framework and Literature Review
According to M. Shafi (1981), the optimum use of land for production depends on to a large extent on the level of technology and the system of farming. In his opinion there are two ways for increasing food production – (i) increasing the area under cultivation and (ii) increasing the output per head. He also points out that one of the major hinderence in the optimal use of land lies in the land tenure system.
M. Shafi (1984), in his study examined the agricultural productivity with special reference to farm powers, human labour, draught animals and machines. It is established that draught animals, which constitute the backbone of Indian agriculture, supply half the energy in Indian agriculture. The distribution of power availability is also not same throughout country.
According to Singh (1984), increasing the agricultural production is a must and their protection from pests is as important as use of irrigation, high yielding varieties of seeds and fertilizers. He has suggested that the farmers need to be educated about judicious use of fertilizers otherwise boon can turn into bane.
S.K. Sharma and C.K. Jain (1985) in their study analyses the changes in agricultural productivity in Madhya Pradesh with its diversified socio-economic and physical conditions. They used least square regression to analyze the trend while relationship is presented with the help of coefficient of correlation. Trend analysis is based on area, production and yield figure of six major crops. Wide regional disparity in the growth of output of crop has been observed. Attempt has also been made to present spatial as well as temporal variation in yield rates of major crops along with the analysis of their impact on growth of production.
The policies of increasing the fertilizers use as suggested by Desai (1986) should be based upon a strategy which aims both rapidly converting the untrapped potential in to actual use of and continuously raising the economic potential of fertilizer through upward shift in response function.
According to Khare (1987) due to certain inbuilt constraints of a backward area development in certain part could not be spread to the rest of the area. The agricultural development could be co-ordinated with dispersal process through a chain of agro based industries and it is through such a decentralized strategy that one can achieve the balance regional development in the country.
53 Chapter-II: Conceptual Framework and Literature Review
Vasant (1987) suggests that efficient management of developed water resources and supply and application of all other inputs needed for irrigated agriculture can produce sufficient food grains for the over increasing population of India.
Sharma J.L. (1990) examined the inter-state disparities in agricultural growth in India. The main objectives of this study are: to examine the inter-state disparities in agricultural growth and to identify the factors responsible for these disparities. The data for the study was obtained from Statistical Abstract of India, covering the period 1966-67 to 1987-88. The main conclusions of this study are that, size of holding is the basic factor affecting the structure of agriculture and there exists vast disparities across states in India. The States with higher agricultural growth rates having relatively higher average size of holding except Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana states, the center of agricultural growth in India, have the highest proportion of cultivated area under irrigation.
Thomas and Devi (1990) have done a study in Kerala concludes that the climatic condition in the state as well as farmer’s high expectations towards future prices for the crops have resulted in the increasing trend in acreage of these crops despite the fact there was no significant shift in cropping pattern.
Chaudhury and Aneja (1991) have concluded that the green revolution successes have led to breakthrough in food grains production in Haryana. But the unscientific use of modern technology has resulted in a number of problems. Over exploitation of land and water resources led to deterioration of soil health, created nutritional imbalances and distributed the natural hydrology, particularly in intensively irrigated areas.
Krishna (1992) pointed out in his paper that agricultural development, in true sense, denotes the quality of agricultural system of a region in terms of productivity, diversification and commercialization consistent with desired state of agrarian relation and ecological balance.
Thakur (1992) pointed out that after independence, particularly during the last two decades, there are considerable changes in all most all the parameters of agriculture in India, due to the variation in physical and socio-economic conditions, these changes in agriculture are not uniform all over the country either spatially or temporally.
54 Chapter-II: Conceptual Framework and Literature Review
According to M.R. Khurana (1992) the difference in the levels of agricultural development in a particular districts are largely in terms of differences in irrigation facilities, rural electrification, use of chemical fertilizers, adaptation of high yielding varieties of seeds and so on.
Jha (1994) conducted study on growth and instability in agriculture in post green revolution period. His study proved that the decline in instability in crops, viz., paddy and wheat was brought about with increased area under irrigation over the years. He concluded that with new technology, instability in agricultural income reduced with adequate irrigation facilities and consistent price policy.
S.D. Sawant and C.V. Achuthan (1995) measured growth rates in agriculture across crops and regions in India for the period 1968-69 to 1992-92. They distinguished two sub-periods, viz., (i) 1968-69 to 1981-82 and (ii) 1981-82 to 1991- 92. From this they came to the conclusion that there must be an upsurge, a significant one, in the growth of aggregate production and productivity in Indian agriculture and it cannot be attributed merely to a favourable weather. The fact that the role played by yield improvement in inducing higher output growth has been far more important than that of expansion in area indicates that the process of growth has been technologically more dynamic too.
Bhalla and Singh (1997) have done a study on recent developments in Indian agriculture (a state level analysis). It reveals that there was a marked acceleration in the growth rate of agricultural output in India during 1980-83 to 1992-95 as compared to that in the earlier periods and that agricultural growth had become regionally much more diversified.
Gangwar (1997) pointed out that since, the mid 1960’s there have been rapid increase in agricultural production in India as a result of diffusion of package of improved cultural practices involving high yielding varieties of seeds, use of fertilizers, irrigation, application of pesticides and farm mechanization.
C.B. Singh and A.S. Sirohi (1997) in their paper on comparative study of the productivity of crops for the periods of post and pre-green revolution remark that the difference in productivity in most of the crops was found to be statistically significant. The study recommends the expansion of irrigational network in order to eliminate regional disparity in food grains.
55 Chapter-II: Conceptual Framework and Literature Review
Swaminathan (1999) concluded that before the mid 1960’s, increase in foodgrain output in the country was attributed mostly to the growth of the cultivated area and the extension of irrigation, since, then, the new farming system symbolized by high yielding varieties of seeds, use of agro-chemical and mechanization had the powerful impact on the food sector of the country.
Pochanna, K (2000) in his study observed a positive relation between yield growth and instability in Punjab, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa and West Bengal. He concluded that the use of fertilizers and extension of irrigation are important factors not only to yield growth but also to reduce the fluctuations and ensure stability in the yield growth.
Singh J. and Dhillon (2000) stated that agriculture modernization implies technological as well as organization improvement. Therefore modernization is a process where there are increasing modern inputs in farming and maximizing yield levels. This shows a variation over space through time.
Majid Husain (2002) stated that “Green Revolution” is a term coined to describe the emergence and diffusion of new seed of cereals. The new cereals were the product of research work and concentrated plant breeding with the objective of creating high yielding varieties of rice, lick -8 (miracle rice), at the International rice research Institute, Philippines in the 1960s. The increase in yield from the new seed has been spectacular. In some cases the yield of HYV is more than double the yield of traditional varieties.
Modern agriculture is highly dependent on irrigation. Even the use of HYV and fertilizers are directly related with the extent of irrigation. It raises the crop productivity even without the use of HYV’s. (Sharma, S.K. 2003)
Suresh Phule and Abhijeet Bodade (2003) stated that Marathwada with western Maharashtra in the sense of agricultural development it is supposed to be very low developed due to lack of irrigational facilities. The farmers are choosing the verity of crop combination in their fields.
Singh J. (2005) used the approach to determine the levels of mechanization of India. The approach to determine the levels of mechanization of India Along with the modern technology which should be utilized in agriculture the market and transport facilities and connectivity is sufficient in the tehsil.
56 Chapter-II: Conceptual Framework and Literature Review
Bhalla, G.S. (2007) in his book “Indian Agriculture since Independence” examines the relative performance of Indian agriculture both during the plan period and post-reform period as well as the role of agriculture in the development of Indian economy. He also underlines the various causes of deceleration of agriculture in the post-reform period and makes policy suggestions for regeneration of Indian agriculture.
Chand et al (2007) listed main factors that are responsible for slow growth of Indian agriculture. They are of the opinion that a) decline in the area under cultivation which seems to be a result of expanding urbanization and industrialization, b) deteriorating the terms of trade for agriculture, c) stagnant crop intensity, d) poor progress of irrigation and fertilizer, e) decline in supply of electricity to agriculture and finally slowdown in diversification.
P. V. Patil, Arun B. Patil and C.U. Mane (2008) explained that the agricultural has always occupied an important place in Indian economy. Per person the proportion of cultivable land has been decreased considerably during the recent past. The increase in crop production is a must in India Since the areal spread of crop land has almost reached to its saturation limit. Agricultural productivity is a measure of overall performance of a region which is useful in planning the developmental programmes in rural areas.
Bruinsma (2009) pointed out that food supplies have to be geared to meet the challenges of increasing global population, changes in income, and the resultant changes in diet.
Dharam Das Vishwakarma (2009) - He mentioned that, the agricultural development in a country like India is crucial to its economy both for output its and to meet the basic needs of the people and for the employment and income it provides to the bulk of her work force. In spite of the diminishing of share of GDP from agriculture over the decades, the economy has whole continues to vitally hing on agriculture.
Nizamuddin Khan, Md. A. H. Rahaman and Nooruzzaman (2009) observed that, the present study revealed that the spatial distribution of variables and agricultural development is not any form in the study region. It provides very significant information about the level of agricultural development in Murshidabad district. The study also highlights the impact of locational and spatial input for the agricultural development planning of Murshidabad district.
57 Chapter-II: Conceptual Framework and Literature Review
Rajkumar Moharker and Dr. J.P. Jagtap (2009) - They said that, the farmers are growing numerous crops in the field rather than single crops. Crops are generally grown in combination in any region and these crops have its relative position in terms of crop combination. The distributional pattern of crops in any region is an outcome of predominance of certain crops. This is in term of emergence of typical crop combination.
According to (Rathod et.al, 2009) agricultural production is influenced by physical, socio-economic, technological and organization factor, an endeavour is made her to study the crop combination region in yavatmal district the crop data has been computed with the help of Doi’s methods of crop combination. The study region covers 13582 sq.km (4.4%) of the state and a population of the 2077144 (2.63%) of the state in1991 census Yavatmal district.
Darku, Malla and Tran (2010) suggested that agricultural productivity is the key driver for the well-being of the farmers, the agro based industry and mankind at large. It is linked to food security, prices and poverty alleviation in the developing countries.
Subrata Kumar Ray (2010) in his book “Agricultural Growth in India” examine the development of agriculture of India which is characterized by the process of crop diversification or changes in cropping pattern over time. The change has been associated with the increasing transformation of agriculture from subsistence to commercial farming.
Utpaljoyti Sharma and Manshi Chakravarty (2010) write that the agricultural is considered one of the major contributing sectors to the economy not only of rural areas but also of whole country. The livelihoods of majority of rural communities manly rely on agricultural to meet their subsistence needs. The farmers of our country are always producing huge quantities of various crops, yet our agricultural production is not still secured for alarmingly increasing population. Agricultural production system depends on climatic factors of locality. The unpredicted climate changes directly affect the environment and more resources the change in the climate particularly the rise in global temperature and change in rainfall pattern.
58 Chapter-II: Conceptual Framework and Literature Review
Kannan, E. and Sundaram, S. (2011) in their paper entitled “Analysis of Trends in India’s Agricultural Growth” discusses the trends and patterns in agricultural growth at the national and sub-national level in India. There is a marked shift from the cultivation of food grains to commercial crops. Among food grains, the area under coarse cereals declined by 13.3 per cent between 1970-71 and 2007-08. Similarly, the performance of pulses in terms of area and output was not impressive during the study period. The use of technological inventions in the cultivation of other crops was also not so conspicuous in pulses. Nevertheless, the increase in crop yield has been a major factor for accelerating production in the country since the late 1960s. The use of modern varieties, irrigation and fertilizers were important factors that ensured higher growth in crop production. However, technological and institutional support for a few crops like rice and wheat brought significant changes in crop area and output composition in some regions. The results of crop output growth model indicate that the enhanced capital formation, better irrigation facilities, normal rainfall and improved fertilizer consumption helped to improve crop output in the country.
R. Malini (2011): According to R. Malini, the agricultural development is an index of our country’s progress because it is the largest sector and the lifeline of Indian economy. The development of all other sectors depends upon the development of agricultural sector because it provides food, raw material and employment opportunity of two-thirds of the population. But agricultural in India has always been a risky business in comparison to the industrial sector. As a result, the Indian farmer is not able to make the maximum use of his time, labor and productive capacity of his land due to risks, such as inconsistent monsoon, low level of productivity, technological backwardness and inadequate financial facilities. The most important problem that requires immediate attention is the perils present in the agriculture field. The agriculturist cannot carry on his business without facing the perils in the agricultural activity. Especially, they cannot bear all the losses that arise due to the perils involved in agricultural activity. The loss may be heavy or of recurring nature. Hence farmers should depend upon bank or other insurance corporation to share their loss. In this phenomenon, availability of agriculture insurance at reasonable terms might be the right strategy for speedy agricultural development and improvement of the standard of farmers.
59 Chapter-II: Conceptual Framework and Literature Review
Along with the modern technology which should be utilized in agriculture the market and transport facilities plays also vital role in the development of agriculture. The supply of electricity and connectivity to each settlement through road networking is sufficient in the Tehsil, but the facilities regarding agro services center, agricultural market and cold storages are inadequate in study area (Gatade, 2012).
N.N. Firake and et.al (2012) revealed that the drip irrigation scheduled daily at 0.60 per cent evaporation and the soluble fertilizers applied weekly at 80 per cent of recommended dose to Gerbera under polyhouse conditions resulted into maximum benefit: cost ratio of 1.59 over other treatments under study.
Sunil Kumar and et.al (2012), found that long term effect of organic materials. Along with fertilizers increased the soil organic carbon, saturated hydraulic conductivity, available N.P.K. grain and straw yield of wheat and decreased the soil bulk density, soluble salt, concentration and PH. long term integrated nutrient management by applying organic manures and inorganic fertilizers has potential for improving the soil physical and chemical fertility status for increasing the crop yield for sustainable agriculture.
According to Dr. Ratnadeep Bane and Prof. H. N. Kamble (2012), Modern age is the age of advancement in several fields of human activity. Modern agricultural implements are relatively better than the farmer ones in respect of comparative high returns from the given file. The scientific methodology in spite of its increased inputs has the effects of increased output giving desired margin of profit to the farmers. HYV’s of cotton could have been a sole reason for its extinction from the “kanam” (cotton) region of Gujarat.
Hement Pednekar and prof. B.B. Rahane (2012) mentioned that, the agricultural practices and topology are best represented by crops in any regions. The principle crops tended to concentrate according to their requirement of physical environment. In this study an attempt has been made to analysis the agricultural land use pattern at micro level in Thane district. This study is based on secondary data collected from village revenue records.
S. H. Siddiqui and et. al (2014) shows the concentration pattern of eight major crops in Malda district of West Bengal. It is found that the degree of crop concentration varies from one part to another in the district. The spatial variation in
60 Chapter-II: Conceptual Framework and Literature Review the degree of crop concentration area is found to be the result of different interactions such as physiographic, socio-economic and technological factors and farmers’ personal decisions.
S. H. Siddiqui and et. al (2015) studied the impact of social disparities on agricultural development in West Bengal by calculating composite Z score of 24 variables (12 for social disparities and 12 agricultural development). The study reveals that the districts which are lying in the central part of the region give an impression of being in a higher side of the scale of development. The north-central districts show backwardness in the light of all variables.
S. H. Siddiqui and et. al (2016) studied the pattern of crop diversification in West Bengal by using Gibbs-Martin’s index of crop diversification. The study reveals that crop diversification has taken place largely in favour of boro rice, potato, sugarcane, jute and oilseeds. The diversification seems to have taken place in favour of high value crops which provide higher relative return to the cultivators.
S. H. Siddiqui and et. al (2016) calculated agricultural productivity by using Yang’s Crop Yield index method for the year 2010-11. The study revealed that the high level agricultural productivity found in the south-central part of the study region because of assured irrigation, fertile soil, high consumption of fertilizer and better use if agricultural technology.
N. Aktar (2016) studied the role of technological factors on the development of agriculture in West Bengal. He highlighted that those districts have high level of technological also have high level of agricultural development and vice-versa. He also pointed out that the central and south-central parts of the region are agriculturally more developed than other parts of the state.
61 Chapter-II: Conceptual Framework and Literature Review
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68
Chapter- III Dynamics of Agriculture
Chapter-III: Dynamics of Agriculture
CHAPTER- III DYNAMICS OF AGRICULTURE
The foregoing chapter dwells upon the spatial reality by focusing on physical and social spaces. In the present chapter, an effort has been made to assess the land use changes, cropping pattern, growth rate of area, production and yield of major crops, cropping intensity, crop diversification and crop combinations in Malda district.
3.1. Concept of Land Use:
Land use is a dynamic concept which changes over space and time. Land utilization is the process of exploring the land use for a specific objectives. Land utilization is, in fact, the expression of the natural and human environment which is strictly connected with physical, climatic and pedagogical conditions as well as human activity that modified those conditions to fulfil a particular goal (Vanzetti, 1975).
3.2. Conceptual Framework of Land Use:
According to J.W. Fox, land use is defined as the actual and specific use to which the land surface is put in terms of inherent land use characteristics. The term land utilization is the process of exploiting the land use for a specific objective. These two terms, use for two situation, are conservation and utilization, though it is becoming customary to employ the word „use‟ for the latter also.
Clawson (1968) lists nine concepts of land although he is little concerned with the conceptual meaning of the use of land. Land use is that group of associated human activities by which the land is made to yield products of value to man. In other it is asserted that land use is not limited vegetative cover as is commonly assumed (Wood, 1972).
Barlowe and Johnson (1955) as land economists, preferred to use the term „land‟ resource utilization. They argued that land resource utilization is central to all discussion of land problems and policies. Its significance is further enhanced in the area where the kind and degree of land use is the crux of the economy of the inhabitants. In their opinion, land utilization is concerned primarily with the characteristics, conditions competitions, shifts and adjustments in land use that arise
69 Chapter-III: Dynamics of Agriculture in the utilization of land resources. It includes the study of land resources from the standpoint of their economic contribution to both the individual and society with a view to determining in what way and for what purpose resources may be used most efficiently. It also involves the physical response of land resources to varying application of capital and labour, the individual and social contributions and benefits of crop land use and the operational effects of land policies and programmes on the uses of land resources.
In fact, land becomes a matter of economic significance when people start using it, complete with other uses, adjust on price benefit-basis and shift according to current demand. In this way, utilization of land resources becomes the result of the economic forces such as that of interplay of supply and demand (Roland, 1947). Thus, it is the interrelationship of the supply and demand factors that affect land resources as its answers are found largely in the physical and biological framework within which land use takes place (Barlowe, 1972).
It is observed that land use in any kind of permanent or cyclic human intervention to satisfy human needs either material or spiritual or both from the complex of natural and artificial resources which together are called „land‟. Land carries ecosystems; land utilization is the application of human controls in a relatively systematic manner to the key elements within any ecosystem in order to derive benefit from it. Man, although, an inherent part of ecosystem in which he lives, places himself to some extent outside the systems and tries to manipulate it. Land being the carrier of those ecosystems which provide the most benefit to mankind is the overall natural resources. A resource is there to be used and its use takes place in specific areas and at specific localities. It is further clarified that the concept of land use is often considered a relatively stable subject related mainly to the use of which the land in a certain region between available resources and human needs and acted upon by human efforts. (Vink, 1975).
The use of land is influenced by the interplay of many factors, constantly changing their relationship with one another. The rapid technological changes have created new needs which demand more land at the same time new ways of using land. Building technology makes possible a more intensive use of land, the construction of road, the opening up of new region.
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With the help of land use study one can also indicate vacant land capable of reclamation fragmentation of holding, marshy and unirrigated land. In this way the relocation of settlements is necessary on vacant land and that also ensures a planned development of settlement on predetermined site. Land use study should not be made for a static time period but the study of its temporal changes is necessary for future use. Thus the study of land utilization is of immense value for planning agricultural growth organized urbanization and regional development. The aim of all the agricultural planner therefore should be to record the present land use on large scale maps which should be a basis for the assessment of the use or misuse of land. It is, therefore, necessary to conduct a field survey throughout the country and to ascertain the impact of geographical conditions on the agricultural land use and cropping pattern. The interpretation of land use maps shall be helpful in determining whether the land is under profitable usage or is being misused.
The nature of land use of an area reflects the socio-economic development of people under different physio-cultural milieu. The term land use may broadly be defined as putting up a piece of land into productive purpose. But man‟s dependence on land in a variety of ways has created tremendous pressure on land leading to its variety of ways has created tremendous pressure on land leading to its diversified use and considerable overuses. Land use is a function of four variables land, water, air and man. Each plays in its own role in comprising its life history. Land constitutes its body, water runs through its veins like blood, air gives it oxygen and man acts as the dynamic actor to reflect its types, pattern and distribution. In fact, man the user of land is himself the product of atmospheric behaviour, hydrological action and lithospheric expressions.
Land varies in altitudes, forms and expressions. Man has played his part on land to portray the different phases of his ties with it. The Homo-sapiens moved from one topography to another to fit his limited wants where climate, flora and fauna are different. Men were not many in number, therefore, their wants were also limited. The use of land likewise was limited. Men multiplied, their wants increased and became complex. The use of land also increased. Methods and technology also changed. Man was making his own map on the face of the earth to portray his link, adaptation, creation and destruction. This cultural map forms the appendix to the natural landscape. Land use primarily relates to public problems, whereas farm management
71 Chapter-III: Dynamics of Agriculture involves private problems as faced by an entrepreneur of a firm, who in this case is farmer. The key to the most important aspect of land use lies in the relation of population to land. Land use particularly is linked with problems initiated in the process of deciding upon and translating into action the optimum use of limited land between the alternative major types of land utilization.
The meaning and scope of land use is explained in outline by Zimmermann in his World Resource and Industries. In fact “land” is used by the economist in a broader sense to denote natural resources in general. The problem, in that case, becomes one of resource appraisal. But restricting the review to agricultural land, factors determining the limits of the agricultural uses of land are being reflected.
3.3. Land Use Pattern in Malda District:
The area under various land use categories in Malda during agricultural years 2000-2001 to 2010-2011 present an interesting pattern. The increase or decrease in area available for cultivation as well as net sown area reveals the level of achievement in the field of agricultural development. In order to follow this progress, the study is carried on under following broad nine fold land use categories: (1) Forest Area, (2) Area under Non-Agricultural uses, (3) Barren and Unculturable Land, (4) Permanent Pastures and other Grazing Land, (5) Land under Miscellaneous Tree groves not included in Net Sown Area, (6) Culturable Waste Land, (7) Fallow Land other than Current Fallow, (8) Current Fallow and (9) Net Sown Area.
Table 3.1 reveals that total reporting area was 371.05 thousand hectares in 2000-01 and 370.86 thousand hectares in 2010-11. There is no change area under the forest category during the study period. Area under non-agricultural uses increased from 84.82 thousand hectares in 2000-01 to 90.11 thousand hectares in 2010-11. It is mainly because of the construction works (houses, roads, railways) and high population growth. The culturable waste land also increased from 0.09 thousand hectares in 2000-01 to 0.10 thousand hectares in 2010-11. Similarly fallow land other than current fallow and current fallow also increased during the study period. The fallow land has gone up due to non-availability of sufficient water or lack of irrigation facility in various blocks and the district. The net sown area obviously occupies the largest portion, which has been true during all the periods of analysis i.e. 2000-01 and 2010-11.
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Table 3.1: Land Use Pattern of Malda District (2000-01 to 2010-11) (Area in '000 hectares)
Area under Land under misc. Barren & Permanent Fallow land Reporting Forest non- tree grooves not Culturable Current Net area Year pastures & other other than Area area agricultural Unculturable included in net Waste Land Fallow Sown grazing Land current fallow Uses Land area sown
2000-01 371.05 1.68 84.82 0.00 0.00 3.09 0.09 0.26 58.20 222.91
2001-02 371.05 1.68 84.76 0.00 0.00 2.99 0.09 0.31 58.11 223.11
2002-03 371.05 1.68 84.64 0.00 0.00 3.05 0.09 0.30 52.80 228.49
2003-04 371.05 1.68 84.06 0.00 0.00 3.01 0.09 0.30 49.65 232.26
2004-05 370.86 1.68 83.58 0.00 0.00 2.99 0.10 0.31 54.61 227.59
2005-06 370.86 1.68 86.72 0.00 0.00 2.69 0.10 0.67 57.46 221.54
2006-07 370.86 1.68 84.42 0.00 0.00 2.90 0.10 0.30 70.08 211.40
2007-08 370.76 1.68 87.94 0.00 0.00 4.87 0.01 0.32 65.63 210.31
2008-09 370.85 1.67 88.25 0.00 0.00 4.46 0.09 0.31 63.62 212.46
2009-10 370.86 1.68 88.62 0.00 0.00 3.43 0.09 0.33 60.71 216.00
2010-11 370.86 1.68 90.11 0.00 0.00 3.24 0.10 0.30 57.45 217.98 Source: Statistical Handbook of Malda District
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The net sown area has decreased from 222.91 in 2000-01 to 217.98 thousand hectares in 2010-11. This ought to be declined because of urbanization and developmental works. This clearly indicates that the emphasis and priority of land use has shifted to some other categories. There is no area under the barren & uncultivated land and the area under miscellaneous trees & grooves are not included in net sown area during the study period.
3.4. Cropping Pattern:
Cropping pattern means the proportion of area under various crops at a point of time. It depends on terrain, slope, soils and availability of water for irrigation, use of pesticides, fertilizers and mechanization. In simple word cropping pattern means the production of area under various crops at a point of time. It is dynamic process because no cropping pattern can be said to be ideal for all times to a particular region. It changes over space and time with a view to meet requirements and is governed largely by the physical as well as cultural and technological factors. The change in cropping pattern in a particular span of time clearly indicates the changes that have taken place in the agricultural development. These changes are brought about by socio-economic influence.
A cropping system is kind and sequence of crop grown on a given area of soil over a period of time. It may be regular rotations of different crops in which the crops follow a definite order of appearance on the land or it may consist of only one crop grow year after year on the same area (monoculture). Generally, the cropping pattern adopted by the cultivators should be so flexible as to be based on the following:
1. The crop should not accentuate certain diseases as a result of a fixed continuous rotation
2. The crop should not exhaust on some specific plant nutrients from a particular depth in the soil.
3. The crop should be fertility building and soil improving.
4. It should fetch handsome returns to the farmers and should provide the farmer employment and income all year round. Moreover, the crop should ensure the optimum utilization of his resources, particularly, inputs like irrigation water, fertilizers, insecticides, equipment and power (Singh, 1986). Shift in cropping pattern is perceptible since the
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second phase of Green revolution. The major shift has been found in food grains production. The coarse grains are like maize, bajra, barley, gram and even oilseed comprised a little proportion. There have been phenomenal declines in favour of wheat and rice.
3.4.1. Cropping Pattern in Malda District:
A developed agricultural economy is characterized by a balanced cropping pattern. In other words, in such an economy hectares of land use for different crops should bear a close relationship with their relative importance. Cropping patterns of a region are the extent to which the arable land under different agricultural activities can be put to use. Cereal consists of two crops i.e. rice and wheat. A perusal of the Table 3.2 and 3.3 reveals that cereals accounts for the largest proportion of total cropped area in Malda district. This is mainly due to the fact that the climatic and soil condition of the district is much favourable for cereals cultivation. Among cereals rice is the staple food item of all the people of the district.
Table 3.2: Block wise Cropping Pattern of Malda district (2000-2001)
Cereals Pulses Oilseeds Cash Crops Blocks Area Per cent Area Per cent Area Per cent Area Per cent Harishchandrapur-I 22000 79.22 280 1.01 1150 4.14 4340 15.63 Harishchandrapur-II 29680 88.81 430 1.29 2370 7.09 940 2.81 Chanchal-I 21190 74.59 140 0.49 2270 7.99 4810 16.93 Chanchal-II 23310 74.50 720 2.30 4217 13.48 3040 9.72 Ratua-I 15970 73.49 1700 7.82 1000 4.60 3060 14.08 Ratua-II 17240 69.49 3810 15.36 1660 6.69 2100 8.46 Gazole 45300 81.28 430 0.77 8670 15.56 1330 2.39 Bamongola 11000 70.74 70 0.45 4170 26.82 310 1.99 Habibpur 30100 93.92 550 1.72 1320 4.12 80 0.25 Old Malda 10390 77.60 110 0.82 2450 18.30 440 3.29 English Bazar 15520 72.66 3730 17.46 1790 8.38 320 1.50 Manikchak 9100 46.62 7310 37.45 900 4.61 2210 11.32 Kaliachak-I 4380 64.51 1080 15.91 670 9.87 660 9.72 Kaliachak-II 3900 40.67 4840 50.47 420 4.38 430 4.48 Kaliachak-III 15720 54.23 9090 31.36 1810 6.24 2370 8.18 Malda 274800 74.19 34290 9.26 34867 9.41 26440 7.14 Source: Statistical Handbook of Malda District, 2000-01
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Fig. 3.1 Fig. 3.2
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3.4.2. Cropping Pattern (2000-2001): During 2000-01, the area under cereals was 79.10 percent of the total cropped area, while pulses occupied only 9.26 percent in the district as a whole. In case of oilseeds Malda district covers 9.41 per cent and cash crop covers only 7.14 per cent. (Table 3.2). Highest area under cereals found in Habibpur block (93.92 percent) and lowest in Kalaichak-II block (40.67 percent). Highest area under pulses noticed in Manikchak (37.45 percent) block whereas lowest in Bamongola block (0.45 percent). Highest area under oilseeds registered in Bamongola block (26.82 percent) and lowest in Habibpur block (4.12). Chanchal-I block (16.19 percent) has registered highest percentage of area under cash crop and Habibpur (0.25 percent) has the lowest percentage of area under cash crop during 2000-01. The reasons for changing cropping pattern of the district are seasonal migration of the people to other state in search of alternative works, less involvement towards agricultural practices, low return from the field and fear of crop loss. Table 3.3: Block wise Cropping Pattern of Malda District (2010-2011)
Cereals Pulses Oilseeds Cash Crops Blocks Area Per cent Area Per cent Area Per cent Area Per cent Harishchandrapur-I 19725 74.39 1197 4.51 1997 7.53 3595 13.56 Harishchandrapur-II 26679 82.55 1218 3.77 3476 10.76 944 2.92 Chanchal-I 21806 77.44 631 2.24 1885 6.69 3838 13.63 Chanchal-II 24039 83.07 599 2.07 2753 9.51 1548 5.35 Ratua-I 15995 80.82 763 3.86 805 4.07 2229 11.26 Ratua-II 14924 70.83 1783 8.46 1969 9.34 2395 11.37 Gazole 8743 51.75 1067 6.32 5348 31.65 1738 10.29 Bamongola 12581 79.82 60 0.38 2541 16.12 579 3.67 Habibpur 26387 85.21 150 0.48 4120 13.30 310 1.00 Old Malda 7884 79.70 71 0.72 862 8.71 1075 10.87 English Bazar 7846 77.98 1594 15.84 470 4.67 152 1.51 Manikchak 9937 65.63 3518 23.23 258 1.70 1429 9.44 Kaliachak-I 3030 64.01 119 2.51 548 11.58 1037 21.91 Kaliachak-II 2214 64.47 171 4.98 561 16.34 488 14.21 Kaliachak-III 13652 62.98 3230 14.90 3098 14.29 1698 7.83 Malda 215442 75.50 16171 5.67 30691 10.76 23055 8.08 Source: Statistical Handbook of Malda District, 2011
3.4.3. Cropping Pattern (2010-2011): In the year of 2010-11, cereals occupied 75.50 percent while pulses occupied only 5.67 percent in the district as a whole. In case of oilseeds Malda district covers
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10.76 per cent and cash crop covers only 8.08 per cent. (Table 3.3). All the fifteen blocks of the district occupied more than 50 per cent total cropped area under cereals. Highest area under cereals found in Habibpur block (85.21 percent) and lowest in Gazole block (51.75 percent). Highest area under pulses noticed in Manikchak (23.23 percent) block whereas lowest in Bamongola block (0.38 percent). Highest area under oilseeds registered in Gazole block (31.65 percent) and lowest in Manikchak block (1.70). Kaliachak-I block has registered highest percentage of area under cash crop and Habibpur has the lowest percentage of area under cash crop during 2010-11. 3.5. Growth Rate of Area, Production and Yield of Major Crops:
The distributional pattern of individual crops varies from place to place according to the local forces guiding their cultivation. The study of growth rate of major crops overtime will show the cumulative effect of forces playing their part and will help in understanding the direction of agricultural development in the district. The area and production data for years from 2000-01 to 2010-11 have been obtained from various issues of Annual Season and Crop Reports, District Statistical Handbook of Malda district.
The growth rates in area, production and yield of each individual crop has been given in Table 3.4 for two quinquennial periods, i.e. 2000-01 to 2005-06 and 2005-06 to 2010-11. The aggregate growth rates from 2000-01 to 2010-11 of area, production and yield of individual crop are also given and an attempt has been made here to explain the changes in growth rate of area, production and yield of each crop during two quinquennial periods.
Rice (Oryza Sativa):
Rice is the leading food crop and occupied an area of 213.30 thousand hectares in Malda during 2000-01. It has since then been gaining ground and the area under its cultivation increased to 218.60 thousand hectares in 2005-06. In the next quinquennial periods, however, the area decreased to 200.80 thousand hectares in 2010-11. As against this the production of rice was 536.20 thousand tonnes in 2000- 01, it has increased to 636.10 thousand tonnes in 2005-06. In the next quinquennial period, the production decreased to 636.50 thousand tonnes in 2010-11. The average yield of rice rose up from 2513 kg per hectare in 2000-01 to 2910 kg per hectare in 2005-06. It has increased to 3140 kg per hectare in 2010-11. The growth rate of area,
78 Chapter-III: Dynamics of Agriculture production and yield of rice have been given in Table 3.4 for interim quinquennial periods, from 2000-01 to 2010-11. The growth rate of area under rice decreased by 5.86 per cent from 2000-01 to 2010-11. The growth rate of production of rice increased by 17.59 per cent while growth rate of yield increased by 24.95 per cent in Malda.
Wheat (Triticum Aestivum):
Wheat is another important cereal crop and grown during winter season in Malda. It requires cool climate and moderate rainfall. It is mostly raised during rabi season when temperatures are 10 0- 15 0C and rainfall 5-15 centimetre.
Wheat occupied an area of 49.30 thousand hectares in 2000-01 and the area under its cultivation decreased to 45.90 thousand hectares in 2005-06. It has increased sharply to 47.60 thousand hectares in 2010-11. The production of wheat in Malda has recorded 129.10 thousand tonnes in 2000-01. The production of wheat decreased to 101.80 thousand tonnes in 2005-06 and it has increased to 144.00 thousand tonnes in 2010-11. The average yield of wheat was 2616 kg per hectare in 2000-01. It has been decreased to 2220 kg per hectare in 2005-06 and again increased to 3027 kg per hectare in 2010-11.
From the Table 3.4, the growth rate of area under wheat decreased by 3.45 per cent from 2000-01 to 2010-11. The growth rate of production of wheat increased by 11.54 per cent while yield increased by 15.71 per cent in Malda.
Masur (Lens Culinaris):
The area occupied by masur was 7.01 thousand hectares in 2000-01 and the area under its cultivation decreased to 5.68 thousand hectares in 2005-06. It has declined sharply to 3.62 thousand hectares in 2010-11. The production of masur in Malda has recorded 7.54 thousand tonnes in 2000-01. The production of Masur decreased to 4.67 thousand tonnes in 2005-06 and it has again decreased to 3.29 thousand tonnes in 2010-11. The average yield of gram was 1075 kg per hectare in 2000-01. It has been decreased to 820 kg per hectare in 2005-06 and increased to 908 kg per hectare in 2010-11.
The aggregate growth rate of area under masur decreased by 48.64 per cent from 2000-01 to 2010-11. The growth rate of production of masur decreased by 56.37 per cent while yield also decreased by 15.53 per cent in Malda.
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Maskalai/ Urad (Vigna mungo): The area occupied by maskalai (Urd) was 16.26 thousand hectares in 2000-01 and the area under its cultivation has been decreased to 9.31 thousand hectares in 2005-06. It has also been declined sharply to 7.47 thousand hectares in 2010-11. The production of maskalai in Malda has recorded 7.53 thousand tonnes in 2000-01. The production of maskalai increased to 8.03 thousand tonnes in 2005-06 and it has decreased to 7.43 thousand tonnes in 2010-11. The average yield of maskalai was 463 kg per hectare in 2000-01. It has been increased to 863 kg per hectare in 2005-06 and again increased to 993 kg per hectare in 2010-11.
Table 3.4: Growth Rate of Area, Production and Yield of Major Crops in Malda (in Percent) Sl. No. Crops 2001-2006 2006-2011 2001-2011 A 2.48 -8.14 -5.86 1 Rice P 18.63 -0.88 17.59 Y 15.80 7.90 24.95 A -6.90 3.70 -3.45 2 Wheat P -21.15 41.45 11.54 Y -15.14 36.35 15.71 A -18.97 -36.62 -48.64 3 Masur P -38.06 -29.55 -56.37 Y -23.72 10.73 -15.53 A -42.74 -19.76 -54.06 4 Maskalai P 6.64 -7.47 -1.33 Y 86.39 15.06 114.47 A -9.02 -43.91 -48.97 5 Khesari P -21.10 -32.52 -46.76 Y -13.13 17.79 2.33 A -14.08 -62.30 -67.61 6 Gram P -1.92 -52.94 -53.85 Y 15.55 26.80 46.52 A 8.88 -20.00 -12.89 7 R & M P 13.35 -23.56 -13.35 Y 4.19 -4.38 -0.38 A -27.78 -15.38 -38.89 8 Sugarcane P -3.70 -26.57 -29.29 Y 34.83 -12.47 18.02 A 2.04 122.00 126.53 9 Potato P -13.48 281.30 229.89 Y -14.55 91.26 63.43 A -19.86 -18.92 -35.02 10 Jute *P -19.61 -14.26 -31.07 **Y 0.75 5.19 5.97 Source: Statistical Handbook of Malda District, 2000-01, 2005-06 & 2010-11 A= Area in Thousand Hectare, P= Production in Thousand Hectares, Y= Yield in Kg/Hect. * Production in Thousand Bales, ** Yield in Bales/ Hect.
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The aggregate growth rate of area under maskalai decreased by 54.06 per cent from 2000-01 to 2010-11. The growth rate of production of maskalai decreased by 1.33 per cent while yield increased by 114.47 per cent in Malda.
Khesari (Lathyrus Sativus):
The area under khesari cultivation has come down from 38.80 thousand hectares in 2000-2001 to 35.32 thousand hectares in 2005-06. Its area again decreased to 19.83 thousand hectares in 2010-11.The production of khesari, which was 4.17 thousand tonnes in 2000-01, 3.29 thousand tonnes in 2005-06 and 2.21 thousand tonnes in 2010-11. The average yield of khesari was 1074 kg per hectare in 2000-01. It has been decreased to 933 kg per hectare in 2005-06 and again increased to 1099 kg per hectare in 2010-11.
The aggregate growth rate of area under khesari decreased by 48.97 percent from 2000-01 to 2010-11. The growth rate of production of khesari decreased by 46.76 percent while yield increased by 2.33 percent in Malda.
Gram (Cicer Arientium):
It is most important rabi crop among the pulses. It is generally an unirrigated crop. It requires a mild cool weather and low to moderate rainfall of 38-51 cms. Gram is cultivated as a pure or mixed with wheat or mustard.
The area occupied under gram was 7.10 thousand hectares in 2000-01 and the area under its cultivation decreased to 6.10 thousand hectares in 2005-06. It has declined sharply to 2.30 thousand hectares in 2010-11. The production of gram in Malda has recorded 5.20 thousand tonnes in 2000-01. The production of gram decreased to 5.10 thousand tonnes in 2005-06 and it has again decreased to 2.40 thousand tonnes in 2010-11. The average yield of gram was 733 kg per hectare in 2000-01. It has been increased to 847 kg per hectare in 2005-06 and again increased to 1074 kg per hectare in 2010-11.
From the Table 3.4, the growth rate of area under gram decreased by 67.61 per cent from 2000-01 to 2010-11. The growth rate of production of gram decreased by 53.85 per cent while yield increased by 46.52 per cent in Malda.
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Growth rate of Area, Yield and Production of Major Crops (2001-2006) 100 80 60 40 20 0
Percentage -20 -40 -60
Area Production Yield
Fig. 3.3
Growth rate of Area, Production and Yield of Major Crops (2006-2011)
300
200
100 0 Percentage -100
Area Production Yield
Fig. 3.4
Growth rate of Area, Production and Yield of Major Crops (2001-2011) 250 200 150 100 50 0 Percentage -50 -100
Area Production Yield
Fig. 3.5
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Rapessed (Brassica juncea) and Mustard (Brassica campestris):
Among oilseeds, rapeseed and mustard are the most important and have a leading position as they occupy greater area than the others. The area under rapeseed and mustard was 34.90 thousand hectares in 2000-01, 38.00 thousand hectares in 2005-06 and 30.40 thousand hectares in 2010-11.The production of rapeseed and mustard was 36.70 thousand tonnes in 2000-01 and it has decreased to 41.60 thousand tonnes in 2005-06. In the next quinquennial periods, however, the production increased to 31.80 thousand tonnes in 2010-11. The average yield of rapeseed and mustard was 1051 kg per hectare in 2000-01 and it has increased to 1095 kg per hectare in 2005-06. It has decreased to 1047 kg per hectare in 2010-11.
The aggregate growth rate of area under rapeseed and mustard decreased by 12.89 per cent from 2000-01 to 2010-11.The growth rate of production of rapeseed and mustard decreased by 13.35 per cent and the yield of rapeseed and mustard decreased by 0.38 per cent in Malda.
Sugarcane (Saccharum Officinarum):
The area under sugarcane cultivation has come down from 3.60 thousand hectares in 2000-2001 to 2.60 thousand hectares in 2005-06. Its area again decreased to 2.20 thousand hectares in 2010-11.The production of sugarcane was 299.80 thousand tonnes in 2000-01, which was declined to 288.70 thousand tonnes in 2005- 06 and again declined 212.00 thousand tonnes in 2010-11.The average yield of sugarcane was 83820 kg per hectare in 2000-01. It has been increased to 113012 kg per hectare in 2005-06 and again decreased to 98925 kg per hectare in 2010-11.
The aggregate growth rate of area under sugarcane decreased by 38.89 per cent from 2000-01 to 2010-11.The growth rate of production of sugarcane decreased by 29.29 per cent and the yield of sugarcane increased by 18.02 per cent in Malda.
Potato (Solanum Tuberosum):
In 2000-01, the area under potato was 2.45 thousand hectares in Malda but it rose to 2.50 thousand hectares in 2005-06. It has increased to 5.55 thousand hectares in 2010-11. The production has achieved from 44.50 thousand tonnes in 2000-01 to 38.50 thousand tonnes in 2005-06 to 146.80 thousand tonnes in 2010-11.The average yield of potato was 17838 kg per hectare in 2000-01. It has been decreased to 15243 kg per hectare in 2005-06 and again it increased to 29153 kg per hectare in 2010-11.
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The aggregate growth rate of area under potato increased by 126.53 per cent from 2000-01 to 2010-11.The growth rate of production of potato increased by 229.89 per cent and the yield of potato increased by 63.43 per cent in Malda. This increase is due to adoption of HYV seeds of potato by the farmers of Malda. Jute (Corchorus Species): The area under jute cultivation has come down from 27.70 thousand hectares in 2000-2001 to 22.20 thousand hectares in 2005-06 18.00 thousand hectares in 2010- 11. The production of jute was 370.80 thousand bales in 2000-01, which was declined to 298.10 thousand bales in 2005-06. It also decreased to 255.60 thousand bales in 2010-11.The average yield of jute was 13.40 bales per hectare in 2000-01. It has been increased to 13.50 bales per hectare in 2005-06 and again increased to 14.20 bales per hectare in 2010-11. The aggregate growth rate of area under jute decreased by 35.02 per cent from 2000-01 to 2010-11.The growth rate of production of jute decreased by 31.07 per cent and the yield of jute increased by 5.97 per cent in Malda. 3.6. Cropping Intensity: Cropping intensity is defined as a ratio between gross cropped area (GCA) and net sown area (NSA). It, thus, indicates the additional percentage share of the area sown more than once to NSA. The intensity of cropping, therefore, refers to raising a number of crops from the same field during one agricultural year. The concept of intensity of cropping implies reuse of land during an agricultural year for production of crops. It shows the extent to which the productive capacity of land is being utilized by enhancing it through modern techniques. It further provides an index of agricultural prosperity of a region. The study of intensity of cropping in any region reflects the different physical and socio-economic factors influencing agriculture and helps in a particular area in agricultural planning. Moreover, with the increase of population density, there is need for expansion of land to use for agricultural purposes. As there is little scope for expansion of agricultural land, the only way to enhance production through proper intensive use of land. The total cropped area as a percentage of the net sown area gives a measure of land use efficiency or intensity of cropping which also refers to the number of crops raised on a field during an agricultural year. Thus, when the index of intensity of cropping is 100 percent, it indicates that only a single crop is cultivated. Bhatia clearly explained that the index of intensity of cropping less than 130 percent is termed as
84 Chapter-III: Dynamics of Agriculture weaker areas in agricultural economy. Cropping intensity may be calculated by the following formula:
In general the level of cropping intensity is higher in the regions with higher percentage of net sown area and with higher intensity of land use by irrigation. However, it is futile to expect a one-to-one correspondence between irrigation and cropping intensity. The other crucial variable that determines the level of cropping intensity is the availability of labour. The level of cropping intensity is determined by several factors. The most important factor is the availability of water from natural rainfall and or man - made resource. However, the scopes for year round cropping activities in most of the states in India are severely constrained by the seasonal distribution of rainfall. So long as this natural constraint is relaxed, by developing the irrigation facilities, the level of multiple cropping improves. Generally speaking, there are basically three factors that determine the level of cropping intensity. Firstly, Supply of energy in the form of labour, (human, animal, and mechanical device), secondly, supply of water in the form of rainfall or other sources of irrigation, and thirdly the physical limits imposed by the adopted cropping pattern on the duration of cropping activities during a particular crop year. 3.6. 1. Spatial Pattern of Cropping Intensity (2000-2001 and 2010-2011): The cropping intensity in Malda district was 150 percent in 2000-01, which has increased to 183 percent in 2010-11 which is a sign of healthy agricultural economy. But there are significant variations across the district. High Cropping Intensity: During 2000-01, high cropping intensity registered only in five blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-I, Chanchal-I, Chanchal-II, Rtaua-II and Kaliachak-I (Fig.3.6) with an index above 171. During 2010-11, high cropping intensity noticed in five blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-I, Chanchal-II, and Ratua-II (Fig.3.7) have more than 221 percent of cropping intensity index. It is because of favourable irrigation facility, extent of new farm technology, climatic and edaphic condition for cultivation of crops.
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Table 3.5: Cropping Intensity in Malda District (2001 and 2011)
Blocks 2001 2011 Growth Rate (%) Harishchandrapur-I 199 257 29.15 Harishchandrapur-II 171 240 40.35 Chanchal-I 197 282 43.15 Chanchal-II 186 242 30.11 Ratua-I 132 204 54.55 Ratua-II 173 243 40.46 Gazole 127 148 16.54 Bamongola 142 153 7.75 Habibpur 121 123 1.65 Old Malda 143 153 6.99 English Bazar 116 164 41.38 Manikchak 153 148 -3.27 Kaliachak-I 181 161 -11.05 Kaliachak-II 159 172 8.18 Kaliachak-III 162 221 36.42 Malda 150 183 22.00 Source: Statistical Handbook of Malda District, 2001 & 2011 Table 3.6: Categories of Cropping Intensity in Malda District 2000-2001 2010-2011 No. of Name of the No. of Name of the Category Range Range Blocks Blocks Blocks Blocks Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchandrapur- Above Chanchal-I, Above High 5 5 II, Chanchal-I, 171 Chanchal-II, Ratua- 221 Chanchal-II, Ratua- II, Kaliachak-I II Kaliachak-II, 161 Ratua-I, English 143 Kaliachak-III, Bazar, Kaliachak-I, Medium 5 Manikchak, to 5 to Kaliachak-II, Harishchandrapur- 171 221 Kaliachak-III II Ratua-I, Gazole, Gazole, Below Bamongola, Below Bamongola, Low 5 5 143 Habibpur, English 161 Habibpur, Old Bazar Malda, Manikchak Source: Computed by Researcher based on Table 3.5
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Medium Cropping Intensity:
There are five blocks, reported under medium cropping intensity i.e. Kaliachak-II, Kaliachak-III, Manikchak, Harishchandrapur-II and English Bazar during the year 2000-01 with the index range 143 to 171. Whereas, there are five blocks come under the category of medium cropping intensity ranging between 161 and 221 in the year 201-11. These blocks are Ratua-I, English Bazar, Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-II and Kaliachak-III.
Low Cropping Intensity:
Table 3.6 indicates that there are five blocks which report low cropping intensity with the index range below 143 during 2000-01. These are Ratua-I, Gazole, Bamongola, Habibpur and English Bazar. During 2010-11, there are five blocks namely, Gazole, Bamongola, Habibpur, Old Malda and Manikchak have low level of cropping intensity with the indices below 161.
Growth Rate of Cropping Intensity in Malda District (2000-01 to 2010-11) 60 50
40 30 20 10
Percentage 0 -10 -20
Blocks
Fig. 3.6 The positive growth has been registered in thirteen block out of fifteen block of the district. The negative growth has been found in Manikchak and Kaliachak-I. Ratua-I block records highest growth in cropping intensity during the study period i.e. 54.55 percent followed by English Bazar i.e. 41.38 percent whereas Kaliachak-I registered highest negative growth i.e. 11.05 percent. The reason behind negative growth is that the farmers of this area migrate to Malda town during season time in search of labour work.
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Fig. 3.7 Fig. 3.8
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3.7. Crop Diversification: Crop diversification refers to a shift from regional dominance of one crop to regional production of a number of crops to meet the ever increasing demand of cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits, oilseeds, fibres, fodder, grasses etc. It aims to improve the soil health and to maintain dynamic equilibrium of the agricultural eco- system. Crop diversification is intended to promote technological innovation for sustainable agriculture and enable farmers to choose crop alternatives for increase productivity and income. Thus crop diversification is a concept which is opposite to crop specialisation. Essentially, it is an indicator of multiplication of agricultural activities which involves intense competition among various activities. The level of crop diversification largely depends on the geo-climatic, socio-economic conditions and technological development in a region. In general, higher the level of technology, lesser the degree of diversification. Moreover, rich farmers prefer to specialize in agricultural enterprise, while the poor farmers are generally more interested in the diversification of crops. It is an agricultural technique where farmers harvest a variety of crops instead of just one. Crop diversification patterns have great relevance in the agricultural land use studies, and are an important component of the crop geography of a region. Crop diversification has great significance in agricultural land use planning. In fact, it refers to farming system in which multiplicity of characteristics of agricultural landscape of a real unit. In any region the farmer instead of growing only one crop over entire cultivated area, grows a variety of crops like rice, wheat, maskalai (urd), musur, jute, potato. Diversification enhances nitrogen in the soil to replenish the soil fertility. Thus, it increases the sustainability of arable land. It generates more employment as the agricultural workers remain busy in sowing, weeding, harvesting and marketing of crops throughout the year. Crop diversification means raising of a variety of crops involving intensity of competition amongst field crops for arable or cultivable land. Several methods like Gibbs-Martin index of diversification, Herfindahl Index (HI), Transformed Herfindahl Index (THI), Ogive Index (OI), Entropy Index (EI), Modified Entropy Index (MEI) and Composite Entropy Index (CEI) explain diversification of crops in a given time and space. Statistical technique has gained momentum in the recent time and its importance in geography brings vivid scope when applied. The author has been used
89 Chapter-III: Dynamics of Agriculture the statistical technique given by Gibb‟s & Martin (1962) for delineating crop diversification regions. The mathematical formula for calculating index is given by:
( ) Where, d is the percentage of total cropped area occupied by each individual crop. If the total cultivated area in a region is devoted wholly to one crop (i.e., specialization) the index value will be zero (0) and if it is evenly distributed among all crops (i.e., maximum diversification) the index value approaches one (1).
3.7.2. Pattern of Crop Diversification in Malda (2000-01 and 2010-11): The pattern of crop diversification in Malda has been divided in three categories i.e. low, moderate, and high on the basis of index value of crop diversification computed by Gibbs and Martin technique of crop diversification. The spatial pattern of crop diversification has been analysed under following heads:
High Level of Crop Diversification: During 2000-01, the index value of crop diversification in Malda was 8.68 (Table 3.8). The high level of crop diversification has been found in Ratua-I, Manikchak, Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-II and Kaliachak-III.
The high level of crop diversification has been registered in the block of Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-II and Kaliachak-III in the year of 2010-11.
Medium Level of Crop Diversification: Medium level of crop diversification has been noticed in Harishchandrapur-I, Chanchal-II, Ratua-II, Bamongola and English Bazar during 2000-01. Whereas in the year of 2010-11, medium level of crop diversification has been found in six blocks. These blocks are Harishchandrapur-I, Chanchal-I, Ratua-I, Ratua-II, English Bazar and Manikchak.
Low Level of Crop Diversification: Table 3.8 illustrate that there are only five blocks which come under low level of crop diversification. These blocks are Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-I, Gazole, Habibpur and Old Malda in 2000-01. The low level of crop diversification has found in Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-II, Gazole, Bamongola, Habibpur and Old Malda in the year of 2010-11.
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Table 3.7: Block-wise Crop Diversification Index in Malda District Blocks 2001 2011 Harishchandrapur-I 0.51 0.58 Harishchandrapur-II 0.32 0.43 Chanchal-I 0.50 0.48 Chanchal-II 0.53 0.41 Ratua-I 0.70 0.63 Ratua-II 0.68 0.67 Gazole 0.42 0.43 Bamongola 0.52 0.39 Habibpur 0.18 0.27 Old Malda 0.50 0.41 English Bazar 0.65 0.67 Manikchak 0.78 0.62 Kaliachak-I 0.75 0.69 Kaliachak-II 0.82 0.70 Kaliachak-III 0.82 0.76 Malda 8.68 8.15 Source: Based on Gibbs-Martin Index
Table 3.8: Categories of Crop Diversification in Malda District 2000-2001 2010-2011 No. of No. of Category Range Name of the Blocks Range Name of the Blocks Blocks Blocks
Ratua-I, Manikchak, Kaliachak-I, Above Kaliachak-I, Above High 5 3 Kaliachak-II, 0.68 Kaliachak-II, 0.67 Kaliachak-III Kaliachak-III
0.50 Harishchandrapur-II, 0.43 Harishchandrapur-I, Chanchal-II, Ratua-II, Chanchal-I, Ratua-I, Medium to 5 to 6 Bamongola, English Ratua-II English 0.68 Bazar 0.67 Bazar, Manikchak
Harishchandrapur-II, Harishchandrapur-II, Below Below Chanchal-II, Gazole, Low 5 Chanchal-I, Gazole, 6 0.50 0.43 Bamongola, Habibpur, Old Malda Habibpur, Old Malda Source: Computed by Researcher based on Table 3.7
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Fig. 3.9 Fig.3.10
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3.8. Crop Combination Regions:
The study of crop-combination of any region has gained importance in geographical studies. It is fruitful in many ways, firstly it provides an adequate understanding of an individual crop. Secondly, combination is in itself an integrative reality that demands definition and distribution analysis, and finally crop combination regions are essential for the construction of more complex structure of vivid agricultural region (Weaver, 1954). Farmers are growing numerous varieties of crops in their farms rather than to grow a single one. The distribution pattern of crops in any region is an outcome of predominance of certain crop or combination of crops that contribute to emergence of an agricultural region. For proper execution of agricultural planning programmes, agricultural regionalization at micro level is indispensable.
First attempt for delineation of agricultural regions was made by Weaver in 1954. He studied crop combination for Middle East countries. Later on many more methods were introduced. Thomas (1963) modified Weaver‟s formula by including all crops with zero percent theoretical values in each step of the method, in the crop combination studies carried out in Wales but it did not yield different results than obtained by Weaver‟s method. Coppock (1964) also modified version of Weaver‟s method wherein he considered the rank in recognizing the leading crops. The Weaver‟s technique was subsequently modified by Doi (1959) where he supplied one sheet of table required only the summing up of actual percentages under different crops instead of finding differences between actual percentage and theoretical distribution. Both qualitative methods i.e. arranging or ranking of crops in hierarchical order and quantitative methods like the arbitrary choice method or the standard deviation method, or the maximum positive deviation method etc. are applied. Spatial and temporal pattern of crop combination provide knowhow for the contemporary and the changing pattern of inter crop struggle.
Malda, where most of the population is somehow involved in agriculture, the present technique is beneficial to the planners as it entertains propulsive economic agricultural planning over uneconomical cropping system. Hence, judicious planning is economically remunerative as in addition of providing effective productivity, it supports soil fecundity by logical crop rotation. For the betterment and sustainability of the district, through agriculture, commercialization of agriculture with ecological balance is necessary as agriculture is the only option left.
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For the delineation of crop combination region in study area Weaver‟s technique of crop combination has been adopted. In Weaver's method the crop combination is measured by calculating the deviation of real percentages of crops (occupying over 1 per cent of the cropped area) for all possible combinations in the component areal units against a theoretical standard. The theoretical curve for the standard measurement was employed as follows:
Monoculture = 100 percent of the total harvested crop land in one crop.
2- crop combination = 50 percent in each of two crops
3- crop combination = 33.33 percent in each of three crops
4- crop combination = 25 percent in each of four crops
5- crop combination = 20 percent in each of five crops
10- crop combination = 10 percent in each of ten crops.
For the determination of the minimum deviation, the standard deviation method is used by using the following formula:
d 2 n
Where„d‟ is the difference between the actual crop percentage in a given areal unit and the appropriate percentage in the theoretical curve and n is the number of crops in a given combination. However, as Weaver pointed out, the relative, not absolute value being significant, square roots were not extracted so, the actual formula used was as follows:
d 2 d n
So, first of all the percentage of individual crop area to the total cropped areas of each blocks has been calculated and thereafter the values of each crop has arranged in rank wise from higher to lower then the deviation has calculated by applying the above mentioned formula. The lowest value of the deviation of actual percentages from the theoretical curve is denoted as crop combination resulting into the identity and the number of crops in the basic combination.
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3.8.1. Spatial Pattern of Crop Combination Regions (2000-01 and 2010-11):
The pattern of mono crop combination, two crop combination, four crop combination, five crop combination, six crop combination, seven crop combination and eight crop combination have been discussed as follows:.
Table 3.9: Categories of Crop Combination Regions in Malda District
2000-2001 2010-2011 Crop No. of No. of Name of the Combination Crops Name of the Blocks Crops Blocks Blocks Blocks Region Harishchandrapur-II Gazole, I 3 R 3 R Bamongola, Gazole and Habibpur Habibpur II 1 R, RM Bamongola 1 R, W Ratua-I III 1 R, W, J Ratua-I 0 - - Harishchandrapur-I, R, W, J, W, R, J, Chanchal-I, Old Kaliachak-I RM RM IV 4 Malda 2 Mas, W, W, R, Manikchak Kaliachak-III R, RM RM, Mas R, RM, Chanchal-II, R, J, W, Harishchandrapur- J, W, Kaliachak-I RM, Mas I Mas V 3 3 R, M, R, J, W, Chanchal-I, Mas, W, Kaliachak-II RM, P Chanchal-II G R, RM, Harishchandrapur- J, Mas, II M VI 0 - - 2 R, P, RM, K, Old Malda W, J R, W, R, W, RM, RM, J, Ratua-II English VII 1 English Bazar 3 Mas, K, M, G, Bazar, Manikchak G, J Mas R, W, J, R, W, RM, M, Ratua-II, RM, J, VIII 2 1 Kaliachak-II K, Mas, Kaliachak-III K, P, M, G G Source: Prepared by Researcher
Mono Crop Combination:
It is seen from Table 3. 9, that mono crop combinations have been observed in three blocks of Malda district during 2000-01. These block are Harishchandrapur-II, Gazole and Habibpur. During 2010-11, mono crop combinations have been observed in three blocks namely, Gazole, Bamongola and Habibpur. Rice is the dominant crop
95 Chapter-III: Dynamics of Agriculture during both the year. People of these blocks prefer to cultivate three types of rice i.e Aus, Aman and Boro throughout the year.
Two Crop Combinations Region:
It is evident from the figure 3.11, that rice is the dominant crop during both the year. It is observed that rice and rapeseed and mustard formed a common component for crop combinations in one block i.e. Bamongola in the year of 2000-01.
It is evident from the Fig. 3. 12 that the change in combinations has been noticed due to replacement of rapeseed & mustard by wheat in Ratua-I during 2010- 11. The reason for change is due to irrigation, fertilizer and agricultural implements.
Three Crop Combinations Region:
During 2000-01, only one block i.e. Ratua-I block have been observed three crop combination region. Rice, wheat and jute were the dominant crop to form this crop combinations in this block. While, it is evident from Table 3.9 that there was no block under three crop combination region during 2010-11.
Four Crop Combinations Region:
It is seen from the Table 3. 9 that during 2000-01, four crop combinations have been noticed in the blocks of i.e. Harishchandrapur-I, Chanchal-I, Old Malda and Manikchak. In Harishchandrapur-I, Chanchal-I and Old Malda block, rice, wheat, jute, rapeseed and mustard were the main crop to form this combination whereas maskalai, wheat, rice and rapeseed and mustard were the dominant crop in Old Malda block.
During 2010-11, this crop combination was confined to only in two blocks namely, Kaliachak-I and Kaliachak-III. Wheat, rice, jute, rapeseed and mustard were dominant crops in Kaliachak-I block, whereas wheat, rice, rapeseed and mustard, and maskalai were the dominant crop in Kaliachak-III block.
Five Crop Combinations Region:
Table 3.9 shows that five crop combinations have been seen in Chanchal-II, Kaliachak-I and Kaliachak-II in 2000-01. Rice, rapeseed and mustard, jute, wheat and maskalai formed five crop combination in Chanchal-II and Kaliachak-I, whereas, rice, masur, maskalai, wheat and gram formed this combination in Kaliachak-II block.
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Fig. 3.11 Fig. 3.12
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During the period of 2010-11, the block of Harishchandrapur-I characterized by rice, jute, wheat, rapeseed and mustard and maskalai. In Chanchal-I and Chanchal-II block rice, jute, wheat, rapeseed and mustard and potato from this combination. The favourable environmental conditions have been found to be suitable for this pre- dominant crop. The alluvial type of soil is also favourable for the cultivation of Rice, jute and wheat in this region. The topography of this region is more or less uniform hence adequate irrigation facilities are also present here.
Six Crop Combinations Region:
It is seen from the Table 3. 9 that during 2000-01, there were no block come under the six crop combination. But during 2010-11, this crop combinations were confined in two blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-II and Old Malda. Rice, rapeseed and mustard, jute, maskalai and masur were the dominant crop in Harishchandrapur-II block, whereas, rice, potato, rapeseed and mustard, khesari, wheat and jute were the dominant crop in Old Malda block.
Seven Crop Combinations Region:
It is evident from the Table 3. 9 that there was only one block namely, English Bazar, that formed seven crop combinations in 2000-01. Rice, wheat, rapeseed and mustard, maskalai, khesari, gram and jute formed this combination. During the period of 2010-11, the blocks of Ratua-II, English Bazar and Manikchak were characterized by rice, wheat, rapeseed and mustard, jute, masur, gram and maskalai crop combinations.
Eight Crop Combinations Region:
During 2000-01, eight crop combinations have been observed in two blocks. It has decreased from two to one block having eight crop combinations. Rice, wheat, jute, rapeseed and mustard, masur, khesari, maskalai and gram were the dominant crops of both the blocks of Ratua-II and Kaliachak-III block.
It is seen from the Table 3.9 that eight crop combinations have been noticed in only one block i.e. Kaliachak-II. Rice, wheat, rapeseed and mustard, jute, khesari, potato, masur and gram were the dominant crops to form this combinations.
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Ali Mohammad, (1978):“Studies in the Agricultural Geography”, Concept Publishers, New Delhi.
Barlowe, Raleigh and V. Webster Johnson (1955): “Land Problems and Policies”, Land Economics, Vol. 31, Issue 1, P. 87
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Bora, M.M. (2008): “Agricultural Development in Sonitpur District, Assam: A Spatio- Temporal Analysis”, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Geography, Gauhati University, Assam
Clowson, Marion and Stewart, Charles, L., (1968): “Land use information, A critical survey of U.S. statistics including possibilities for greater uniformity: Baltimore, Md., The Johns Hopkins Press for Resources for the Future, Inc., 402 p.
Coppock, J. T. (1964): "Crop Livestock and Enterprise Combinations in England and Wales," Economic Geography, Vol. 40, PP. 65-77.
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De, U. K. (2000): “Diversification of Crop in West Bengal: A Spatio-Temporal Analysis”, Artha Vijnana, XLII (2), 170-182.
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Joshi PK, Birthal PS and Minot N (2006):“Sources of Agricultural Growth in India: Role of Diversification towards High Value Crops”, MTID Discussion Paper No. 98. IFPRI; Markets, Trade & Institutions Division: November
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Kanwar, J.S. (1972): “Cropping Pattern Scope and Concept, Proceedings of the Symposium on Cropping Pattern in India”, pp. 13-14.
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Saikia, D., (2012), “Agricultural Development in Nagoan District, Assam: A Geographical Analysis”, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Geography, Gauhati University, Assam
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Singh G, Jalota S. K. and Sidhu B. S. (2005): “Soil physical and hydraulic properties in a rice-wheat cropping system in India: effects of rice-straw management”, Soil Use Manage 21,17-21
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Todkari G.R. (2012): Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Crop Diversification in Solapur District. Golden Research Thoughts, Vol.1, Issue-8., pp. 1-4.
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Chapter-IV Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
CHAPTER - IV
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF TECHNOLOGICAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS
The innovative practice may be called the life-blood of agriculture and plays a crucial role in cropping pattern, intensity of cropping, crop combination, crop yield and seasonal rhythm of sowing. Such innovative practices include the use of modern agricultural implements, viz. tractor, power tiller, pumpsets, threshers, sprayer, irrigation, fertilizer. A number of physical and socio-economic determinants are responsible for the adoption of agricultural implements and machineries.
4.a. Technological Factors:
Application of technological innovation aims at increasing the efficiency of agricultural production. It is a key to rapid growth of agriculture but also requires continuous economic adjustment of farm organizations to adopt improvements on a profitable basis. A suitable combination of various technological factors i.e. agricultural implements and machinery, the method of irrigation, use of chemical fertilizers, high yielding varieties of seeds, use of pesticides and various other improved farming techniques are bound to yield higher returns from the same land.
The adoption of farming techniques developed through research and education have brought out diversification and increase in production and have resulted in greater economic returns to the farmers. The speedy and extensive development of agriculture by and large depends on technological change and spatial diffusion of agricultural innovation. Increase in the cultivated area as well as double cropped area are often due to technological improvements.
4.1. Tractor: Tractor is a self-propelled power unit having wheels or tracks for operating agricultural implements and machines including trailers. Tractor engine is used as a prime mover for active tools and stationary farm machinery through power take-off shaft (PTO) or belt pulley. Hiring charges of tractors vary in different part of the district and also according to the demand. Hourly rate of hiring tractors is about Rs. 250.00 to Rs. 300.00. This also depends on the availability and demand of the tractor.
102 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
Table 4.1: Block-wise Distribution of Tractor in Malda District
Tractor per 10,000 hectares of Gross Cropped Area Blocks 2000-01 2010-11 Harishchandrapur-I 56.75 52.18 Harishchandrapur-II 57.08 64.34 Chanchal-I 62.09 59.06 Chanchal-II 56.85 57.11 Ratua-I 55.75 44.03 Ratua-II 61.22 70.31 Gazole 27.29 29.04 Bamongola 74.54 85.35 Habibpur 46.39 55.57 Old Malda 58.58 61.49 English Bazar 69.50 63.52 Manikchak 36.60 72.21 Kaliachak-I 90.11 125.66 Kaliachak-II 69.63 142.09 Kaliachak-III 60.17 53.37 Malda 54.17 59.28 Source: Comprehensive District Agricultural Plan of Malda, XI plan period Table 4.2: Spatial Pattern of Tractor in Malda District
2000-2001 2010-2011 No. of No. of Category Range Name of the Blocks Range Name of the Blocks Blocks Blocks Bamongola, Bamongola, Above Chanchal-I, English Above Kaliachak-I, High 5 5 61.22 Bazar, Kaliachak-II, 64.34 Kaliachak-II, Kaliachak-I Manikchak, Ratua-II
56.75 Harishchandrapur-II, 55.57 Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-II, Ratua-II, Chanchal-II, Medium to 5 to 5 Old Malda, Chanchal-I, English 61.22 Kaliachak-III 64.34 Bazar, Old Malda Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchandrapur-I, Below Below Ratua-I, Gazole, Low 5 Ratua-I, Manikchak, 5 56.75 55.57 Habibpur, Kaliachak- Gazole, Habibpur III Source: Computed by Researcher based on the Table 4.1
103 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
Fig. 4.1 Fig. 4.2
104 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
4.1.1. Spatial Distribution of Tractor (2000-01): Block-wise distribution of tractor in the district can be examined from Table 4.1. It is seen from the table that the average number of tractor was 54.17 per 10,000 hectares of gross cropped area during the period 2000-01. It also shows that during 2000-01, the high concentration of tractor recorded in five blocks namely, Bamongola, Chanchal-I, English Bazar, Kaliachak-II and Kaliachak-I with an index above 61.22 The medium density of tractor with the index value ranges between 56.75 to 61.22 registered in five blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-II, Ratua-II, Old Malda and Kaliachak-III. The low concentration of tractor with a density below 56.75 per 10,000 hectares of gross cropped area is found in five blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-I, Ratua-I, Manikchak, Gazole and Habibpur. (Table 4.2)
4.1.2. Spatial Distribution of Tractor (2010-11): In 2010-11, the number of tractor increased in almost all the blocks of the district. High concentration of tractors with an index value above 64.34 registered in five blocks namely, Bamongola, Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-II, Manikchak and Ratua-II.
The medium concentration of tractor with the index value ranges between 55.57 to 64.34 per 10,000 gross cropped area found in five blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-II, Chanchal-I, English Bazar and Old Malda. The remaining five blocks are placed under low concentration of tractors with a density below 55.57. These blocks are Harishchandrapur-I, Ratua-I, Gazole, Habibpur and Kaliachak-III.
4.2. Power Tiller: Power tiller is a walking type tractor. The operator walks behind the power tiller, holding the two handles of power tiller in his own hands. Power tiller may be called a single axle walking type tractor, though a riding seat is provided in certain designs. Average size of holding in India is about 2.5 hectares. There are 89% of total land holdings of less than six hectares. Under such conditions, power tiller may be useful as a power unit. It is a prime mover in which the direction of travel and its control for field operation is performed by the operator walking behind it. It is also known as hand tractor or walking type tractor.
105 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
Table 4.3: Block-wise Distribution of Power Tiller in Malda District
Power Tiller per 10,000 hectares of Gross Cropped Area Blocks 2000-01 2010-11 Harishchandrapur-I 38.66 37.16 Harishchandrapur-II 40.13 48.10 Chanchal-I 59.77 52.60 Chanchal-II 39.79 40.68 Ratua-I 47.79 39.26 Ratua-II 50.81 58.08 Gazole 24.26 26.27 Bamongola 53.24 61.93 Habibpur 29.55 36.64 Old Malda 60.57 65.23 English Bazar 43.61 38.69 Manikchak 44.02 89.25 Kaliachak-I 206.93 325.02 Kaliachak-II 43.22 96.06 Kaliachak-III 479.09 650.62 Malda 74.46 99.64 Source: Comprehensive District Agricultural Plan of Malda, XI plan period
Table 4.4: Spatial Pattern of Power Tiller in Malda District
2000-2001 2010-2011
No. of Name of the No. of Category Range Range Name of the Blocks Blocks Blocks Blocks
Chanchal-I, Manikchak, Old Malda, Above Bamongola, Old Above High 5 5 Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-II, 50.81 Malda, Kaliachak-I 61.93 Kaliachak-III and Kaliachak-III
Ratua-I, Ratua-II, 39.23 40.13 Harishchandrapur-II, Manikchak, Medium to 5 to 5 Chanchal-I, Chancha-II, English Bazar, 50.81 Ratua-II, Bamongola Kaliachak-II 61.93
Harishchandrapur- I, Harishchandrapur-I, Ratua- Below Below Low 5 Harishchandrapur- 5 I, Gazole, Habibpur, 40.13 39.23 II, Chanchal-II, English Bazar Gazole, Habibpur Source: Prepared by Researcher based on Table 4.3
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Fig. 4.3 Fig. 4.4
107 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
4.2.1. Spatial Distribution of Power Tiller (2000-01):
The extent of use and distribution of power tiller in region can be explained from Fig.4.3 and 4.4. It is seen from the Table 4.2 that the average number of power tiller was 74.46 per 10,000 hectares of gross cropped area in 2000-01.
The high concentration of power tiller with the index value above 50.81 recorded in five blocks namely, Chanchal-I, Bamongola, Old Malda, Kaliachak-I and Kaliachak-III. The medium concentration of power tiller with the indices ranges between 40.13 to 50.81 per 10,000 hectares of gross cropped area observed in five blocks namely, Ratua-I, Ratua-II, Manikchak, English Bazar and Kaliachak-II. (Table 4.4) It is seen from the fig that the blocks have low concentration of power tiller with index value below 40.13 lies in the northern and eastern part of the region. These blocks are Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-II, Gazole and Habibpur.
4.2.2. Spatial Distribution of Power Tiller (2010-11):
In 2010-11, the number of power tillers has increased to 99.64 per 10,000 hectares of gross cropped land. During 2010-11, the high concentration of power tiller with a density above 61.93 per 10,000 hectares of gross cropped area was noticed in five blocks namely, Manikchak, Old Malda, Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-II and Kaliachak-III.
Five blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-I, Chanchal-II, Ratua-II and Bamongola have come under the medium concentration of power tiller with an index ranges between 39.23 to 61.93. (Fig.4.4). Remaining five blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-I, Ratua-I, Gazole, Habibpur and English Bazar with a density below 39.23 per 10,000 hectares of gross cropped area have been registered under low concentration of power tiller. 4.3. Pumpset: Pumpset plays a vital role in the development of agriculture. In the district of Malda both diesel pumpset and electrical pumpset are most important for irrigation purpose where the availability of water is not sufficient for agricultural purposes. The uncertainty of rainfall is the most important factor for using the pumpset in many blocks of Malda. As the supply of electricity is not regular in various blocks of the district, therefore the use of diesel pumpset is increasing as compared to electric pumpset.
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Table 4.5: Block-wise Distribution of Pumpset in Malda District
Pumpset per 10,000 hectares of Gross Cropped Area Blocks 2000-01 2010-11 Harishchandrapur-I 855.56 813.75 Harishchandrapur-II 1258.95 1401.80 Chanchal-I 675.25 628.54 Chanchal-II 594.88 594.02 Ratua-I 784.74 699.20 Ratua-II 495.19 541.06 Gazole 599.25 655.45 Bamongola 672.15 739.55 Habibpur 375.06 439.19 Old Malda 308.44 394.44 English Bazar 314.35 340.17 Manikchak 476.30 974.85 Kaliachak-I 760.12 1235.83 Kaliachak-II 316.93 773.46 Kaliachak-III 813.03 787.90 Malda 616.24 699.94 Source: Comprehensive District Agricultural Plan of Malda, XI plan period
Table 4.6: Spatial Pattern of Pumpset in Malda District 2000-2001 2010-2011 No. of Name of the No. of Category Range Range Name of the Blocks Blocks Blocks Blocks Harishchandrap ur-I, Harishchandrapur-I, Above Harishchandrap Above Harishchandrapur-II, High 5 5 675.25 ur-II, Ratua-I, 773.46 Manikchak, Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-III Kaliachak-III
Chanchal-I, 476.30 Chanchal-II, 594.02 Chanchal-I, Ratua-II, Medium to 5 Ratua-II, to 5 Gazloe, Bamongola, 675.25 Gazole, 773.46 Kaliachak-II Bamongola
Manikchak, Kaliachak-II, Below Below Low 5 English Bazar, 5 Chanchal-II, Ratua-II, 476.30 594.02 Old Malda, English Bazar, Old Habibpur Malda, Habibpur
Source: Prepared by Researcher based on Table 4.5
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Fig. 4.5 Fig. 4.6
110 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
4.3.1. Spatial Distribution of Pumpset (2000-01):
The block-wise distribution of pumpset for irrigation is given in Table 4.3. In 2000-01, the total number of pumpset was 25846. Five blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchandrapur-II, Ratua-I, Kaliachak-I and Kaliachak-III have occupied the place of high concentration of pumpset with a density above 675.25.
Medium concentration of pumpset with the index ranges between 476.30 to 675.25 per 10,000 hectares of gross cropped area noticed in the blocks of Chanchal-I, Chanchal-II, Ratua-II, Gazole and Bamongola.
The remaining five blocks namely, Manikchak, Kaliachak-II, English Bazar, Old Malda and Habibpur have come under the place of low concentration with a density below 476.30 per 10,000 hectares of gross cropped area.
4.3.2. Spatial Distribution of Pumpset (2010-11):
During 2010-11, the total number of diesel pumpset has increased to 33226 (699.94 per ten thousand hectares of gross cropped land). High concentration of diesel pumpset with a density above 773.46 recorded in the five blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchandrapur-II, Manikchak, Kaliachak-I and Kaliachak-III. The medium concentration of pumpset with the index ranges between 594.02 to 773.46 extended over an extensive area of the region. It includes the blocks of Chanchal-I, Ratua-II, Gazloe, Bamongola and Kaliachak-II. (Table 4.6)
Remaining five blocks namely, Chanchal-II, Ratua-II, English Bazar, Old Malda and Habibpur have low concentration of pumpset with density below 594.02 per 10,000 hectares of gross cropped area.
4.4. Sprayer/ Duster:
A sprayer is a device used to spray a liquid. In agriculture, a sprayer is a piece of equipment that is used to apply herbicides, pesticides, and fertilizers on agricultural crops. Sprayers range in size from man-portable units (typically backpacks with spray guns) to trailed sprayers that are connected to a tractor, to self-propelled units similar to tractors, with boom mounts of 60–151 feet in length. The capacity to spray per day is 0.62 hectares (1.62 acre).
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Table 4.7: Block-wise Distribution of Sprayer in Malda District Sprayer per 10,000 hectares of Gross Cropped Area Blocks 2000-01 2010-11 Harishchandrapur-I 85.84 78.53 Harishchandrapur-II 85.80 93.70 Chanchal-I 122.63 134.88 Chanchal-II 88.28 87.28 Ratua-I 134.14 116.18 Ratua-II 245.72 269.00 Gazole 77.70 92.35 Bamongola 77.52 95.67 Habibpur 9.03 14.32 Old Malda 58.58 66.25 English Bazar 243.48 305.35 Manikchak 215.50 548.48 Kaliachak-I 967.04 2534.96 Kaliachak-II 1378.15 4001.40 Kaliachak-III 120.34 103.44 Malda 188.62 272.04 Source: Comprehensive District Agricultural Plan of Malda, XI plan period
Table 4.8: Spatial Pattern of Sprayer in Malda District
2000-2001 2010-2011
No. of Name of the No. of Name of the Category Range Range Blocks Blocks Blocks Blocks
Ratua-II, Ratua-II, English Manikchak, Above Above Bazar, Kaliachak-I, High 5 English Bazar, 5 134.14 134.88 Kaliachak-II , Kaliachak-I Manikchak ,Kaliachak-II
Harishchandrapur- Harishchandrapur- 85.80 I, Chanchal-I, 92.35 II, Chanchal-I, Medium to 5 Chanchal-II, to 5 Ratua-I, 134.14 Ratua-I , 134.88 Bamongola, Kaliachak-III Kaliachak-III
Harishchandrapur- Harishchandrapur- II, Gazole, Below Below I, Chanchal-II, Low 5 Bamongola, 5 85.80 92.35 Gazole, Old Habibpur, Old Malda, Habibpur Malda Source: Prepared by Researcher based on Table 4.7
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Fig. 4.7 Fig. 4.8
113 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
4.4.1. Spatial Distribution of Sprayer/ Duster (2000-01):
In 2000-01, the total number of sprayer was 7911 (188.62 per 10,000 of gross cropped area). High concentration of sprayer registered in five blocks namely, Ratua- II, Manikchak, English Bazar, Kaliachak-I and Kaliachak-II with an index value above 134.14
A medium concentration of sprayer ranges between 85.80 to 134.14 observed in five blocks. These blocks are Harishchandrapur-I, Chanchal-I, Chanchal-II, Ratua-I and Kaliachak-III. Remaining five blocks have low concentration of sprayer with a density below 85.80.
4.4.2. Spatial Distribution of Sprayer/ Duster (2010-11):
During 2010-11, the total number of sprayer has been increased to 12914 (272.04 per ten thousand hectares of gross cropped area). The number of sprayer has been increased due to use of HYV seeds which need high dosage of pesticides and insecticides to protect the crops. High level of concentration of sprayer with a density above 134.88 noticed in the blocks namely, Ratua-II, English Bazar, Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-II and Manikchak.
A medium concentration of sprayer ranges between 92.35 to 134.88 per 10,000 of gross cropped area is occupied by the blocks of Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-I, Ratua-I, Bamongola and Kaliachak-III. The concentration of sprayer is low in the blocks of Harishchandrapur-I, Chanchal-II, Gazole, Old Malda and Habibpur with a density below 92.35.
4.5. Thresher:
The operation of detaching the grains from the ear head, cob or pod is called threshing. It is basically the removal of grains from the plant by striking, treading or rupturing. Threshers are the most important component of farm mechanization. If threshing is not done timely, all efforts made by farmers and inputs given to crop goes wasted.
4.5.1. Spatial Distribution of Thresher (2000-01):
During 2000-01, the total number thresher was 3407 (81.23 per ten thousand hectares of gross cropped area). The high concentration of thresher with a density above 56.78 per 10,000 hectares of gross cropped area spread over five blocks. These blocks are Chanchal-I, Ratua-I, Bamongola, Old Malda and Kaliachak-I whereas, medium concentration of thresher ranges between 39.98 to 56.78 found in five blocks namely, Chanchal-II, Gazole, Manikchak, Kaliachak-II and Kaliachak-III.
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Table 4.9: Block-wise Distribution of Thresher in Malda District Thresher per 10,000 hectares of Gross Cropped Area Blocks 2000-01 2010-11 Harishchandrapur-I 13.83 19.24 Harishchandrapur-II 9.69 13.43 Chanchal-I 561.49 697.89 Chanchal-II 45.48 50.11 Ratua-I 158.46 158.89 Ratua-II 39.98 49.29 Gazole 40.18 54.34 Bamongola 77.95 94.88 Habibpur 8.30 14.07 Old Malda 87.27 93.09 English Bazar 5.91 6.13 Manikchak 50.93 118.46 Kaliachak-I 145.18 243.76 Kaliachak-II 53.42 110.07 Kaliachak-III 56.78 50.07 Malda 81.23 108.91 Source: Comprehensive District Agricultural Plan of Malda, XI plan period
Table 4.10: Spatial Pattern of Thresher in Malda District
2000-2001 2010-2011
No. of Name of the No. of Name of the Category Range Range Blocks Blocks Blocks Blocks
Chanchal-I, Ratua- Chanchal-I, Ratua- Above I, Bamongola, Above I, Manikchak, High 5 5 56.78 Old Malda, 94.28 Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-I Kaliachak-II
Chanchal-II, Chanchal-II, 42.29 39.98 Gazole, Gazole, Medium to 5 Manikchak, to 5 Bamongola, Old 56.78 Kaliachak-II , Malda, Kaliachak- 94.28 Kaliachak-III III
Harishchandrapur- Harishchandrapur- I, I, Below Harishchandrapur- Below Low 5 5 Harishchandrapur- 39.98 II, Ratua-II, 42.29 II, Ratua-II, English English Bazar, Bazar, Habibpur Habibpur Source: Prepared by Researcher based on Table 4.9
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Fig.4.9 Fig. 4.10
116 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
The remaining five blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchandrapur-II, Ratua-II, English Bazar and Habibpur are placed under low concentration of thresher with a density below 39.98.
4.5.2. Spatial Distribution of Thresher (2010-11):
During 2010-11, the total number of thresher has been increased to 5170 (108.91 per ten thousand hectares of gross cropped area). It is increased because of innovation of newly modern technology in the field of agriculture. A high concentration of thresher with a density above 94.88 per 10,000 gross cropped area have occupied by the blocks of Chanchal-I, Ratua-I, Manikchak, Kaliachak-I and Kaliachak-II
Medium concentration of thresher ranges between 49.29 to 94.88 recorded in five blocks namely, Chanchal-II, Gazole, Bamongola, Old Malda and Kaliachak-III.
The remaining five blocks have come under the category of low concentration of threshers with a density below 49.29. These blocks are Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchandrapur-II, Ratua-II, English Bazar and Habibpur.
4.6. Fertilizers:
Application of fertilizers input is recognized as one of the quickest ways in boosting agricultural production, the provision of fertilizers at reasonable costs and at all suitable time is an essential requirement for the development of agriculture (Champa, 1976). Fertilizers are usually regarded as the alternatives for animal manures but that is not true. Animal manures improve soil conditions and supply nutrients to plant and its affect remains for long time. Animal excreta and green manures contribute directly to the soil matter. Fertilizer does so indirectly by increasing the quantity of crop residues available for incorporation in to plough land. (Ignottieff, 1958)
Application of modern technology generally enhances the intensity of cropping and the overall crop output. When more than one crop is raised from the same land, obviously the natural fertility of soil declines. However, proper scientific crop rotation sometimes helps the farmers to restore the fertility of the soil. Use of fertilizer is an important ingredient in the modern technique of cultivation. Thus the increase of agricultural productivity mainly depends on use of manures and fertilizer along with other related inputs like irrigation, mechanization of agriculture etc.
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In Malda, the level of fertilizer input is very low. The commonly used chemical fertilizers are Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium. In Malda district of West Bengal, the level of fertilizer input is very low. Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium are the commonly used chemical fertilizer in the district. The table 4.6 reveals the different type wise consumption of fertilizer of the district from 2000-01 to 2010-11 use of fertilizer is not significant. It is observed from table 4.6 that there was a steady rise in the consumption of fertilizer from 2000-01 to 2010-11. The district recorded a spectacular rise in the consumption of fertilizer (NPK) as it increased from 43.30 thousand tonnes in 2000-01 to 99.1 thousand tonnes in 2010-11. The consumption of Nitrogen (N) in West Bengal in the year 2000-01recorded 561.88 thousand tonnes and rise up to 712.40 thousand tonnes in 2010-11. In Malda district the consumption of Nitrogen is 20.50 thousand tonnes in 2000-01 and it gradually increasing up to54.30 thousand tonnes in 2010-11.
The consumption of Phosphorous (P) fertilizer of West Bengal recorded 11.60 thousand tonnes in 2000-01 and increased up to 24.40 thousand tonnes in 2010-11 and the consumption of Phosphorous in the district was 11.6 thousand tonnes in 2000-01 whereas it has increased up to 24.4 thousand tonnes in 2010-11. So far the consumption of Potassium (K) is concerned, it is observed that in the state of West Bengal the consumption of Potassium was 226.25 thousand tonnes in 2000-01 and it has increased up to 363.80 thousand tonnes in 2010-11.
It is further noticed that in the district Malda the consumption of Potassium in very low i.e. only 11.2 thousand tonnes in 2000-01. But in 2010-11 it is increased up to 20.4 thousand tonnes in 2010-11. From the table 4.6 it is very clear that as compared to Phosphorous and Potassium fertilizer the Nitrogen fertilizer is very much used for high production of agriculture.
Therefore, majority of the peasants in this region depends on the natural fertility of the soil automatically derived from the grasses, water and atmosphere. But in areas where Muslim peasants of immigrant origin reside, who are more advanced in agricultural technology than the indigenous people use chemical fertilizers. Now-a- days however, bio fertilizer is more preferred as these are eco-friendly and sustainable.
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Table 4.11: Consumption of Different Types of Chemical Fertilizer in Malda District and West Bengal, 2000-01 to 2010-11 (in Thousand Tonnes) Malda West Bengal Year Types of Fertilizer Total Types of Fertilizer Total N P K N P K 20.50 11.60 11.20 561.88 296.95 226.25 2000-01 43.30 1085.08 (47.34) (26.79) (25.87) (51.78) (27.37) (20.85) 22.10 13.70 13.30 586.84 329.78 261.55 2001-02 49.10 1178.17 (45.01) (27.90) (27.09) (49.81) (27.99) (22.20) 21.91 14.38 13.43 562.99 341.24 263.37 2002-03 49.72 1167.60 (44.07) (28.92) (27.01) (48.22) (29.23) (22.56) 22.90 12.70 11.90 581.96 304.17 230.08 2003-04 47.50 1116.21 (48.21) (26.74) (25.05) (52.14) (27.25) (20.61) 30.50 15.300 14.40 630.94 339.61 290.89 2004-05 60.20 1261.44 (50.66) (25.42) (23.92) (50.02) (26.92) (23.06) 30.60 17.40 13.70 611.40 357.80 270.50 2005-06 61.70 1239.70 (49.59) (28.20) (22.20) (49.32) (28.86) (21.82) 51.1 22.50 20.50 678.43 386.25 300.46 2006-07 94.10 1365.14 (54.30) (23.91) (21.79) (49.70) (28.29) (22.01) 46.70 15.40 16.70 684.50 385.80 304.40 2007-08 78.80 1374.70 (59.26) (19.54) (21.19) (49.79) (28.06) (22.14) 52.70 21.70 27.00 698.20 415.40 405.70 2008-09 101.40 1519.30 (51.97) (21.40) (26.63) (45.96) (27.34) (26.70) 52.80 21.10 28.40 730.70 467.30 446.50 2009-10 102.30 1644.50 (51.61) (20.63) (27.76) (44.43) (28.42) (27.15) 54.30 24.40 20.40 712.40 495.60 363.80 2010-11 99.10 1571.80 (54.79) (24.62) (20.59) (45.32) (31.53) (23.15) Source: Statistical Handbook of Malda District, Statistical Abstract West Bengal (2001 - 2011) N- Nitrogen, P – Phosphorous, K – Potassium.
(Figures in brackets indicate the percentages)
4.7. Irrigation:
The development of the agricultural sector depends mainly on assured irrigation facilities/ optimum exploitations of available water resources. Therefore, additional thrust is required to tap potential of existing water resources to develop irrigation facilities in order to bring sustainability to agriculture. Farmers, who are provided with irrigation facilities, can adopt innovative practices quickly, as various options become open to the farmer to raise his productivity. It increases the possibility of multiplicity of cropping and securing high yield per unit of area. The adoption of HYV of crops and use of chemical fertilizers are possible only with irrigation
119 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors facilities. Uncertain and the sporadic nature of rainfall of the area make the district’s agricultural development vulnerable to natural vagaries, thus necessitating the provision of irrigation facilities very essential. As the district of Malda is an important agricultural region in West Bengal, the economic wellbeing of its population bears a close relation to the current state of agriculture in the district. With considerable variation in physiographic and agro-climatic conditions between the Tal, Diara and Barind regions, crop yields and cropping intensity vary considerably in different parts of Malda.
In Malda, the state of regional agriculture depends primarily on the availability of arable land and its irrigation status. Rainfall in the district is moderate and most of the rain drains away immediately as runoff into the numerous rivers, water courses and beels that crisscross the terrain. Since this rainwater fails to percolate and recharge local aquifers, the flow in most minor rivers is seasonal, and groundwater- based irrigation is unviable except in limited portions of the Tal and Diara that are free from waterlogging during the monsoon. Since tube-well irrigation cannot be practiced in the Barind because of the low water table, most agricultural land there is mono cropped. However, because of the abundance of local drainage channels, canal and channel-based irrigation is practiced in many areas located in the proximity of perennial rivers like the Ganga, Kalindri & Mahananda. In several well irrigated regions that are also prone to inundation, long-duration crops like sugarcane are generally grown, which reduce cropping intensity since they occupy the land for the better part of the year. Cropping intensity is visibly higher, on the other hand, in agricultural regions where short-duration kharif and rabi crops are the main crops sown and grown. In Malda district vast wasteland exists in semi - arid tracts of Habibpur & Bamongola, Old Malda and Gazole blocks. Due to low rain fall and scarcity of underground water, farmers of this area generally take only one crop (Aman paddy) in a year. The minor irrigation projects were becoming popular among the people and are also implemented by the Government due to its less complicated nature and low investments involved in them.
4.8. Sources of Irrigation in Malda District: Shallow tube-well irrigation is the most important source of irrigation which is found in almost all the blocks of Malda. The block-wise availability of total number
120 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
RLI, DTW, STW, Tank and Others are shown in the table 4.7 and their spatial distribution in number are discussed below.
4.8.1. River Lift Irrigation (R.L.I): River lift irrigation is the second most important sources of irrigation in Malda. It is practiced in every blocks of Malda. In 2000-01, total number of river lift irrigation was 384. Four blocks namely, Ratua-II, Gazole, Habibpur and Old Malda, have more than 30 river lift irrigation. Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-I, Chanchal-II, Ratua-I, Bamongola, English Bazar and Manikchak have 20-30 river lift irrigation. Remaining blocks i.e. Harishchandrapur-I, Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-II, Kaliachak-III has less have less than 20 river lift irrigation. In 2010-11, total number of river lift irrigation has been increased to 483. Eight blocks have more than 30 river lift irrigation namely, Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-II, Ratua-I, Ratua-II, Gazole, Bamongola, Habibpur and Old Malda. Three blocks have 20-30 river lift irrigation. Remaining two blocks have less than 20 river lift irrigation.
4.8.2. Deep Tube-Well (D.T.W.): In 2000-01, the total number of D.T.W. in Malda was 446. It is clear from the table that there are four blocks namely, Ratua-II, Gazole, Old Malda and English Bazar have more than 40 deep tube-wells. Harishchandrapur-I, Chanchal-I, Chanchal- II, Ratuai-I, Kaliachak-II and Kaliachak-III have 20 to 40 high capacity deep tube- wells. Two blocks namely Harishchandrapur-II and Habibpur have less than 20 deep tube-wells.
During 2010-11, the total number of D.T.W. increased to 510. There are four blocks namely, Ratua-II, Gazole, Old Malda and English Bazar, have more than 40 deep tube-wells. Harishchandrapur-II, Chancahl-II, Ratua-I, Habibpur and Kaliachak- II and Kaliachak-III have 20 to 400 deep tube-wells. Four blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-I, Manikchak and Kaliachak-I have less than 20 deep tube-wells. There is no practice of deep tube well irrigation in Bamongola block during both the years.
121 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
4.8.3. Shallow Tube-Wells (S.T.W.): In 2000-01, total number of shallow tube-wells was 32837. Three blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchandrapur-II and Kaliachak-III have more than 2700 shallow tube-wells. Chanchal-I, Chanchal-II, Ratua-I, Gazole, Bamongola, Habibpur, Manikchak block have 1600-2700 shallow tube-wells. Five blocks namely, Ratua-II, Old Malda, English Bazar, Kaliachak-I and Kaliachak-II has less than 1600 shallow tube-wells.
In 2010-11, total number of shallow tube-wells has been increased to 33515. There are five blocks which have more than 2700 shallow tube-wells. It includes the blocks of Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchandrapur-II, Ratua-I, Gazole and Kaliachak- III. Five blocks namely, Chanchal-I, Chanchal-II, Bamongola, Habibpur and Manikchak have 1600-2700 shallow tube-well. Ratua-II, Old Malda, English Bazar, Kaliachak-I and Kaliachak-II has less than 1600 shallow tube-wells.
4.8.4. Tanks: During both the year (2001 and 2011) total number of tanks were almost same 254 and 255 respectively. There is no practice of tank irrigation in the district except four blocks i.e. Gazole, Bamongola, Habibpur and Old Malda.
4.8.5. Others:
Other source of irrigation includes the water which fetch from ponds, wetlands through pipes. In 2000-01, total number of other irrigation was 434. Four blocks namely, Chanchal-II, Ratua-II, Gazole and Habibpur have more than 40 other sources of irrigation. Four blocks namely, Harishcahndrapur-I, Ratua-I. Old Malda and English Bazar have 15 to 40 other sources of irrigation. Five blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-II, Bamongola, Manikchak, Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-II and Kaliachak-III have less than 15 other source of irrigation.
In 2010-11, total number of other irrigation increased up to 446. Four blocks namely, Chancahl-II, Ratua-II, Gazole and Habibpur have more than 40other source of irrigation. Six blocks have 15 to 40 and remaining five blocks have less than 15 other source of irrigation in the district.
122 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
Table 4.12: Block- Wise Number of Different Types of Irrigation in Malda District
2001 2011 Blocks R.L.I DTW STW Tanks Others R.L.I DTW STW Tanks Others Harishchandrapur-I 9 25 3074 0 25 14 30 3121 0 25 Harishchandrapur-II 31 10 4474 0 11 42 10 4514 0 12 Chanchal-I 22 21 2111 5 36 26 21 2165 6 36 Chanchal-II 22 32 2194 0 45 33 32 2244 0 46 Ratua-I 32 33 2616 0 15 37 39 2672 0 16 Ratua-II 60 71 1405 0 55 67 77 1449 0 55 Gazole 45 62 4000 70 65 51 80 4054 71 65 Bamongola 28 0 1850 57 9 36 0 1882 56 10 Habibpur 39 13 1800 72 98 56 23 1845 71 99 Old Malda 37 41 1150 50 23 51 58 1194 51 24 English Bazar 20 46 1043 0 32 25 48 1084 0 34 Manikchak 21 17 2387 0 8 27 17 2437 0 10 Kaliachak-I 4 13 1295 0 5 4 13 1335 0 5 Kaliachak-II 11 24 768 0 4 11 24 805 0 5 Kaliachak-III 3 38 2670 0 3 3 38 2714 0 4 Malda 384 446 32837 254 434 483 510 33515 255 446 Source: Statistical Handbook of Malda District, 2001 & 2011
123 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
Fig. 4.11 Fig. 4.12
124 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
Table 4.13: Area Irrigated by Different Sources of Irrigation in Malda District (Area in Hectares) 2001 2011 Blocks RLI DTW STW Tank Others RLI DTW STW Tank Others Harishchandrapur-I 142 300 7705 0 1469 275 375 9276 0 1476 Harishchandrapur-II 435 105 10000 0 710 533 158 12487 0 703 Chanchal-I 180 500 6800 26 1850 415 563 6936 29 1846 Chanchal-II 290 525 4600 0 2225 394 584 6642 0 2237 Ratua-I 975 590 6995 0 970 1017 681 7026 0 985 Ratua-II 1356 1045 3590 0 2950 1425 1210 3820 0 2950 Gazole 1022 415 6000 447 3560 1058 731 8035 449 3559 Bamongola 450 0 4285 235 850 547 0 4434 238 864 Habibpur 740 80 3009 348 5575 924 164 3632 355 5597 Old Malda 1062 715 1925 245 1500 1135 925 2275 252 1514 English Bazar 500 970 2760 0 2000 579 1039 2837 0 2016 Manikchak 651 434 5084 0 550 695 451 5510 0 566 Kaliachak-I 0 160 2330 0 270 0 275 2926 0 273 Kaliachak-II 350 336 1652 0 200 380 422 1722 0 204 Kaliachak-III 60 293 5300 0 200 94 390 5445 0 209 Malda 8213 6468 72035 1301 24879 9471 7968 83003 1323 24999 Source: Statistical Handbook of Malda District, 2001 & 2011
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4.9. Agricultural Labourers: A person who works on another person's land for wages in money or kind or share is regarded as an agricultural labourer. He or she has no risk in the cultivation, but merely works on another person's land for wages. An agricultural labourer has no right of lease or contract on land on which he/she works. The agricultural labourers directly or indirectly plays an important role in numerous activities such as preparation of field, showing of seeds, application of fertilizers, irrigation and threshing, especially in traditional agricultural economy.
4.9.1. Spatial Distribution of Agricultural Labourer (2000-01): The total number of agricultural labourers is increasing and the percentage of agricultural labourers to the total workers is also increasing during the periods in Malda district. Table 4.9 illustrates that the number of agricultural labourers was 246420 in the year 2001 in the region but it raised up to 322151 in 2011. The share of agricultural workers to the total workers was 19.40 per cent in 2001, but it increased to 22.42 per cent agricultural labourers in 2011. The block-wise distribution of agricultural labourers and their percentage to the total workers are shown in table 4.9 and their concentration focused in Figure 4.13 and 4.14. It is clear that the percentage of agricultural labourers to total workers is increasing almost in every block of the district during 2001 to 2011 census year.
Figures 4.13 emphasized that, according to 2001 census, the high concentration of agricultural labourers to the total workers localized in the blocks of Harishchandrapur-I, Chanchal-I, Chanchal-II, Bamongola and Habibpur, where the number of agricultural labourer are above 22.72 per cent. The medium concentration of agricultural labourers found in Harishchandrapur-II, Ratua-I, Ratua-II, Manikchak and Gazole, the percentage of agricultural labourers ranges between 19.53 to 22.72 per cent. Remaining five blocks have placed under low concentration of agricultural labourers with the index below 19.53 per cent.
4.9.2. Spatial Distribution of Agricultural Labourer (2010-11): In the census year 2011, the high concentration of agricultural labourers to the main workers observed in the blocks of Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchnadrapur-II, Chancahl-I, Chanchal-II and Ratua-II with the index value above 24.02 per cent. (Table 4.15)
126 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
Table 4.14: Block – Wise Percentage of Agricultural Labourer to total workers in Malda District Percentage of Agricultural Labourer to Total Worker Blocks 2001 2011 Harishchandrapur-I 36.23 37.08 Harishchandrapur-II 21.87 29.08 Chanchal-I 31.98 35.95 Chanchal-II 25.46 34.38 Ratua-I 20.13 24.02 Ratua-II 22.72 31.39 Gazole 22.50 21.86 Bamongola 24.67 23.42 Habibpur 23.92 21.90 Old Malda 19.53 21.97 English Bazar 17.60 16.26 Manikchak 20.89 23.47 Kaliachak-I 7.44 9.07 Kaliachak-II 18.32 17.82 Kaliachak-III 9.66 17.44 Malda 19.40 22.42 Source: Primary Census Abstract of Malda District, 2001 & 2011
Table 4.15: Spatial Pattern of Agricultural Labourer in Malda District
2000-2001 2010-2011 No. of Name of the No. of Category Range Range Name of the Blocks Blocks Blocks Blocks Harishchandrap Harishchandrapur-I, ur-I, Chanchal-I, Above Above Harishchandrapur-II, High 5 Chanchal-II, 5 22.72 24.02 Chanchal-I, Chanchal- Bamongola, II Ratua-II Habibpur Harishchandrap 19.53 ur-II, Ratua-I , 21.86 Medium to 5 Ratua-II, to 5 Ratua-I, Manikchak, , 22.72 Gazole, 24.02 Old Malda, Manikchak Bamongola, Habibpur Old Malda, Gazole, English Bazar, English Bazar, Below Below Kaliachak-I, Low 5 Habibpur, 5 19.53 21.86 Kaliachak-II, Kaliachak-II, Kaliachak-III Kaliachak-III Source: Prepared by Researcher based on Table 4.14
127 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
Fig. 4.13 Fig. 4.14
128 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
The medium concentration of agricultural labourers found in Ratua-I, Manikchak, Old Malda, Bamongola and Habibpur, with index value ranges between 21.86 to 24.02 per cent. Low concentration of agricultural labourers noticed in Gazole, English Bazar, Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-II and Kaliachak-III with index below 21.86 per cent.
4.10. Cultivators:
For purposes of the census a person is classified as cultivator if he or she is engaged in cultivation of land owned or held from Government or held from private persons or institutions for payment in money, kind or share. Cultivation includes effective supervision or direction in cultivation. A person who has given out her/his land to another person or persons or institution(s) for cultivation for money, kind or share of crop and who does not even supervise or direct cultivation of land, is not treated as cultivator. Similarly, a person working on another person's land for wages in cash or kind or a combination of both (agricultural labourer) is not treated as cultivator. Cultivation involves ploughing, sowing, harvesting and production of cereals and millet crops such as wheat, paddy, jowar, bajra, ragi, etc., and other crops such as sugarcane, tobacco, ground-nuts, tapioca, etc., and pulses, raw jute and kindred fibre crop, cotton, cinchona and other medicinal plants, fruit growing, vegetable growing or keeping orchards or groves, etc. Cultivation does not include the following plantation crops - tea, coffee, rubber, coconut and betel-nuts (areca).
4.10.1. Spatial Distribution of Cultivators (2000-01): In 2000-01, the total number of cultivator was 230987 (18.18 to total worker) High concentration of cultivator with a density above 23.57 registered in five blocks namely, Chanchal-II, Ratua-I, Gazole, Bamongola and Habibpur.
A medium concentration of cultivator ranges between 15.46 to 23.57 extend over an extensive part of Malda. It includes the blocks of Harishchandrapur-I, Chanchal-I, Ratua-II, Old Malda and Kaliachak-III. Remaining five blocks i.e. Harishchandrapur-II, Manikchak, English Bazar, Kaliachak-I and Kaliachak-II, have low concentration of sprayer with a density below 15.46 to total worker.
129 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
Table 4.16: Block-Wise Percentage of Cultivator to Total Worker in Malda District Percentage of Cultivators to Total Workers Blocks 2001 2011 Harishchandrapur-I 22.45 18.77 Harishchandrapur-II 7.48 22.57 Chanchal-I 22.26 18.34 Chanchal-II 25.71 21.06 Ratua-I 25.27 19.49 Ratua-II 21.64 15.74 Gazole 29.54 28.78 Bamongola 32.85 26.85 Habibpur 27.8 19.37 Old Malda 23.57 16.46 English Bazar 12.31 6.77 Manikchak 15.46 7.77 Kaliachak-I 3.23 3.79 Kaliachak-II 14.08 6.96 Kaliachak-III 15.48 10.56 Malda 18.18 15.24 Source: Primary Census Abstract of Malda District, 2001 & 2011
Table 4.17: Spatial Pattern of Cultivators in Malda District 2000-2001 2010-2011 No. of Name of the No. of Category Range Range Name of the Blocks Blocks Blocks Blocks Harishchandrap Harishchandrapur-II, ur-II, Chanchal- Above Above Chanchal-II, Ratua- High 5 II, Ratua-I, 5 23.57 19.37 I, Gazole, Gazole, Bamongola Bamongola
Harishchandrap Harishchandrapur-I, 15.46 ur-I, Chanchal- 10.56 Chanchal-I, Ratua-II, Medium to 5 I, Ratua-II, 5 to Habibpur, Old 23.57 Habibpur, Old 19.37 Malda Malda
English English Bazar,,Manikch Bazar,,Manikchak, Below Below Low 5 ak, Kaliachak-II 5 Kaliachak-II , 15.46 10.56 , Kaliachak-III, Kaliachak-III, Kaliachak-I Kaliachak-I
Source: Prepared by Researcher based on Table 4.16
130 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
Fig. 4.15 Fig. 4.16
131 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
4.10.2. Spatial Distribution of Cultivators (2010-11):
During 2010-11, the total number of sprayer has been increased to 218978 (15.24. to total worker). High level of concentration of cultivator with a density above 19.37 observed in the blocks of Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-II, Ratua-I, Gazole and Bamongola. The medium concentration of cultivator ranges between 10.56 to 19.37 to total worker have occupied by the blocks of Harishchandrapur-I, Chanchal-I, Ratua-II, Old Malda and Habibpur. Low concentration of cultivator with a density below 10.56 found in English Bazar, Manikchak, Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-II and Kaliachak-III.
4.b. Institutional Factors: The efficiency of agriculture depends to a great extent on the prevalent physical character of the region and the nature of its exploitation by man. The impact of man in the utilization of existing resources can be judged by a study of various institutional factors that operate in the region and any improvement in these institutional factors is bound to simultaneously increase the agricultural efficiency. The institutional factors playing their role in the district may be identified as percentage of literacy rate, cooperative societies, fair price shop, fertilizer depots, and seed store. The role of institutional financing is highlighted by studying as to how far the institutional agencies are helpful in increasing farmers income, especially that of small farmers. Co-operative societies are some of the important institutional agencies financing loan to the needy farmers. These factors play a significant role in the spatial development of agriculture in the region.
4.11. Literacy:
In order to assess the literacy pattern in Malda district, a block-wise Figure - 4.11 distribution of percentage of literacy to the total population is given in Table 4.11. The percentage of literates to total population in the district has gone up from 50.28 percent in 2001 to 61.73 percent in 2011. It is because of pre-dominance of backward Muslims population in the blocks which give less attention towards education. In 2001 highest literacy rate is found in Chanchal-I block (56.11 percent).
132 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
Table 4.18: Block Wise Literacy rate in Malda District Blocks 2001 2011 Harishchandrapur-I 44.05 52.47 Harishchandrapur-II 40.70 54.34 Chanchal-I 56.11 65.09 Chanchal-II 44.49 57.38 Ratua-I 44.99 60.13 Ratua-II 47.84 56.18 Gazole 51.03 63.07 Bamongola 56.10 68.09 Habibpur 48.22 58.81 Old Malda 47.74 59.61 English Bazar 50.44 63.03 Manikchak 44.09 57.77 Kaliachak-I 54.32 65.25 Kaliachak-II 46.09 64.89 Kaliachak-III 41.76 54.16 Malda 50.28 61.73 Source: Statistical Handbook of Malda District, 2001 & 2011
Table 4.19: Spatial Pattern of Co-operative Societies in Malda District 2000-2001 2010-2011 No. of Name of the No. of Category Range Range Name of the Blocks Blocks Blocks Blocks Chanchal-I, Chanchal-I, Gazole, Gazole, Bamongola, Above Bamongola, Above Kaliachak-I, High 5 5 48.22 English Bazar, 63.03 Kaliachak-II Kaliachak-I
Ratua-I, Ratua- Ratua-I, Habibpur, 44.49 II, Habibpur, 57.38 Medium 5 5 Old Malda, English to Old Malda, to Bazar, Manikchak 48.22 Kaliachak-II 63.03
Harishchandrap Harishchandrapur-II, ur-I, Harishchandrapur-II, Below Harishchandrap Below Chanchal-II, Ratua- Low 5 5 44.49 ur-II, Chanchal- 57.38 II, Kaliachak-III II, Manikchak, Kaliachak-III
Source: Prepared by Researcher based on Table 4.18
133 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
Fig 4.17 Fig. 4.18
134 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
In 2011 highest literacy rate is found in Bamongola block (68.09 percent). High literacy rate is observed in the blocks of Chanchal-I, Gazole, Bamongola and Kaliachak-I block in 2001 as well as in 2011. Literacy rate is comparatively low in the blocks of Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-II and Kaliachak-III block in 2001 as well as in 2011. Medium concentration of literacy rate recorded in Ratua-I, Ratua-II, Habibpur, Old Malda and Kaliachak-II in the year of 2000-01, whereas, during 2010-11, Ratua-I, Habibpur, Old Malda, English Bazar and Manikchak noticed medium level of literacy rate in Malda district. (Table 4.19)
4.12. Co-operative Societies:
The economy of Malda district is based on agriculture and hence, co- operatives have a vital role to play to increase the production of agriculture through the farmers who are closely associated with the co-operative societies. These co- operative societies are providing credit facilities for cultivation and supplying fertilizers pesticides, seeds etc. to the farmers. In an agriculture based economy, co- operatives provide a strong network linking the farmers at the grass root level with the apex organizations through village, block and district level societies. Total process of agricultural development could be routed through co-operatives from supply of agricultural inputs and implements to harvesting, storing and marketing of produce and since inception co-operatives are providing financial assistance to farmers for this purpose.
4.12.1. Spatial Distribution of Co-Operative Societies (2000-01):
The total number of co-operative societies is decreasing and the percentage of co-operative societies per ten thousand population is also decreasing during the periods in Malda district. Table 4.12 illustrates that the number of co-operative societies was 583 in the year 2001 in the region but it raised up to 417 in 2011. The share of co-operative societies was 1.90 per cent in 2001, and it decreased to 1.13 per cent co-operative societies in 2011. It is clear that the percentage of co-operative societies and their percentage to ten thousand populations are decreasing almost in every block (except Bamongola block) of the district during 2001 to 2011 census year.
135 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
Table 4.20: Block-Wise Number of Co-Operative Societies in Malda District Number of Co-Operative Societies per 10,000 Population Blocks 2001 2011 Harishchandrapur-I 1.29 1.25 Harishchandrapur-II 1.06 0.84 Chanchal-I 1.21 1.27 Chanchal-II 1.39 1.27 Ratua-I 1.66 1.09 Ratua-II 2.18 1.04 Gazole 1.87 1.37 Bamongola 1.96 2.15 Habibpur 2.34 1.42 Old Malda 2.59 1.02 English Bazar 5.22 0.25 Manikchak 1.82 1.26 Kaliachak-I 1.54 1.12 Kaliachak-II 1.89 1.24 Kaliachak-III 0.81 0.92 Malda 1.90 1.13 Source: Statistical Handbook of Malda District, 2001 & 2011
Table 4.21: Spatial Pattern of Co-operative Societies in Malda District 2000-2001 2010-2011 No. of Name of the No. of Category Range Range Name of the Blocks Blocks Blocks Blocks Ratua-II, Chanchal-I, Chanchal- Bamongola, Above Above II, Gazole, High 5 Habibpur, Old 5 1.89 1.26 Bamongola, Habibpur Malda, EnglishBazar
Ratua-I, Harishchandrapur-I, Gazole, 1.39 1.04 Ratua-I, Manikchak, Medium 5 Manikchak, 5 to to Kaliachak-I , Kaliachak-I. 1.89 1.26 Kaliachak-II Kaliachak-II
Harishchandrap ur-I, Harishchandrapur-II, Below Harishchandrap Below Ratua-II, Old Malda, Low 5 5 1.39 ur-II, Chanchal- 1.04 English Bazar, I , Chanchal-II, Kaliachak-III Kaliachak-III
Source: Prepared by Researcher based on Table 4.20
136 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
Fig. 4.19 Fig. 4.20
137 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
4.12.2. Spatial Distribution of Co-Operative Societies (2010-11):
In the census year 2011, the high concentration of co-operative societies found in five blocks namely, Chanchal-I, Chanchal-II, Gazole, Bamongola and Habibpur with the index value above 1.26 per cent. The medium concentration of co-operative societies observed in Harishchandrapur-I, Ratua-I, Manikchak, Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-II, with the index value ranges between 1.04 to 1.26 per cent. Low concentration of co-operative societies is found in Harishchandrapur-II, Ratua-II, Old Malda, English Bazar and Kaliachak-III with index value below 1.04 per cent.
4.13. Fair Price Shop:
In these shops farmers sell their crops and gets money fixed by the Govt. for each crops. A fixed rate has been given to the particular crop by the government that is why the farmers got the fair reward for their labour. Farmers got encouraged to produce more and more crops as they got sufficient amount for their produce from these shops. Table 4.22: Block-Wise Number of Fair Price Shop in Malda District
Number of Fair Price Shop per 10,000 Population Blocks 2001 2011 Harishchandrapur-I 2.09 1.75 Harishchandrapur-II 2.07 1.63 Chanchal-I 2.47 1.56 Chanchal-II 2.36 1.93 Ratua-I 2.12 2.30 Ratua-II 2.36 1.85 Gazole 2.34 2.01 Bamongola 2.44 2.22 Habibpur 2.66 2.42 Old Malda 1.83 1.60 English Bazar 2.17 1.78 Manikchak 2.48 1.93 Kaliachak-I 2.19 1.78 Kaliachak-II 2.41 2.43 Kaliachak-III 2.15 1.75 Malda 2.12 1.91 Source: Statistical Handbook of Malda District, 2001 & 2011
138 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
Table 4.23: Spatial Pattern of Fair Price Shop in Malda District
2000-2001 2010-2011 No. of Name of the No. of Category Range Range Name of the Blocks Blocks Blocks Blocks Chanchal-I, Ratua-I, Gazole, Bamongola, Above Above Bamongola, High 5 Habibpur, 5 2.36 1.93 Habibpur., Kaliachak- Manikchak, II Kaliachak-II Chanchal-II, Chanchal-II, Ratua-II, 2.15 1.75 Gazole, Ratua-II, English Bazar, Medium to 5 to 5 English Bazar, Manikchak, 2.36 1.93 Kaliachak-I Kaliachak-I Harishchandrapur- I, Harishchandrapur-I, Below Harishchandrapur- Below Harishchandrapur-II, Low 5 5 2.15 II, Ratua-I, Old 1.75 Chanchal-I, Old Malda, Kaliachak- Malda, Kaliachak-III III Source: Prepared by Researcher based on Table 4.22
4.13.1. Spatial Distribution of Fair Price Shop (2000-01): In 2000-01, the total number of fair price shop was 697 (2.12 per 10,000 population). The high concentration of fair price with a density above 2.36 found in the blocks of Chanchal-I, Manikchak, Kaliachak-II, Bamongola and Habibpur block. The medium concentration of fair price shop with index value ranges between 2.15 to 2.36 per 10,000 population have occupied by five blocks namely, Chanchal-II, Ratua-II, Gazole, English Bazar and Kaliachak-I. Remaining five blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchandrapuir-II, Ratua-I, Old Malda and Kaliachak-III have low concentration of fair price shop with a density below 2.15 per 10,000 population. (Table 4.23)
4.13.2. Spatial Distribution of Fair Price Shop (2010-11):
During 2010-11, the total number of fair price shop has been increased to 705 (1.91per ten thousand population). A high concentration of fair price with a density above 1.93 per 10,000 population extended over five blocks namely, Ratua-I, Gazole, Bamongola, Habibpur and Kaliachak-II. The medium concentration of fair price shop with an index value ranges between 1.75 to 1.93 per 10,000 population found in the blocks of Chanchal-II, Ratua-II, Manikchak, English Bazar and Kaliachak-I. The remaining five blocks namely Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchadrapur-II, Chanchal-I, Old Malda and Kaliachak-III have low concentration of fair price shop with a density below 1.75.
139 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
Fig. 4.21 Fig. 4.22
140 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
4.14. Fertilizer Depots:
A place for the storage of large quantities of fertilizer is called fertilizer depots. From these depots farmers get fertilizer easily for the production of crops. Table 4.24: Block-Wise Number of Fertilizer Depots in Malda District Number of Fertilizer Depots per 10,000 Population Blocks 2001 2011 Harishchandrapur-I 2.77 1.75 Harishchandrapur-II 2.32 1.63 Chanchal-I 2.58 1.56 Chanchal-II 1.45 1.93 Ratua-I 2.48 2.3 Ratua-II 4.79 1.85 Gazole 6.11 2.01 Bamongola 6.52 2.22 Habibpur 6.02 2.42 Old Malda 4.65 1.6 English Bazar 3.01 1.78 Manikchak 1.4 1.93 Kaliachak-I 2.22 1.78 Kaliachak-II 1.99 2.43 Kaliachak-III 4.61 1.75 Malda 3.25 3.46 Source: Statistical Handbook of Malda District, 2001 & 2011
Table 4.25: Spatial Pattern of Fertilizer Depots in Malda District 2000-2001 2010-2011 No. of Name of the No. of Category Range Range Name of the Blocks Blocks Blocks Blocks Ratua-II, Gazole, Ratua-I, Gazole, Above Bamongola, Above Bamongola, High 5 5 4.61 Habibpur, Old 3.51 Habibpur, Old Malda Malda
Harishchandrapur- 2.32 I, Chanchal-I, 2.73 Harishchandrapur-I, Medium to 5 Ratua-I, English to 5 Chanchal-II, Ratua- 4.61 Bazar, Kaliachak- 3.51 II, Kaliachak-I, III Kaliachak-III
Harishchandrapur- Harishchandrapur-II, II, Chanchal-II, Below Below Chanchal-I, English Low 5 Manikchak, 5 2.32 2.73 Bazar, Manikchak, Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-I Kaliachak-II
Source: Prepared by Researcher based on Table 4.24
141 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
Fig. 4.23 Fig. 4.24
142 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
4.14.1. Spatial Distribution of Fertilizer Depots (2000-01):
In 2000-01, the total number of fertilizer depots was 1068 (3.25 per 10,000 population). A high concentration of fertilizer depots with an index value above 4.61 found in the blocks of Ratua-II, Gazole, Bamongola, Habibpur and Old Malda. Medium concentration of fertilizer depots with an index value ranges between 2.32 to 4.61 occupied by five blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-I, Chanchal-I, Ratua- I, English Bazar and Kaliachak-III. Remaining five blocks namely, Harishchandrapuir-II, Chanchal-II, Manikchak and Kaliachak-I, and Kaliachak-II have low concentration of fair price shop with the index below 2.32. (Table 4.25) 4.14.2. Spatial Distribution of Fertilizer Depots (2010-11):
During 2010-11, the total number of fertilizer depots has been increased to 1279 (3.46 per ten thousand populations). A high concentration of fertilizer depots with a density above 3.51 per 10,000 populations noticed in five blocks as same in 2001. The medium concentration of fair price shop ranges between 2.73 to 3.51per 10,000 population found in the blocks of Harishchandrapur-I, Chanchal-II, Ratua-II, Kaliachak-II and Kaliachak-III. The remaining five blocks namely Harishchadrapur- II, Chanchal-I, Manikchak, English Bazar, and Kaliachak-I have low concentration of fertilizer depots with a density below 2.73. 4.15. Seed Stores:
Seeds should have a good storage facility, since seeds are the main genetic linkage between two generations of a plant species. Seeds should be stored in such a manner, that its germination capacity and vigour should not decline. Nearly 30% of the seeds are lost during storage period due to insects, rodents and microorganisms. The storage period begins right at the time of attainment of the physiological maturity of seeds in the field till it is planted in the next season. Care should be taken to preserve the germination capacity, viability and vigour of the seeds. This manual explains various principles and methods of seed storage.
4.15.1. Spatial Distribution of Seed Stores (2000-01): In 2000-01, the total number of seed store was 81 (0.25 per 10,000 population). A high concentration of seed store with a density above 0.24 found in the
143 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors blocks of Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchandrapur-II, Ratua-I, Ratua-II and Chanchal-I. A medium concentration of seed store with a density ranges between 0.14 – 0.24 per 10,000 population is occupied by five blocks namely, Chanchal-II, Bamongola, English Bazar, Kaliachak-I, and Kaliachak-III. Remaining five blocks namely, Gazole, Habibpur and Old Malda, Manikchak and Kaliachak-II recorded low concentration of seed store with a density below 0.14 per 10,000 population. Table 4.26: Block-Wise Number of Seed Store in Malda District Number of Seed Store Per 10,000 Population Blocks 2001 2011 Harishchandrapur-I 0.55 1.10 Harishchandrapur-II 0.35 0.48 Chanchal-I 0.69 0.33 Chanchal-II 0.18 0.74 Ratua-I 0.74 1.12 Ratua-II 0.44 0.34 Gazole 0.00 0.52 Bamongola 0.24 0.76 Habibpur 0.11 0.57 Old Malda 0.08 0.38 English Bazar 0.22 0.00 Manikchak 0.09 0.30 Kaliachak-I 0.19 0.33 Kaliachak-II 0.14 0.24 Kaliachak-III 0.18 0.08 Malda 0.25 0.44 Source: Statistical Handbook of Malda District, 2001 & 2011
4.15.2. Spatial Distribution of Seed Stores (2010-11):
During 2010-11, the total number of seed store has been increased to 164 (0.44 per ten thousand populations). A high concentration of fertilizer depots with a density above 0.57 per 10,000 populations noticed in Harishchandrapur-I, Chanchal- II, Ratua-I and Bamongola. The medium concentration of seed store with an index ranges between 0.33 to 0.57 per 10,000 population found in the blocks of Harishchandrapur-II, Ratua-II, Gazole, Old Malda and Habibpur. Remaining six blocks with a density below 0.33 come under low concentration of seed store
144 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
Fig. 4.25 Fig. 4.26
145 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
References:
Bhagabati, A. K. (1997): Level of Technification in Agricultural Productivity of India: An Exploratory Analysis”, National Geographical Journal of India, PP. 113-123.
Champa, 1976, Agricultural Development and the Role of Fertilizers, Indian Journal of Regional Science, Vol. 8, No. 1, P. 151
Choudhari, A.K. and A.S. Serohi (1974): Allocation of Fertilizers among crops and Regions in U.P. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 27, No. 3, pp. 47.
Chourasia and Singh (1972): Economics of Local and High Yielding Varieties of Paddy and Wheat in Panagar Village of M.P. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics
Commen, M.A. (1966): Technological change and its diffusion in agriculture, Agricultural situation in India, Vol. 21, Nos. 7-12, pp. 523-524.
Das, M.M. (1984): Peasant Agriculture in Assam, Inter India Publication, New Delhi. Pp.203-223
Desai, D.K. (1966): Technological changes and its Diffusion in Agriculture, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.XXI, No.1, Pp- 22-26.
Devi, H. G. (1988): “Impact of Irrigation on Agricultural Productivity in Manipur”, North Eastern Geographer, Vol. 20, No. 1 & 2, pp. 48-51
Dutt, Ruddar and Sundaram, K.P.M. (1986): Evolution of the Indian Economy, New Delhi, p. 234-238
Dutta, A.K. And Sengupta, R (1969): An Assessment of Agricultural Development in West Bengal, The Journal of Tropical Geography, Vol. 128, pp- 18-21.
Gaurry (1977) : Agricultural Mechanisation, in C.L.A. Leaky and J.B. Wilk (ed.)- Food Crops of the low land tropics, Oxford University Press, p. 273
Gond, R.S. (1987): Co-operative Finance and weaker sections, Yojana, Vol. 31, No. 4, p.14
Hanumantha, Rao. (1979): Farm Mechanisation in C.H. Shah (ed.) - Agricultural Development of India, Policy and Problems, Bombay, pp. 292
146 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
Hashmi, S.N. (1994): Impact of new agricultural technology on the agricultural development in Haryana, The Geographer, Vol. 41, No. 2, July
Hussain, M. (1996): Systematic Agricultural Geography, Rawat Publication, Jaipur.
Ignottieff, V. (1958): Efficient use of fertilizers, FAO, Agricultural Studies, Italy, no. 43, p.2
Jain, H. (1988): Contribution of New Teaching in Agriculture, Kurukshetra, October.
K. Parimala, K. Subramanian, S. Mahalinga Kannan and K. Vijayalakshmi (2013): Seed Storage Techniques- A Primer, Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems, Chennai Revitalising Rainfed Agriculture Network
Maity, B. and B. Chatterjee, (2006): Impact of modern technology on foodgrain production in West Bengal: A economic analysis, Indian Journal of Regional Science, 2(38), 96.
Minhas and Vaidyanath (1976) : Spread of Area under High yielding varieties in Punjab and Haryana and Factors Behind it, M.Phil. Dissertation, JNU.
Mohammad, Noor (1981): Technological Change and its Diffusion in Agricultural Innovation, Perspectives in Agricultural Geography, New Delhi, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 207-21 & 267.
Muthiah, C. (1970): The Agricultural Labour problem in Thanjavar and the New Agricultural Strategy, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 20
Naik, N.K. (1974): Education in Production, the Case of Indian Agriculture, Productivity, Oct- Dec..
Panda, S.C. (2008): Mechanization in Agriculture, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi.
Randhava, M.S. (1974): Green Revolution: A case study of Punjab, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, pp- 112-140.
Shah, S.L. (1997): A sustainable and Replicable Model of Eco-development in Uttarakhand : Methodologies and Strategies in S.L. Shah (ed), Sustainable and Replicable, pp. 1-86.
Siddiqui, S.H. (1989) : The Pattern of Irrigation in the North Bihar plain, Geographical Review of India, Vol. 51, No. 4, Dec., pp. 55-64.
147 Chapter-IV: Spatial Distribution of Technological and Institutional Factors
Siddiqui, S.H. and Ahmad, M. (2008): Impact of Technology on the development of agriculture, The Geographer, Vol. 55, No. 1, pp. 69-72.
Siddiqui, S.H. and et al. (2011): Technology and levels of Agricultural Development in Aligarh District, The Geographer, Vol. 58, No. 2, pp. 12-16.
Singh Chauhan, D. (2010): Agricultural Geography, Ritu Publications Jaipur, India PP- 123-130.
Singh, K.P. (1987): Groundwater and Environment in R.K. Sapru (ed.), Environmental Management in India, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi.
Singh, S. K. (1981): Electricity operated sources of Irrigation in Eastern Uttar Pradesh in Noor Mohammad (eds.) Perspective in Agricultural Geography, Vol. II, p. 485.
148
Chapter-V Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
CHAPTER V
MEASUREMENT OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY
5.1. Agricultural Productivity:
Agricultural Productivity is defined as “the ratio of output to input in relation to land, labour, capital and also in terms of the overall resources employed in agriculture”. It is closely influenced by a number of physical, socio-economic, cultural, institutional and technological factors. It also affected by the managerial skill of the farmer, his attitude and aspiration for better standard of living. However, it is a dynamic concept which changes over time and space.
Productivity is not a synonym of „fertility‟. It is generally used to express the power of agriculture in a particular region to produce crops without regard to whether that power is due to the bounty of nature or to the efforts of man (Johnson, 1926). Productivity is not merely volume of output but output in relation to resource employed. It may increase without increase of production. It increases when lesser quantities of inputs are employed for the same production. Productivity also increases when more input is turned out from the same resources. Thus, agricultural productivity means yield per unit area.
Agricultural productivity may be defined as the ratio of the index of total agricultural output to the total index of total input used in farm production. It is, therefore, a measure of the efficiency with which inputs are utilized in production, other things being equal. According to Dewett, “Productivity expresses the varying relationship between agricultural output and one of the major inputs, like land or labour or capital, other complementary factors remaining the same…” It may be borne in mind, that productivity is physical rather than a value concept (K.K. Dewett and G. Singh, 1966). The connotation of agricultural productivity engaged the attention of many an economist at the 23rd Annual Conference of the Indian Society of Agricultural Economics. Some economists suggested that the yield per acre should be considered to indicate agricultural productivity. A number of objections were raised against this view because it considered only land which is just one factor of production while other factors are also responsible. Therefore, it was arbitrary to attribute productivity entirely to land and express it per acre of land. It was suggested, for instance, that productivity could also be measured in terms of per unit of labour
149 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity and different regions compared on that basis. It was pointed out further, that the average return per unit of scarce resource does not depict the true picture, therefore, instead of it, the marginal returns per unit of the scarce resource should be considered.
It was generally agreed that the yield per acre considered to represent the agricultural productivity in a particular region, and that other factors of production be considered as the possible causes for the variation while comparing it with the other regions. A.D. Pandit (1965) has stated that the connotation of productivity in these words, “Productivity is defined in economics as the output from the same input or of getting the same output from a smaller input”. He further suggests that increases in productivity, whether in industry or agriculture, is generally the result of a more efficient use of some or all the factors of production, viz., land, labour and capital. According to Saxon, „Productivity is a physical relationship between output and the input which gives rise to that output‟. J. Horring (1964) defines the term productivity that it is generally used rather broadly to denote the ratio of output to any or all associated inputs, in real term.
5.2. Measurement of Agricultural Productivity:
The term productivity has been used in different meanings and has aroused many conflicting interpretation, sometimes it is considered as the overall efficiency with which a production system work, while in other words it is defined as the ratio of output to input in relation to land and overall resources employed in agriculture.
Thompson (1926) while measuring the relative productivity of “British and Danish Farming” emphasized and expressed it in terms of gross output of crops and livestock. He considered the following seven parameters: (i) the yield per acre of crops, (ii) the livestock per 100 acres, (iii) the gross production or output per 100 acres, (iv) the proportion of arable land, (v) the number of person employed, (vi) the cost of production expressed in terms of wages and labour costs, rent or interest and (vii) prices relatively profitability and general economic conditions.
Buck (1937) assessed the agricultural progress in China by adopting the approach of „Grain Equivalent‟. For this purpose he converted all the agricultural products into kilogram, with whatever kind of grain was predominant in the region. A modification in this method was made by Clark and Haswell (1967) by expressing the output in terms of Kilograms of „wheat equivalent‟ per head of population.
150 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
Ganguli (1938) in his study of Ganges valley presented a theoretical discussion for computing productivity in agriculture. Firstly, he took into account the area under any crop “A” in a particular unit is belonging to a certain region. This area expressed as a proportion of the total cropped area under all the selected crops. Secondly, Ganguli tried to obtain the index number of yield. Thirdly, the proportion of area under “A” and the corresponding index number of yield were multiplied. There are two advantages which are apparent by using this model i.e. (a) the relative importance of the crop “A” in that unit of study is assessed as indicated by the proportion of the cropped area which is under “A” and (b) the yield of the crop “A” in comparison to the regional standard. The obtained product thus indicates actually an index of the contribution of the crop “A” to the productivity of the unit considered.
Kendall (1939) treated it as a mathematical problem and inter related a system of four coefficient (a) productivity coefficient, (b) ranking coefficient, (c) money value co-efficiency and (d) starch coefficient or energy coefficient. Kendall pointed out that the productivity coefficient and the ranking coefficient are concerned only with the yield per acre, but are not in any way weighted according to the volume of the production. He, therefore, evolved a measure of crop productivity by using index number technique in which the yield of different crops should be expressed in terms of some common units. For this purpose he pointed out two common units (i) money value as expressed in price, (ii) energy as expressed in starch equivalent.
Kendall‟s money value index poses one major difficulty, that data for certain crops are not available, for example, there are many vegetables and beans which are grown mostly for the consumption on the farms and their price data are not recorded in contrast to cereal crops whose data are adequate. While determining the money value coefficient, another difficulty arises with regard to the prices – for example, the prices prevailing in the area should be adopted, or those prevailing in the region or in the country as a whole, in addition to the local variations in the prices which depend on circumstances like, proximity to the market or the relative nutritive character of the product. Significant differences in prices per tones between the crops affect the final result heavily in favour of the higher priced commodity. In this method, the crop production of each unit area is valued by multiplying the volume of production of a particular crop by the price, and then adds the results for the selected number of crops together. The total is divided by the total acreage in the unit area a figure of money
151 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity value per acre per hectare under the crops considered. So far as energy coefficient is concerned, an index based on nutritional factor ignores local variation because of the absence of data. Kendall, therefore, suggests starch equivalent as the most suitable unit. While calculating a coefficient based on starch equivalent it should be decided: (a) whether a gross or net digestible energy figure is to be taken? (b) whether any allowance is to be made for by-products such as wheat and barley straws or the green stalks of maize, jowar and bajra? and (c) whether any account should be taken of the fact that the energy in certain foods has first to be fed to livestock and then wheat and milk is used for human consumption. The basic question that arises in the technique is whether the gross starch equivalent of the various crops should be considered or the net equivalent. Net energy refers to the amount of energy for work and body building whereas a gross figure includes the energy employed in the digestive process of the consuming animal and similar non-realizable forms. Kendall suggested that production of energy be preferred as the gross figures.
Hirsch (1943) has considered, „Crop Yield Index‟ as the basis of productivity measurement. It expresses the average of the yields of various crops on another farm in second locality. Zobel (1950) has attempted to determine the labour productivity. He considered the productivity of labours as the ratio of the total output to the total man-hours consumed in the production of that output resulting in output per man hours. This has been expressed by the following equations:
π = f (P, L)
Where, π = Productivity of labour
P = Production, and
L = Labour utilized.
Stamp (1952) applied Kendall‟s ranking coefficient technique on an international level in order to determine agricultural efficiency of number of some major crops in a number of countries. Huntington and Valkenburg (1952) considered land productivity on the basis of acre yields of eight crops grown widely in Europe. For each crop, the average yields per acre for Europe as a whole was taken as an index of 100, and specify yield in each country was calculated.
Stamp (1958) suggested another method for measuring the agricultural productivity, i.e., to convert the total agricultural production in calories. He calculated
152 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
Standard Nutritional Unit (SNU) by converting all the food production per acre in calories. Taking into consideration, the age structure of the population, the range of occupation, the weight and height of the people living under climatic conditions of north Western Europe, the average is 2460 calories a day or about 9, 00,000 calories per year”. “The Nutrition Expert Group of Indian Council of Medical Research” has recommended the daily allowances of Nutrients for Indians. They published a table show the caloric intake among adults from 1900 a day for a women in sedentary work to 3900 for a man engaged in heavy work. For children it was recommended 110 calories per kilogram weight of the body per day for infants under one year to 3000 for teenage boy.
Shafi (1960) has determined the agricultural efficiency in Uttar Pradesh taking into consideration, eight food crops grown in each of the 48 districts of the state. Loomis and Barton (1961) have measured United States agricultural input and productivity in aggregate. To them, aggregate productivity depends upon conceptually consistent measures of agricultural output and input. The measures of inputs includes all the production factors that depend directly on the decisions of farmers.
Mackenzie (1962) has measured the efficiency of production in Canadian agriculture by raising the coefficient of output relative to input. He mentions that the concept of productivity measurement is difficult to define and even more difficult to quantify. Oommen (1962) while working out the trends of productivity in agriculture of the state of Kerala (India) has measured productivity on the basis of yield per acre.
Chatterjee and Maitrya (1964) have calculated the levels of agricultural development and productivity during 1950-51 to 1957-58 in the state of West Bengal, taking two crops (Rice and Wheat) into consideration. They utilized the acre yield figure for this purpose. Enyedi (1964) while describing geographical types of agriculture in Hungary applied the following formula for calculating agricultural productivity:
Y / Yn: T / Tn Where, Y = is the yield of crop in the unit area Yn = is the yield of respective crop at National level T = is the total cropped area of the unit Tn =is the total cropped area at National level.
153 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
Dhondyal (1964) has measured variations in agriculture development and productivity by selecting three representative districts from the three regions of Uttar Pradesh, while assessing the rate of credit, intensive crop enterprises and the influence of irrigation water during 1962-63. Gopalkrishnan and Ramakrishna (1964) have taken Andhra Pradesh (as a unit of study) to measure the degree of variations with respect to (a) agricultural output per acre (Rs) (b) output per head of agricultural production (Rs.). They also discussed the causes of variations in each of the twenty districts of the state during 1959-60. The variables relating to the level of output per acres are selected as follows : (i) normal level of rainfall (ii) percentage of current and old fallows, (iii) percentage of area under irrigation, (iv) percentage of literacy, (v) percentage of population in agriculture, (vi) intensity of cropping, (vii) percentage of gross value other than food grains and fodder, (viii) the percentage of area under all crops excluding fodder and food grains, (ix) density of agricultural population per acre and (x) percentage of total area under commercial crops including rice.
Horring (1964) has suggested that the concept of productivity is based not only on the single relationship i.e. differences in the same agricultural regions or sub region as between successive period and between similar agricultural region in different countries or regions during the same period.
Agarwal (1965) has suggested „Factorial Approach‟ while measuring agricultural productivity in Bastar districts of M.P. In this approach, a number of human controlled factors relating to agricultural production as, crop superiority, crop commercialization, crop security, land use, intensity and power inputs have been selected, excluding the environmental factors.
Khusro (1965) has linked assessment of productivity with the output per unit of a single input and output per unit of cost of all inputs in the agricultural production. Pandit (1965) has expressed the connotation of productivity in these words “Productivity is denied in economics as the output per units of input the art of securing an increase in output from the same input or of getting the same output from smaller input.‟‟
Sharma (1965) while defining the concept of agricultural productivity has suggested various parameters on which it can be measured. According to him, productivity can be measured in relation to labour, land and capital and it can also be
154 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity measured in terms of overall resources employed in agriculture. In case of commodities like food grain, fruits, vegetable, sugarcane and edible seeds, he suggested that the output of these commodities be converted into calories. While considering the other non-food crops such as cotton and other fibers the only common measure being the value involves the pricing of different products. For evaluating value of production, farm harvest or wholesale prices have the definite significance. He also emphasized agricultural work force as the basis of productivity measurement e.g. the total number of labour employed (in order to account the interest of labour) or the total number of man hours worked in agriculture per unit of area.
Saran (1965) has applied Cobb-Douglass „Production Function‟ approach for the measurement of productivity. The common purpose of this function is to express input output relationship between several inputs and one output in the agricultural systems. The function takes the following form:
b c d e Y Y = AX1 X2 X3 X4 …………..Xn
Where X1, X2, X3, X4……….Xn denotes various inputs like land, labour, capital assets and other working expenses. The values of b, e, d …y represents elasticity of the respective units.
Shafi (1965) has assessed the productivity on the basis of labour population engaged in agriculture. According to him, it can be calculated by dividing the gross production in any unit area by the number of man-hours or less precisely by the number employed in agriculture.
Dewett (1966) explains it as productivity expresses the varying relationship between agricultural outputs and are of the major inputs like land, labour and capita, other complementary factors remaining the same, it may be borne in mind that productivity is physical rather than a value concepts.
Noor Mohammad (1967) considered net total productivity (being the relationship between the net products and factor inputs) as a method for the measurement of field productivity and also to assess comparison in time and space. The purpose of this measure is to change in labour and capital inputs in agriculture. Shafi (1967 & 1969) applied Stamp‟s standard nutrition unit technique for measuring the efficiency of agriculture in India. He has considered the district as the areal unit and has selected all the food crops grown in India.
155 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
Sinha (1968) has adopted a standard deviation formula to determine agricultural efficiency in India. He has selected twenty five crops grown in the country, were categorized into cereals, pulses, oilseeds and cash crops and specific yields of that‟s were taken. In case of cash crops, their monetary values were calculated in (Rs.) per hectare by incorporating wholesale market prices. Finally the standard scores were computed and to give them weightage, these values were multiplied by the acreage figures i.e. the area of cultivation under the crops.
The Indian Society of Agricultural Statistics in its 30th Annual Conference held at Bhubaneshwar (Orissa) India, discussed some aspects on agricultural productivity in Indian context. Singh (1972) has applied to measure the agricultural efficiency of Haryana in terms of nutrition units per unit area. He has tried to measure the carrying capacity per square mile in the area unit which can be expressed as:
Co Cp= S n
Where, Cp = Carrying Capacity
Co = Caloric output per square mile
Sn = Standard nutrition for ingestion in calories person per annum
He also gives a measure of the agricultural efficiency of the areal unit relative to the entire region in percentage and expressed as:
C pe Lae = x100 C pr
Where,
Lae = the index number of agricultural efficiency
Cpe = is the carrying capacity in terms of population in the component enumeration unit
Cpr= the carrying capacity in the entire region
Raheja et al. (1977) have measured the impact of high yielding varieties of seeds based on data collected under the scheme „Sample Surveys for Assessment of High Yielding Varieties Programme‟ during 1973-74 and regional variations in productivity on the basis of yield per hectare in India. Nangia et al. (1977) conducted
156 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity a field study in the village Khandewala, of Haryana state. The study take into account the productivity levels at different fields of the village in terms of money value during 1974-75 and a number of factors enumerated in three broad categories, viz., environmental, technological and institutional which are main causes for the productivity variations.
Besides there are various social scientist who have applied different methods for the measurement of agricultural productivity but W.M.Yang (1965) has based his analysis by computing the yield of different crops in a farm and comparing it with the average crop yield of the entire region, later on, a value in percentage is obtained by dividing the yield per hectare of crops in a particular farm by the average yield of the crop in the entire region. The obtained value is multiplied by 100 and gives the index number, by taking the area, devoted to each crop as a weight and multiplying this by percentage index, the products are obtained. By adding the products and dividing the sum of the products by the total cropped area in the district, the average index obtained is the desired crop index for the particular region, using crop area as weight.
All these researches are aimed to find ways and means for increasing agricultural efficiency. The main objective of agriculture planning in India is to achieve self-sufficiency in agricultural production. Therefore, for researchers it is necessary to measure the pattern of agricultural productivity on a micro-level in various regions of the country and to study as to how far the objectives of agricultural planning for the production of different crops have been achieved. In the present study the productivity indices of crops considered for each blocks were computed according to methodology as given by W.M.Yang‟s, for the two periods 2000-01 and 2010-11. All the major crops grown in the region are classified into four major groups:
a) Cereals ( Rice and Wheat) b) Pulses (Masur, Maskalai, Khesari and Gram) c) Oilseeds (Rapeseed & Mustard and Sesamum) d) Cash crops (Potato and Jute)
The data has been collected from published records of the Statistical Handbook of Malda District for the year 2001 and 2011, taking block as a unit of study. The block wise indices of crop productivity were computed according to the methodology given by Yang‟s Crop Yield Index Method (Table 5.1).
157 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
For calculating the crop yield index for a block, the average yield of each crop grown in the region must be known. The percentage value of the crop yield in the block is then calculated by dividing the yield per hectare of the crops in whole Malda region. This value that gives the index number of the crops in the block is multiplied by the area under the crops in the block. The product which comes is added and divided by the sum of total area under different crops in a block. The average index is thus obtained which is the desired crop index of a block, using crop as a weight. On the basis of productivity index, all the blocks of Malda district have been grouped in to three categories (high, medium, low) for cereals, pulses, oilseeds and cash crops as shown in Table 5.2 and 5.3. The productivity of different section of crops viz. cereals, pulses, oilseeds and cash crops for the year 2001 and 2011 has been described below:
Table 5.1: Methodology of Calculating Crop Yield Index as proposed by W.M. Yang’s
Yield in kg per Area of hectare Crop yield in the Percentage Name of Crops in Average Average distt.as % to the multiplied by Crops the Block yield in yield in region area in hectare in hectare the the block district 1 2 3 4 5=Col.3/Col.4x100 6=Col.5 x Col.2 Rice 6021 7665 3140 244.12 1469825.81 Wheat 7631 3909 3027 129.15 985556.13 Masur 428 1024 983 104.18 44589.07 Maskalai 1829 1571 917 171.36 313409.22 Khesari 257 1107 916 120.85 31058.28 Gram 716 1101 1096 100.42 71903.12 R & M 3046 1030 1094 94.15 286780.62 Sesamum 52 600 360 166.67 8666.67 (Til) Potato 189 22309 28835 77.37 14622.29 Jute 1509 2194 2696.00 81.38 122802.15 Total 21678 3349213.36 Computation of Crop Yield Index of Kaliachak-III Block= 3349213.36/21678=154.50
Source: Yang, W.M. (1965): Methods of Farm Management Investigation For Improving Farm Productivity, No. 80, F.A.O., Rome
158 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
5.3. Productivity Regions - Cereals (2001):
Cereals occupy an important place in agriculture of Malda. They occupy 274800 hectares area, which account for 74.19 per cent of the total cropped area of the region. Productivity region of cereals have been depicted in Fig. 5.1, whereas the number of blocks in each category is given in Table 5.2. The high productivity of cereals found in six blocks of the district namely, Harishchandrapur-II, Gazole, Bamongola, Habibpur, Old Malda and Kaliachak-I with crop indices of above 103.91. These six blocks altogether covers an area of 130850 hectares. The high productivity in these blocks are mainly because of the assured irrigation facilities, sufficient amount of fertilizers consumption, availability of high yielding varieties of seeds and agricultural implements and machinery. The concentration of medium productivity found in five blocks, namely Ratua-I, Ratua-II, English Bazar, Manikchak and Kaliachak-III. Altogether they cover an area of 73550 hectares with crop indices of 92.05 to 103.91. The area under low productivity of cereals lies in northern and south-western part of the study region which includes the blocks of Harishchandrapur-I, Chanchal-I, Chanchal-II and Kaliachak-II with an area of 70400 hectares, with the crop indices below 92.05.
5.4. Productivity Regions - Pulses (2001): In our predominantly stuffy vegetarian diet, pulses form a very important part as they provide us rich amount of protein. In this study region, only four pulses crops (masur, maskalai or urd, khesari and gram) has been grown on a large amount. They occupy 34290 hectares (9.26 per cent) of the total cropped area of region. Productivity regions of pulses are shown in Figure 5.2. The high productivity region of pulses found in five blocks having an area of 7960 hectares with crop indices of above 114.88. These blocks are Harishchandrapur- I, Chanchal-I, Ratua-II, English Bazar and Kaliachak-III. The medium productivity regions spread over five blocks of the district, with an area of 20150 hectares. It includes the blocks of Harishchandrapur-II, Ratua-I, Gazole, Manikchak and Kaliachak-I and with crop indices ranging between 104.98 to 114.88. The low productivity region found in remaining five blocks namely, Chanchal-II, Bamongola, Habibpur, Old Malda and Kaliachak-II with the crop indices below 104.98. They cover an area of 6180 hectares together.
159 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
Fig. 5.1
160 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
Fig. 5.2
161 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
5.5. Productivity Regions - Oilseeds (2001):
Oilseeds occupy 34867 hectares (9.41 per cent) of cropped area of the study region. Productivity regions of oilseeds are shown in Figure 5.3.
The high productivity area of oilseeds found in five blocks of the district covering an area of 8200 hectares with crop indices above 112.10. The blocks are Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-I, Ratua-I, Ratua-II and Manikchak.
There are five blocks come under the medium productivity of oilseeds namely, Harishchandrapur-I, Gazole, Old Malda, English Bazar and Kaliachak-II covering an area of 14480 hectares with crop indices ranging between 95.02 to 112.10. Remaining five blocks namely, Chanchal-II, Bamongola, Habibpur, Kaliachak-I and Kaliachak-III showing low productivity of oilseeds. Altogether they cover an area of 12187 hectares with crop indices below 95.02.
5.6. Productivity Regions - Cash Crops (2001):
Cash crops are the most important group of crops grown in Malda. Among cash crops, jute and potatoes have been taken into account covered an area of 26440 hectares (7.14 per cent) of the total cropped area of the region. Productivity regions of cash crops are shown in Figure 5.4. The high productivity of cash crops concentrated in four blocks of the district namely, Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-I and Bamongola. Altogether they cover an area of 10400 hectares with crop indices above 109.10. The medium productivity region extending over six blocks namely, Chanchal-II, Ratua-II, Gazole, English Bazar, Kaliachak-I and Kaliachak-II covering an area of 7880 hectares with crop indices ranging between 93.58 to 109.10. The low productivity of cash crops found in five blocks namely, Ratua-I, Habibpur, Old Malda, Manikchak and Kaliachak-III covering an area of 8160 hectares with crop productivity indices below 93.58. 5.7. Productivity Regions Based on Composite Index (2001):
A composite index has been formulated after calculating agricultural productivity for each group of crops in Malda district. The productivity indices of each blocks are given in the Table 4.2 and their spatial patterns are shown in the Figure 5.5.
162 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
Fig. 5.3
Fig. 5.3
163 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
Fig. 5.4
164 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
Table 5.2: Number of Blocks under Different Productivity Regions with their Indices (2001)
Cereals Pulses Oilseeds Cash Crops Composite Index
No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of Category Indices Category Indices Category Indices Category Indices Category Indices Blocks Blocks Blocks Blocks Blocks
Above Above Above Above Above High 6 High 4 High 5 High 4 High 5 114.12 112.1 109.1 103.91 107.31
92.05 95.02 104.62 - 93.58 - 99.08 - Medium - 5 Medium 7 Medium - 5 Medium 6 Medium 5 114.12 109.1 107.31 103.91 112.1
Below Below Below Below Low Low 4 Low 4 Low 5 Low 5 Low 5 92.05 104.62 95.02 93.58 99.08
Source: Based on Yang‟s Crop Yield Index Method
165 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
Fig. 5.5
166 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
It is quite clear from this figure that there are five blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-II, Ratua-II, Old Malda, Bamongola and Habibpur have come under the high productivity region. The productivity indices is above 103.55 and it covers an area of 119220 hectares or 32.19 per cent of the total cropped area of the district. The medium productivity scattered over five blocks with productivity indices ranging between 93.58 to 103.55. These blocks are Chanchal-I, Chanchal-II Ratua-I, English Bazar and Kaliachak-III. Altogether they cover an area of 131777 hectares or 35.58 per cent of the total cropped area. The low productivity regions occupied by the remaining five blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-I, Gazole, Habibpur, Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-II and Manikchak extended over north-eastern and southern part of the region. They together occupy an area of 119400 hectares or 32.23 per cent of the total cropped area of the entire region. 5.8. Productivity Regions - Cereals (2011): Cereals occupy an important place in Malda district. They occupy 215442 hectares area, which account for 75.50 per cent of the total cropped area of the region. Productivity region of cereals have been depicted in Figure 4.5, whereas the number of blocks in each category is given in Table 5.3. The high productivity of cereals found in seven blocks of the district namely, Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-I, Chanchal-II, Ratua-II, Bamongola, Habibpur and Old Malda with an area of 134300 hectares. The high productivity in this region is due to the assured irrigation facilities, sufficient amount of fertilizers consumption, high yielding varieties of seeds and availability of agricultural implements and machinery. There are four blocks fall under medium productivity of cereals with an indices ranging between 203.13 to 255.99. They spread over central, south-eastern and southern part of the district. These blocks are Harishchandrapur-I, Ratua-I, Gazole and Kaliachak-II. Altogether they cover an area of 45780 hectares. Remaining four blocks fall under the low productivity of cereals which lies in south-eastern, southern and western part of the district. These blocks are English Bazar, Manikchak, Kaliachak-I and Kaliachak-III cover an area of 35362 hectares.
167 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
Fig. 5.6
168 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
Fig. 5.7
169 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
5.9. Productivity Regions - Pulses (2011): The high productivity of pulses has been observed only in two blocks out of fifteen block of the district with an indices above 110.90. These two blocks are Kaliachak-I and Kaliachak-III that lies in the southern part of the district (Fig. 5.6). They occupied 16171 hectares (5.67 per cent) of the total cropped area of region. The medium productivity of pulses found in ten blocks that cover an area of 11605 hectares. These blocks are Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal- I, Chanchal-II, Ratua-I, Bamongola, Old Malda, English Bazar, Manikchak and Kaliachak-II with crop indices ranging between 93.29 to 110.90. Remaining three blocks namely, Ratua-II, Gazole and Habibpur fall under low productivity regions with the crop indices below 93.29. These two blocks covers only an area of 1217 hectares.
5.10. Productivity Regions - Oilseeds (2011):
Oilseeds occupy 30691 hectares (10.76 per cent) of cropped area of the study region. The high productivity of oilseeds with crop indices above 126.17, found in four blocks i.e. Ratua-I, Ratua-II, Manikchak and Kaliachak-III. Altogether they occupy an area of 10241 hectares. The medium productivity of oilseeds found in six blocks. These six blocks are Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchandrapur-II, Bamongola, Old Malda, Kaliachak-I and Kaliachak-II, covering an area of 9994 hectares with crop indices ranging between 96.35 to 126.17 (Fig. 5.7). The remaining five blocks namely, Chanchal-I, Chanchal-II, Gazole, Habibpur and English Bazar showing low productivity of oilseeds. Altogether they cover an area of 10456 hectares with crop indices below 96.35. 5.11. Productivity Regions - Cash Crops (2011): Cash crops covered an area of 23055 hectares (8.08 per cent) of the total cropped area of the region. (Fig. 5.8). The high productivity of cash crops found in three blocks that occupie an area of 1537 hectares with crop indices above 110.86. These blocks are Habibpur, Old Malda and English Bazar. The medium productivity of cash crop has been observed in six blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal- I, Chanchal-II, Ratua-I, Ratua-II and Bamongola covering an area of 11533 hectares with crop indices ranging between 90.78 to 110.86.
170 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
Fig 5.8
171 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
Fig. 5.9
172 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
Fig. 5.10
173 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
The low productivity of cash crop found in remaining six blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-I, Gazole, Manikchak, Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-II and Kaliachak-III with the crop indices below 90.78. Altogether they covers an area of 9985 hectares.
5.12. Productivity Regions Based on Composite Index (2011):
A composite index has been formulated after calculating agricultural productivity for each group of crops in Malda district. The productivity indices of each blocks are given in the Table 5.3 and their spatial patterns are shown in the Fig. 5.9. It is clear from this figure that there are five blocks namely, Chanchal-I, Ratua-II, Bamongola, Habibpur and Old Malda have come under the high productivity region. The productivity indices is above 141.73 and it covers an area of 105851 hectares or 37.10 per cent of the district. The medium productivity found in five blocks with productivity indices ranging between 130.15 to 141.73. these blocks are Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-II, Ratua-I, English Bazar and Kaliachak-III. Altogether they cover an area of 112788 hectares or 39.52 per cent of the total cropped area. The low productivity regions occupied by the remaining five blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-I, Gazole, Manikchak, Kaliachak-I and Kaliachak-II extended over northern, eastern, western and southern part of the region. They together occupy an area of 66720 hectares or 23.38 per cent of the total cropped area of the entire region.
5.13. Pattern of Areal Change of Agricultural Productivity (2000-01 to 2010-11):
The pattern of areal change in Agricultural productivity of Malda between 2000- 01 to 2010-11 are depicted in Table 4.4. The table illustrates the change in area and their percentage change of various crops. It is evident from the table that during the last decade, high productivity area under cereals has recorded a significant increase i.e. 3450 hectares, while medium and low productivity area suffered with a great loss by 27770 hectares and 35038 hectares respectively. The increase in terms of percentage was 2.57 per cent for high productivity, and decrease in terms of percentage was 60.66 per cent for medium productivity and 99.08 per cent for low productivity. Thus the area under high, medium and low productivity of cereals on the whole shows a mixture of positive as well as negative sign.
174 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
Table 5.3: Number of Blocks under Different Productivity Regions with their Indices (2011)
Cereals Pulses Oilseeds Cash Crops Composite Index
No. No. No. No. No . Category Indices Category Indices Category Indices Category Indices Category Indices of Blocks of Blocks of Blocks of Blocks of Blocks
Above High Above 251.83 7 High Above 111.44 2 High Above 111.37 5 High Above 110.83 3 High 5 141.73
Medium 197.93 - 251.83 4 Medium 94.08 - 111.44 11 Medium 89.93 - 111.37 6 Medium 90.79 - 110.83 6 Medium 130.15 - 141.73 5
Low Below 197.93 4 Low Below 94.08 2 Low Below 89.93 4 Low Below 90.79 6 Low Below 130.15 5
Source: Based on Yang’s Crop Yield Index Method
175 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
The high productivity area of pulses has decreased with a loss of 4611 hectares, contributing 137.68 per cent. The medium productivity and low productivity are suffered with a great loss of 8545 hectares or 73.63 per cent and 4963 hectares or 407.81 per cent respectively. Thus the area under high, medium and low productivity of pulses on the whole shows a negative sign.
Oilseeds of the region has increased its area under high productivity and decreased its area under medium and low productivity. The high productivity area of oilseeds has increased by 2041 hectares which accounts for 19.93 per cent of the total area under oilseeds. The medium productivity has decreased by 4486 hectares contributing 44.89 per cent of the total oilseeds area, and low productivity has declined to 1731 hectares, covering 16.56 per cent of the total area under oilseeds.
Cash crops are the last group of crops grown in Malda. The high productivity has declined to 8863 hectares, which accounts for 576.64 per cent. The medium productivity has increased to 3653 hectares, constituting to 31.67 per cent of the total area, and low productivity area has recorded an increase of 1825 hectares or 18.28 per cent of total area under cash crops.
The productivity regions based on composite index reveals that high productivity area in Malda has decreased by 36719 hectares, commanding 47.26 per cent of the total area. Medium productivity region has increased by 20182 hectares or 12.05 per cent of the total area under cash crops, whereas low productivity area has also increased by 68494 hectares or 170.36 per cent of the total area of the region.
On the whole in Malda, the productivity area under cereals has declined by 59358 hectares (27.55 per cent), while the productivity area under pulses increased by 18119 hectares (112.05 per cent). The productivity area under oilseeds and cash crops has shown significant increase by 4176 hectares (13.61 per cent) and 3385 hectares (14.68 per cent) respectively. The overall productivity decreased by 85038 hectares (29.80 per cent). It is clear from the analysis that farmers of Malda are highly inclined towards the cultivation of oilseeds and cash crops rather than cereals and pulses, because these crops give maximum returns to the farmers.
176 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
Table 5.4
Areal Change in Agricultural Productivity in Malda from 2000-01 to 2010-11
Cereals Pulses Oilseeds Cash Crops Overall
Category Change in % of Change in Change in % of Change in % of Change in % of Change % of Change Area (Hect.) Change Area (Hect.) Area (Hect.) Change Area (Hect.) Change Area (Hect.)
High 3450 2.57 -4611 -137.68 2041 19.93 -8863 -576.64 -36719 -47.26
Medium -27770 -60.66 -8545 -73.63 -4486 -44.89 3653 31.67 20182 12.05
Low -35038 -99.08 -4963 -407.81 -1731 -16.56 1825 18.28 -68494 -170.36
Malda -59358 -27.55 18119 112.05 4176 13.61 3385 14.68 -85038 -29.80
Source: District Statistical Handbook of Malda, 2001 & 2011
177 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
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Agarwal, P.C. (1965): Measurement of Agricultural Efficiency in Bastar district, A factorial approach, ibid
Buck, J.L. (1937): Land Utilization in China, 1. Nanking
Commen, M.A. (1962): Agricultural Productivity trends in Kerela, Agricultural Situation in India, 17 (4), pp. 38-36
Chatterji, A. and Maitreya, P. (1964): Some Aspects of regional variations in Agricultural Productivity and Development in west Bengal, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 19 (1), pp. 207-12
Clark, C. and Haswell, M. (1967): The economics of substance agriculture, London, pp. 51-52
Dewett, K. K. and Singh, G. (1926): Indian Economics, Delhi, p. 66.
Dhondayal, S. P. (1964): Regional Variations in Agricultural development and Productivity in the eastern and western region of Uttar Pradesh, pp. 193- 97
Enyedi, G. Y. (1964): Geographical Aspect (types) of Agriculture: Applied Geography in Hungary, Budapesh, p. 61
Ganguli, B. N. (1938): Trends of Agriculture and population in the Ganges valley, London, p. 93
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Gopal Krishna, M. D. and Ramakrishna, P. T. (1964): Regional variation in Agricultural productivity in Andhra Pradesh, pp. 227-36
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Kendall, M. G. (1939) : The Geographical distribution of crop productivity in England, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Vol. 52, pp. 21-48
178 Chapter-V: Measurement of Agricultural Productivity
Khusro, A. M. (1965): Measurement of productivity at Macro and Micro levels, Journal of the Indian Society of Agricultural Statistics, 27 (2), p. 278
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Raheja, S., et al. (1977): Factors contributing to Regional variations in productivity and adoption of High-yielding varieties of major cereals in India, pp. 112- 13
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180
Chapter-VI Level of Agricultural Development Chapter-VI: Level of Agricultural Development
CHAPTER-VI
LEVEL OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
6.1. Agricultural Development:
The stage of agricultural development in Malda district has been assessed in two ways. Firstly, an attempt is made to determine the precise role of various indicators of agricultural development through factor analysis and thereby indicating the actual development of agriculture during the period from 2000-01 to 2010-11. Secondly, the actual level of agricultural development is highlighted as obtained through the application of a composite Z score of agricultural development.
Table 6.1: Variables of Agricultural Development in Malda District
Sl. No. Variables
Agricultural Variables 1 X1 Agricultural Productivity based on Yang's Yield Index 2 X2 Percentage of Net Sown Area to Gross Cropped Area 3 X3 Percentage of area under foodgrain to GCA 4 X4 Percentage of Agriculture Labourer to Total Worker 5 X5 Percentage of Cultivator to Total Worker 6 X6 Cropping Intensity Technological Variables 7 X7 Number of Tractor per 10000 hectares of GCA 8 X8 Number of Pumpset per 10000 hectares of GCA 9 X9 Number of Power Tiller per 10000 hectares of GCA 10 X10 Number of Sprayer per 10000 hectares of GCA 11 X11 Number of Thresher per 10000 hectares of GCA 12 X12 Percentage of Literate people to total population 13 X13 No. Of R.L.I. per 10000 hectares of GCA 14 X14 No. Of D.T.W. per 10000 hectares of GCA 15 X15 No. Of S.T.W. per 10000 hectares of GCA Institutional Variables 16 X16 Number of Primary school per 100000 population 17 X17 Number of gramin banks per 100000 population 18 X18 Number of cooperative societies per 10000 population 19 X19 Number of Seed Stores per 10000 population 20 X20 Number of Fertilizer Depot per 10000 population 21 X21 Number of Mouzas having Electricity 22 X22 Total Road Length in km
181 Chapter VI Level of Agricultural Development
6.2. Factor Analysis:
Factor analysis is considered to be a sound technique in determining the role of various factors of agricultural development of the study region and by this technique, variables can adequately be described by smaller set of factors. In factor analysis the calculated values are known as factor loading and they represents the correlation between the original variable and the newer factor.
In the present analysis, 22 variables which are given in Table 6.1 and considered to be suitable indices of agricultural development are collapsed into each other and are rotated further to assess the agricultural development of Malda. The calculation has been done through factor analysis package programme (SPSS) on computer. This analysis is carried out for two separate years i.e. 2000-2001 and 2010- 2011. The values of 22 variables have been computed for 15 blocks respectively and collapsed into 22×15 for 2000-2001 and 2010-2011 respectively.
6.2.1. Factor Analysis (2000-2001):
The factor analysis of the variables for the year 2000-2001 indicates that 58.08 per cent of the total variance is explained by three factors (Table 6.2). Factor 1 explains 28.44 per cent of the total variance. The positive signs of the variables are associated with the higher development of agriculture. The variables which have the positive loading more than 0.500 are agricultural productivity (0.816), net sown area (0.811), fertilizer depot (0.645) and co-operative societies (0.513). The variables which have negative loading more than -0.500 is only cropping intensity (-0.819).
Factor 2 accounts for 17.30 per cent of the total variance explained. The variables which have the positive loadings of more than 0.500 are pumpset (0.962), shallow tube well (0.936) and area under foodgrain (0.586). The variables which have negative loading more than -0.500 is co-operative societies (-0.526).
Factor 3 accounts for 12.33 per cent of the total variance explained. It is strongly loaded on large number of the variables but the variables which are having the loadings more than 0.550 are cultivators (0.842), agricultural labourer (0.547) and electrified mouza (0.634). The variables which have negative loading more than - 0.500 are sprayer (-0.709) and tractor (-0.692).
182 Chapter-VI: Level of Agricultural Development
Table 6.2
Factor Structure of Agricultural Development in Malda District through Rotated Factor Matrix, 2000-2001
Factor Loading F1 F2 F3 Institutional Variables Irrigatio Development Cultivator & n & Crop Infrastructure Facilities Productivity Agricultural Productivity (X1) 0.816 0.313 0.066 Net Sown Area (X2) 0.811 -0.348 0.158 Area under Food grain (X3) 0.016 0.586 0.263 Agricultural Labourer (X4) -0.373 0.079 0.547 Cultivators(X5) 0.049 -0.260 0.842 Cropping Intensity (X6) -0.819 0.353 -0.130 Tractor (X7) -0.112 0.002 -0.692 Pumpset (X8) -0.150 0.962 -0.043 Power tiller (X9) -0.058 0.217 -0.085 Sprayer (X10) -0.126 -0.292 -0.709 Thresher (X11) -0.379 0.118 0.053 Literate person (X12) 0.244 -0.232 -0.026 River Lift Irrigation (X13) 0.212 -0.094 0.080 Deep Tube Well(X14) -0.029 -0.283 -0.228 Shallow Tube Well (X15) -0.137 0.936 -0.155 Primary school (X16) 0.357 -0.365 0.487 Gramin banks (X17) 0.098 0.300 0.322 Co-operative societies (X18) 0.513 -0.526 -0.248 Seed store (X19) -0.460 0.480 0.029 Fertilizer Depot (X20) 0.645 -0.067 0.566 Electrified mouza (X21) 0.612 -0.118 0.634 Road Length (X22) 0.129 -0.459 0.475 Variance Explained in Percent 28.44 17.30 12.33 Cumulative Variance Explained in 28.44 45.75 58.08 Percent
Source: Calculated by Researcher
6.2.2 Spatial Variation in Factor Scores of Agricultural Development (2000-01):
The inter block variation in factor scores of agricultural development in Malda for the year 2000-01 is shown in the Table 6.2. The factor scores of the three factor loadings are calculated. It is seen from the table that there is inter block variation in factor scores of agricultural development.
183 Chapter VI Level of Agricultural Development
Table 6.3
Standardized Factor Scores of Agricultural Development, 2000-2001
F1 F2 F3 Institutional Blocks Irrigation Cultivator & Development & Crop Facilities Infrastructure Productivity Harishchandrapur-I -1.326 0.685 0.653 Harishchandrapur-II 0.564 2.627 -0.890 Chanchal-I -1.358 0.482 0.571 Chanchal-II -1.751 -0.625 0.485 Ratua-I -0.071 0.541 0.045 Ratua-II -0.232 -0.130 -0.011 Gazole 1.490 0.194 1.480 Bamongola 0.841 -0.085 0.446 Habibpur 1.212 -0.589 1.361 Old Malda 0.469 -1.185 0.079 English Bazar 1.279 -0.862 -1.234 Manikchak -0.536 -0.758 -0.138 Kaliachak-I 0.193 0.379 -2.117 Kaliachak-II -0.583 -1.389 -1.281 Kaliachak-III -0.194 0.716 0.552
Source: Calculated by Researcher
Factor scores of Agricultural Development Based on Factor 1:
In order to illustrate the spatial variation in the region, factor scores have been calculated (Table 6.3). These scores have been divided into three grades of high (> +0.5), medium (+0.5 to -0.5) and low (< -0.5). The high factor scores are concentrated in northern, eastern and central part of the region. They include the blocks of Harishchandrapur-II, Gazole, Bamongola, Habibpur and English Bazar. Only six blocks namely, Ratua-I, Ratua-II, Old Malda, Kaliachak-I and Kaliachak-III have medium grade factor scores. The areas of low factor scores are spread over northern, eastern and southern part of the region. These blocks are Harishchandrapur-I, Chanchal-I, Chanchal-II, Manikchak and Kaliachak-II.
184 Chapter-VI: Level of Agricultural Development
Factor scores of Agricultural Development Based on Factor 2:
The spatial variations based on factor scores of Factor 2 are shown in Table 6.3. The factor scores have been divided into three grades of high (> +0.5), medium (+0.5 to -0.5) and low (< -0.5). High factor scores extended over northern and eastern part of the region, these includes the blocks of Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchandrapur- II, Ratua-I, and Kaliachak-III. Medium factor scores covering three blocks namely, Chanchal-I, Ratua-II, Gazole, Manikchak and Kaliachak-I. Low factor scores extended over central, western and southern part of the region. It includes the blocks of Chanchal-II, Bamongola, Habibpur, Old Malda, English Bazar and Kaliachak-II.
Factor scores of Agricultural Development Based on Factor 3:
The spatial variations based on factor scores of Factor 3 are shown in Table 6.3. The factor scores have been divided into three grades of high (> +0.5), medium (+0.5 to -0.5) and low (< -0.5). High factor scores covering four blocks includes the blocks of Harishchandrapur-I, Chanchal-I, Gazole, Habibpur and Kaliachak-III. Medium factor scores extended over wide areas of the region and it includes the blocks namely, Chanchal-II, Ratua-I, Ratua-II, Bamongola ,Old Malda and Manikchak and. Low factor scores extended over northern, central and southern part of the region. It includes the blocks of Harischandrapur-II, English Bazar, Kaliachak-I and Kaliachak-II.
6.2.3. Factor Analysis (2010-2011):
The value of 22 variables have been computed for fifteen blocks for the year 2010-2011, resulting in 22×15 data matrix for the study region. This data matrix collapsed into each other leads to three factor of agricultural development. It shows that in all 63.12 per cent of the total variance is explained by three factors (Table 6.4).
Factor 1 explains 28.45 per cent of the total variance. The variables which have the positive loading more than 0.500 are net sown area (0.962), electrified mouza (0.719), fertilizer depot (0.538) and primary school (0.521). The variables which have the negative loading more than -0.500 are cropping intensity (-0.950), agricultural labourer (-0.652).
Factor 2 explains for 21.18 per cent of the total variance is composed of three variables of high positive loading of more than 0.500. These variables are tractors (0.917), sprayer (0.835) and deep tube well (0.527). Only three variables i.e. area
185 Chapter VI Level of Agricultural Development under food grain (-0.720), cultivators (-0.599) and electrified mouza (-0.526) has negative loading i.e. more than -0.500.
Factor 3 accounts for 13.47 per cent of the total variance explained. Only three variables i.e. shallow tube well (0.967), pumpset (0.963) and agricultural productivity (0.882) has positive loading more than 0.500. Only one variable which have the negative loading more than -0.500 is road length (-0.702).
Table 6.4 Factor Structure of Agricultural Development in Malda District, through Rotated Factor Matrix, 2010-2011
Factor Loading F1 F2 F3 Variables Institutional Irrigation Agricultural Development & Crop Facilities Mechanization Productivity Agricultural Productivity (X1) 0.626 -0.051 -0.282 Net Sown Area (X2) 0.962 0.124 -0.098 Area under Food grain (X3) -0.227 -0.720 0.334 Agricultural Labourer (X4) -0.652 -0.459 -0.047 Cultivators (X5) 0.003 -0.599 -0.016 Cropping Intensity (X6) -0.95 -0.219 0.070 Tractor (X7) 0.076 0.281 0.917 Pumpset (X8) -0.122 0.406 0.963 Power tiller (X9) -0.076 0.144 0.088 Sprayer (X10) 0.131 0.231 0.835 Thresher (X11) -0.314 0.051 -0.039 Literate person (X12) 0.426 0.427 -0.130 River Lift Irrigation (X13) -0.009 0.200 -0.236 Deep Tube Well(X14) -0.125 0.527 -0.453 Shallow Tube Well (X15) -0.113 0.131 0.967 Primary school (X16) 0.521 -0.010 -0.300 Gramin banks (X17) 0.045 -0.317 -0.222 Co-operative societies (X18) 0.209 0.034 0.110 Seed store (X19) -0.183 -0.295 0.108 Fertilizer Depot (X20) 0.538 -0.132 -0.289 Electrified mouza (X21) 0.719 -0.526 -0.248 Road Length (X22) 0.168 -0.046 -0.702 Variance Explained in Percent 28.45 21.18 13.47
Cumulative Variance 28.45 49.64 63.12 Explained in Percent
Source: Calculated by Researcher
186 Chapter-VI: Level of Agricultural Development
6.2.4. Spatial Variation in Factor Scores of Agricultural Development (2010-11):
The inter block variation in factor scores of agricultural development for the year 2010-11 is shown in the Table 6.5.
Table 6.5: Standardized Factor Scores of Agricultural Development, 2010-2011
F1 F2 F3 Institutional Blocks Irrigation Agricultural Development & Crop Facilities Mechanization Productivity Harishchandrapur-I -1.082 -0.705 0.235 Harishchandrapur-II -0.648 -0.711 2.433 Chanchal-I -1.374 -0.598 -0.529 Chanchal-II -1.008 -0.521 -0.111 Ratua-I -0.524 -0.212 -0.304 Ratua-II -1.278 0.589 -0.916 Gazole 1.643 -1.485 -0.015 Bamongola 0.754 0.558 0.125 Habibpur 1.627 -0.846 -0.676 Old Malda 0.293 0.567 -1.274 English Bazar 0.631 -0.028 -1.154 Manikchak 0.794 -0.109 1.129 Kaliachak-I 0.500 1.385 1.401 Kaliachak-II 0.199 2.516 0.023 Kaliachak-III -0.528 -0.400 -0.366
Source: Calculated by Researcher
Factor scores of Agricultural Development Based on Factor 1:
In order to explain the spatial variation in the region, factor scores have been calculated (Table 6.5). These scores have been divided into three grades of high (> +0.5), medium (+0.5 to -0.5) and low (< -0.5). The high factor scores are concentrated in eastern central and western part of the region. They include the blocks of Gazole, Bamongola, Habibpur, English Bazar and Manikchak. The medium factor scores extended over wide area of central and southern part of the region, it includes the blocks namely, Old Malda, Kaliachak-I and Kaliachak-II. The areas of low factor scores are spread over northern and southern part of the region. These blocks are Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-I, Chanchal-II, Ratua-I, Ratua-II and Kaliachak-III.
187 Chapter VI Level of Agricultural Development
Factor scores of Agricultural Development Based on Factor 2:
The spatial variations based on factor scores of Factor 2 are shown in Table 6.5. The factor scores have been divided into three grades of high (> +0.5), medium (+0.5 to -0.5) and low (< -0.5). The high factor scores in the blocks of Ratua-II, Bamongola, Old Malda Kaliachak-I and Kaliachak-II. Medium factor scores covering five blocks namely, Ratua-I, English Bazar, Manikchak, and Kaliachak-III. Low factor scores extended over western, central and northern part of the region. It includes the blocks of Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-I, Chanchal-II, Gazole and Habibpur.
Factor scores of Agricultural Development Based on Factor 3:
The spatial variations based on factor scores of Factor 3 are shown in Table 6.5. The factor scores have been divided into three grades of high (> +0.5), medium (+0.5 to -0.5) and low (< -0.5). The high factor scores are converge in three blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-II, Manikchak and Kaliachak-I. Medium factor scores spreading over wide areas of and northern, eastern and southern part of the region and it include the blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-I, Chanchal-II, Ratua-I, Gazole, Bamongola, Kaliachak-II and Kaliachak-III. The low factor score commanding in five remaining blocks namely, Chanchal-I, Ratua-II, Habibpur, Old Malda and English Bazar.
6.3. Inter-relationship among independent variables (2000-01):
The inter-relationship among independent variables is shown in Table 6.6. It has observed that agricultural productivity is positively and significantly correlated with fertilizer depots (0.646), seed store (0.606) and pumpset (0.601). It is negatively correlated with cropping intensity.
The variable (percentage of net sown area to gross cropped area) records significant positive with co-operative societies (0.679) and electrified mouza (0.652). It is negatively and highly correlated with cropping intensity (-0.989).
The percentage of area under foodgrain to gross cropped area has significant positive correlation with pumpset (0.657), It is negatively and strongly correlated with primary school (-0.625) and number of sprayer (-0.409).
188 Chapter-VI: Level of Agricultural Development
The percentage of agricultural labourer shows significant positive correlation with gramin banks (0.600) and cultivator (0.563). The highest negative correlation shown with power tiller (-0.627). The variable (percentage of cultivator area to total worker) records significant degree of positive correlation with primary school (0.646), fertilizer depot (0.596), electrified mouza (0.576) and road length (0.552), while it is highly and negatively correlated with sprayer (-0.545).
Cropping intensity is positively correlated with shallow tube wells (0.625), while it is negatively correlated with net sown area (-0.989) and co-operative societies (-0.626).
The variable (tractor) is positively correlated with power tiller (0.572) and sprayer (0.519), while the negative correlation is associated with electrified mouza (- 0.571). The pumpset has positive correlation with shallow tube wells (0.984), area under foodgrain (0.657) and agricultural productivity (0.601), while the highest negative correlation shown with co-operative societies (-0.632) and road length (- 0.596).
The power tiller records significant positive correlation with tractor (0.572). It has negative correlation with primary school (-0.562) and gramin bank (-0.552). When sprayer is correlated with other independent variables, then it is positive with tractor (0.519) and negatively correlated with cultivator (- 0.545).
The variable (thresher) records significant positive correlation with seed store (0.543) and literacy (0.527). When the literacy is correlated with other independent variables, then it is strongly and positively correlated with thresher (0.527) and fertilizer depot (0.547). The number of shallow tube well shows significant positive correlation with pumpset (0.984), cropping intensity (0.625). It is negatively correlated with road length (-0.636) followed by co-operative societies (-0.587).
Primary school has positive correlation with cultivator (0.646) and fertilizer depot (0.508), while the negative correlation is depicted with power tiller (-0.562) and area under foodgrain (-0.625).
189 Chapter VI Level of Agricultural Development
Table 6.6: Correlation Matrix of Twenty Two Variables of Agricultural Development (2000-2001)
X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9 X10 X11 X12 X13 X14 X15 X16 X17 X18 X19 X20 X21 X22
X1 1
X2 0.429 1
X3 0.167 -0.042 1
X4 -0.203 -0.236 0.196 1
X5 -0.024 0.278 -0.027 .563* 1
X6 -0.442 -.989** 0.102 0.308 -0.263 1
X7 -0.139 -0.297 -0.25 -0.348 -0.441 0.295 1
X8 0.604* -0.462 0.657** 0.075 -0.257 0.453 0.069 1
X9 -0.009 -0.195 0.125 -.627* -0.342 0.154 0.572* 0.244 1
X10 -0.143 -0.187 -0.409 -0.446 -.545* 0.149 .519* -0.224 0.087 1
X11 -0.118 -0.352 -0.037 0.234 0.055 0.388 0.181 0.081 0.021 0.001 1
X12 0.223 0.123 -0.338 0.057 0.227 -0.08 0.365 -0.287 -0.177 0.119 .527* 1
X13 0.322 0.179 0.083 0.167 0.327 -0.205 -0.036 -0.209 -0.442 -0.221 -0.024 0.125 1
X14 0.020 0.042 0.216 -0.253 -0.145 -0.04 0.148 -0.372 0.113 0.189 -0.097 -0.073 0.483 1
X15 0.102 -0.434 0.395 -0.013 -0.341 0.425 0.130 .984** 0.256 -0.136 0.077 -0.288 -0.245 -0.323 1
X16 -0.223 0.485 -0.625** 0.500 .646** -0.479 -0.384 -0.396 -.562* -0.379 -0.151 0.205 0.23 -0.388 -0.462 1
X17 0.319 0.039 0.471 .600* 0.227 0.018 -0.408 0.143 -.552* -0.297 0.000 0.005 0.449 0.015 0.063 0.244 1
X18 0.158 .679** -0.071 -0.124 -0.033 -.626* 0.109 -.632* -0.319 0.008 -0.259 0.265 0.264 0.397 -.587* 0.308 0.028 1
X19 -0.606** -0.380 0.360 0.400 0.039 0.425 0.201 0.464 -0.016 -0.184 .543* -0.015 0.175 0.109 0.472 -0.275 0.321 -0.275 1
X20 .646** 0.482 0.054 0.017 .596* -0.491 -0.188 -0.186 0.077 -0.384 -0.185 0.547* 0.333 -0.014 -0.264 0.508* 0.175 0.138 -0.276 1
X21 0.475 .652** 0.117 0.207 .576* -.599* -.571* -0.23 -0.281 -0.407 -0.137 0.298 -0.018 -0.267 -0.268 0.502* 0.286 0.237 -0.379 -.651** 1
X22 0.179 0.303 0.026 0.308 .552* -0.251 -0.226 -.596* -0.292 -0.058 0.12 0.343 0.430 0.334 -.636* 0.337 0.464 0.25 0.033 0.497 0.467 1
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
**.Correlation is significant at 0.01 level (2-tailed)
190 Chapter-VI: Level of Agricultural Development
Gramin banks are highly and positively correlated with agricultural labourer (0.600) and negatively correlated with power tiller (-0.552). The co-operative societies highly positively correlated with agricultural productivity (0.606) and thresher (0.543).
The fertilizer depot is highly and positively correlated with agricultural productivity (0.646), cultivator (0.596), literacy (0.547) and primary school (0.508). The highest negative correlation is associated with electrified mouza (-0.651).
The electrified mouza is positively correlated with net sown area (0.652), cultivator (0.576) and it is negatively correlated with fertilizer depot (-0.651) and tractor (-0.571). The road length are positively correlated with cultivator (0.552). The negative correlation is shown with shallow tube well (-0.636) and pumpset (-0.596).
6.4. Inter-relationship among independent variables (2010-11):
The inter-relationship among independent variables is shown in Table 6.7. It has observed that agricultural productivity is positively and significantly correlated with fertilizer depots (0.640), cultivator (0.525) and river lift irrigation (.0525).
The variable (percentage of net sown area to gross cropped area) records significant positive with electrified mouza (0.638), fertilizer depot (0.520), and primary school (0.573). It is negatively and highly correlated with cropping intensity (-0.981) and agricultural labourer (-0.644).
The percentage of area under foodgrain to gross cropped area has significant positive correlation with cultivator (0.677) and agricultural labourer (0.649). It is negatively and strongly correlated with tractor (-0.549) and number of sprayer (- 0.565).
The percentage of agricultural labourer shows significant positive correlation with cropping intensity (0.734), area under foodgrain (0.649) and cultivator (0.543). The highest negative correlation shown with net sown area (-0.644). The variable (percentage of cultivator area to total worker) records significant degree of positive correlation with area under foodgrain (0.677), fertilizer depot (0.666), seed store (0.602) co-operative societies (0.517) and agricultural labourer (0.543), while it is highly and negatively correlated with sprayer (-0.604) and tractor (-0.602).
191 Chapter VI Level of Agricultural Development
Table 6.7: Correlation Matrix of Twenty Two Variables of Agricultural Development (2010-2011)
X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9 X10 X11 X12 X13 X14 X15 X16 X17 X18 X19 X20 X21 X22
X1 1
X2 -0.121 1
X3 0.281 -0.333 1
X4 0.43 -.644** .649** 1
X5 .525* -0.082 .677** .543* 1
X6 0.195 -.981** 0.435 .734** 0.147 1
X7 -0.125 0.151 -.549* -0.464 -.602* -0.214 1
X8 -0.317 -0.207 0.231 -0.105 -0.117 0.162 0.349 1
X9 -0.392 -0.1 -0.265 -0.474 -0.444 0.04 0.569** 0.27 1
X10 -0.336 0.152 -.565* -0.501 -.604* -0.224 .907** 0.299 0.166 1
X11 -0.003 -0.297 0.011 0.198 -0.07 0.363 0.113 0.042 -0.002 0.1 1
X12 0.013 0.412 -0.401 -0.425 -0.043 -0.427 0.451 -0.142 -0.167 0.614* 0.452 1
X13 .525* 0.127 0.164 0.219 0.239 -0.107 0.026 -0.282 -0.51 -0.128 -0.176 0.003 1
X14 -0.146 -0.049 -0.431 -0.185 -0.404 -0.02 0.29 -0.352 0.009 0.417 -0.144 -0.008 0.424 1
X15 -0.314 -0.194 0.218 -0.105 -0.124 0.649* 0.375 .999** 0.233 0.326 0.048 -0.118 -0.262 -0.336 1
X16 0.448 .573* -0.037 0.085 0.395 -0.5 -0.054 -0.439 -.543* -0.112 -0.13 0.316 0.378 -0.152 -0.424 1
X17 0.45 0.071 0.471 0.509 0.435 0.024 -0.337 -0.382 -.727** -0.345 -0.325 -0.271 .632* 0.198 -0.363 0.438 1
X18 0.27 0.235 0.189 0.192 .517* -0.177 0.106 0.061 -0.158 -0.005 0.146 0.342 0.13 -0.396 0.067 0.512 -0.013 1
X19 0.294 -0.171 0.279 0.489 .602* 0.193 -0.323 0.056 -0.415 -0.301 -0.107 -0.177 -0.013 -0.377 0.064 0.164 0.158 0.478 1
X20 0.640* .520* 0.062 -0.051 .666** -0.497 -0.21 -0.38 -0.264 -0.263 -0.238 0.691* 0.281 -0.206 -0.38 .735** 0.218 .677** 0.304 1
X21 0.104 .638* 0.254 -0.103 0.511 -.538* -0.457 -0.395 -0.303 -0.325 -0.183 0.2 0.001 -0.256 -0.395 .570* 0.398 0.283 0.152 .651** 1
X22 0.257 0.248 0.004 0.131 0.155 -0.144 -0.159 -.709** -0.302 -0.061 0.094 0.152 0.388 0.402 -.697** 0.395 0.479 0.19 0.059 0.311 0.505 1
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
**.Correlation is significant at 0.01 level (2-tailed)
192 Chapter-VI: Level of Agricultural Development
The variable (cropping intensity) is positively correlated with agricultural labourer (0.734), shallow tube wells (0.649), while it is negatively correlated with net sown area (-0.981) and electrified mouza (-0.538).
The variable (tractor) is positively correlated with sprayer (0.907) and power tiller (0.569), while the negative correlation is associated with cultivator (-0.602) and area under foodgrain (-0.549). The pumpset has positive and strong correlation with shallow tube wells (0.999), while the highest negative correlation shown with road length (-0.709).
The power tiller records significant positive correlation with tractor (0.569). It has negative correlation with gramin bank (-0.727) and primary school (-0.543). When sprayer is correlated with other independent variables, then it is positive with tractor (0.907) and negatively correlated with cultivator (- 0.604) and area under foodgrain (-0.565).
When the literacy is correlated with other independent variables, then it is strongly and positively correlated with fertilizer depot (0.691) and sprayer (0.614). The number of river lift irrigation shows significant positive correlation with gramin bank (0.632) and agricultural productivity (0.525).
The shallow tube well shows strong positive correlation with pumpset (0.999) and cropping intensity (0.649), while high negatively correlated with road length (- 0.697).
Number of primary school has positive correlation with fertilizer depot (0.735) and net sown area (0.573) and electrified mouza (0.570), while the negative correlation is depicted with power tiller (-0.543).
Gramin banks is highly and positively correlated with river lift irrigation (0.632) and negatively correlated with power tiller (-0.727). The co-operative societies highly positively correlated with fertilizer depot (0.677)) and cultivator (0.517).
193 Chapter VI Level of Agricultural Development
The fertilizer depot is highly and positively correlated with primary school (0.735), co-operative societies (0.677), literacy (0.691), cultivator (0.666), electrified mouza (-0.651), agricultural productivity (0.640) and net sown area (0.520).
The electrified mouza is positively correlated with fertilizer depot (0.651), net sown area (0.638) and primary school (0.570). It is negatively correlated with cropping intensity (-0.538). The road length has negative correlation with pumpset (- 0.709) and shallow tube well (-0.697).
6.5. Level of Agricultural Development:
In this section, all the variables which are considered as the indicators of agricultural development are collectively and spatially analysed with the help of composite mean Z- score statistical technique to compare relatively developed and less developed regions of West Bengal. As all variables selected to analyse agricultural development, do not have equal share, such variables has been assigned as weight. The levels of agricultural development were measured for two periods spaced ten years i.e. 2000-2001 and 2010-2011.
For analysing the data „z score‟ or Standard Score Additive Model has been used to arrive at the general levels of agricultural development for the districts of the state. This is very simple in calculation but is the most appropriate in its results. For the „z score‟ Smith (1979) has given a formula:
̅
Where:
= Standardized value of the variable i in block j.
= Actual value of variable i in block j.
̅ = Means value of variable i in all the blocks
= Standard deviation of variables i in all blocks.
In order to assess overall level of agricultural development the result of standard scores obtained for all indicators are added district wise and the average is taken out
194 Chapter-VI: Level of Agricultural Development for these indicators which is known as Composite Score (CS) for each district and Algebraically expressed as:
Where:
= Composite Score,
= No of variables,
score of all variables i in block j.
6.5. 1. Level of Agricultural Development (2000-2001):
Agricultural development in true sense implies the quality of agricultural system of a region in terms of productivity, diversification and commercialization consistent with a desired state of agrarian relations and ecological balance. It also brings about social and cultural development as increased per capita income in rural areas, invariably results in increased levels of education which are conducive for social transformation. The primary objective of agricultural development is usually, to increase the output per hectare.
The composite Z score of the blocks have been calculated in order to measure the levels of agricultural development in the region shown in Table 6.8.
High Level of Agricultural Development:
The inter-blocks variation in the levels of agricultural development for the year 2000-2001 are given in Table 6.8 and shown in Fig. 6.1. It is seen from the Fig.6.1 that the blocks which have high level of agricultural development, lies in north-central and eastern part of the region. They includes the blocks of Chanchal-I (+0.364), Ratua-II (+0.384), Gazole (0.240), Bamongola (+0.222) and Habibpur (+0.199). These blocks shows high levels of agricultural development due to physiographic advantage, high productivity, high literacy rate, better availability of farm inputs like tractor, pumpset, better irrigation facilities, fertile soil and better infrastructure facilities.
195 Chapter VI Level of Agricultural Development
Table 6.8 Levels of Agricultural Development in Malda District, 2000-2001
Blocks Composite Z Score Harishchandrapur-I 0.072 Harishchandrapur-II -0.046 Chanchal-I 0.364 Chanchal-II -0.363 Ratua-I 0.107 Ratua-II 0.384 Gazole 0.240 Bamongola 0.222 Habibpur 0.199 Old Malda -0.091 English Bazar 0.077 Manikchak -0.529 Kaliachak-I -0.181 Kaliachak-II -0.241 Kaliachak-III -0.189
Source: Calculated by Researcher
Table 6.9: Spatial Pattern of Agricultural Development in Malda District (2000-01)
2000-2001 Score Category No. of Percentage Range Name of the Blocks Blocks of the total Chanchal-I, Ratua-II, High Above 0.13 5 33.33 Gazole, Bamongola and Habibpur Harishchandrapur-I, 0.13 to - Harishchandrapur-II, Medium 5 33.33 0.13 Ratua-I, Old Malda, and English Bazar Chanchal-II , Manikchak, Low Below -0.13 5 33.33 Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-II and Kaliachak-III
Total 15 100
Source: Prepared by Researcher based on Table 6.9
196 Chapter-VI: Level of Agricultural Development
Fig. 6.1
197 Chapter VI Level of Agricultural Development
Medium Level of Agricultural Development:
The medium level of agricultural development recorded in the blocks of Harishchandrapur-I (+0.072), Harishchandrapur-II (+0.046), Ratua-I (+0.107) in the northern part, Old Malda (-0.091) and English Bazar (+0.077) south-central part of the study region. These blocks show medium levels of agricultural development, which has less productivity per agricultural workers due to higher percentage of workforce and moderate irrigation facilities. In this group, the development of agricultural technology is moderate. Therefore, agricultural development is also moderate in this region.
Low Level of Agricultural Development:
The low level of agricultural development spread over five blocks of the district. These blocks are Chanchal-II (-0.363), Manikchak (-0.529), Kaliachak-I (- 0.181), Kaliachak-II (-0.241) and Kaliachak-III (-0.189). The low level of agricultural development in Malda is due to less use of technology, infertile soil, harsh climate, poor irrigation facilities may cause low productivity. It is also noted that the areas having low level of agricultural development due to poverty and low incomes of the farmers for a long time hinder agricultural development in Malda.
6.5.2. Level of Agricultural Development (2010-2011):
In the year 2010-2011, the regional pattern of agricultural development reveals that there are five blocks showing a high level of agricultural development, seven falls under medium levels and remaining three blocks have low levels of agricultural development.
High Level of Agricultural Development:
The inter-blocks variation in the levels of agricultural development for the year 2010-2011 is given in Table 6.9 and shown in Fig. 6.2. It is seen from the Fig. 6.2 that the blocks which attaining high levels of agricultural development i.e. (> +0.13) lies in northern, eastern part of the study region. They include the blocks of Chanchal-I (+0.179), Ratua-II (+0.182), Gazole (+0.216), Bamongola (+0.470) and Habibpur (+0.311).
198 Chapter-VI: Level of Agricultural Development
Large share of net sown area, high irrigation and cropping intensity, high productivity, fertile soil and better agricultural technology were resulting for the high levels of agricultural development in these blocks.
Table 6.10
Levels of Agricultural Development in Malda District, 2010-2011
Blocks Composite Z Score Harishchandrapur-I -0.014 Harishchandrapur-II 0.046 Chanchal-I 0.179 Chanchal-II -0.038 Ratua-I -0.106 Ratua-II 0.182 Gazole 0.216 Bamongola 0.470 Habibpur 0.311 Old Malda -0.029 English Bazar -0.517 Manikchak -0.221 Kaliachak-I -0.170 Kaliachak-II 0.157 Kaliachak-III -0.491
Source: Calculated by Researcher
Table 6.11: Spatial Pattern of Agricultural Development in Malda District (2010-11)
2010-2011 Category Score Range No. of Percentage of Name of the Blocks Blocks the total Chanchal-I, Ratua-II, Gazole, High Above 0.13 6 40 Bamongola, Habibpur and Kaliachak-II Harishchandrapur-I, Medium 0.13 to -0.13 5 33.33 Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-II, Ratua-I and Old Malda
English Bazar, Manikchak, Low Below -0.13 4 26.67 Kaliachak-I and Kaliachak-II
Total 15 100
Source: Prepared by Researcher based on Table 6.10
199 Chapter VI Level of Agricultural Development
Fig. 6.2
200 Chapter-VI: Level of Agricultural Development
Medium Level of Agricultural Development:
The medium level of agricultural development i.e. (+0.13 to -0.13) recorded in the blocks of Harishchandrapur-I (-0.014), Harishchandrapur-II (0.046), Chanchal-II (-0.038), Ratua-I (-0.106) in the northern, and Old Malda (-0.029) in the south-eastern part of the study region. In this group, the development of agricultural technology and irrigation facilities are moderate. Therefore, agricultural development is also moderate in this region.
Low Level of Agricultural Development:
The low level of agricultural development lies in the central, western and southern part of the region. They include the blocks of English Bazar (-0.517), Manikchak (-0.221), Kaliachak-I (-0.170) and Kaliachak-III (-0.437). Low cropping intensity, less percentage of net sown area, low yield level of food, small size of operational land holdings, infertile soils, low supplies of fertilizer, less irrigation facilities, minimum use of agricultural implements, higher dependency of people, low productivity and harsh environmental conditions were responsible for low levels of agriculture development in these blocks. It is also noted that the areas having low level of agricultural development suffered with poverty and low agricultural incomes for a long time.
6.6. Change in Level of Agricultural Development 2000-01 to 2010-11:
The blocks witnessed a slight improvement in the levels of agricultural development in the blocks during the last decade i.e. 2000-01 to 2010-11. The study reveals that there were only five blocks namely Chanchal-I, Ratua-II, Gazole, Bamongola and Habibpur have high level of agricultural development in both the study period. Only Kaliachak-II block emerged with high levels of agricultural development in from 2000-01 to 2010-11. It may be attributed to interplay of combination of factors which include improvement and rise in irrigational facilities, cropping intensity, share of net sown area, application of modern technological inputs etc.
However, Manikchak, Kaliachak-I and Kaliachak-III continued to be agriculturally less developed blocks in the study period i.e. 2000-01 to 2010-11. Low irrigation and cropping intensity, small share of net sown area, less application of modern agricultural inputs and very low level of agricultural yield have been major determinants resulting into low levels of agricultural development in these blocks.
201 Chapter VI Level of Agricultural Development
6.7. Level of Socio-Economic Development:
In order to assess the level of socio-economic development, block wise Z- score of eighteen indicators have varying nature and character is calculated separately.
Table 6.12: List of variables of Socio-Economic Development
Sl. No. Variables
X1 Number of Primary school per 1000000 population
X2 Number of High School per 1000000 population
X3 Number of High Secondary school per 1000000 population
X4 Percentage of Total Literacy
X5 Percentage of Male Literacy
X6 Percentage of Female literacy
X7 Number of Mouzas having Electricity
X8 Number of Mouzas having drinking water facilities
X9 Number of Fertilizer Depot
X10 Number of Fair Price Shop
X11 Percentage of Agricultural labour to total workers
X12 Percentage of Cultivators to total workers
X13 Commercial Bank per 1000000 population
X14 Gramin Bank per 1000000 population
X15 Post Offices per 1000000 population
X16 Number of cooperative societies
X17 Total Road Length in Km.
X18 Percentage of Net sown area to gross cropped area
202 Chapter-VI: Level of Agricultural Development
6.7.1. Level of Socio-Economic Development (2000-2001):
A composite index of each blocks have been worked out on the basis of these indicators. The blocks may be conveniently arranged into three categories i.e. high (above 0.26 score), medium (-0.26 to 0.26 score) and low (below -0.26 score) of socio-economic development.
Table 7.13: Spatial Pattern of Socio-Economic Development in Malda District (2001)
Composite Score Percentage of the Category No. of Blocks Range total Blocks High Above + 0.26 4 26.67 Medium - 0.26 to + 0.26 5 33.33 Low Below -0.26 6 40.00 15 100
Source: Computed by Researcher
The distribution pattern of level of socio-economic development is uneven all over the blocks and presents a very complex picture (Fig. 6.3). Considering these grades separately, it is found that the blocks having high level of socio-economic development spread over eastern part of the district.
High Level of Socio-Economic Development:
Fig.6.3 shows that four blocks namely, Gazole, Bamongola, Habibpur and English Bazar are placed under high category (> 0.26) of socio-economic development covering about 26 per cent blocks. These blocks have high level of socio-economic development because of high literacy rate, high income, better educational facilities and urbanization.
Medium Level of Socio-Economic Development:
The medium level of socio-economic development (-0.26 to + 0.26 score) are found in five blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-I, Chanchal-I, Ratua-I, Ratua-II and Manikchak covering about 33.33 per cent blocks of the district due to medium level of literacy rate, moderate income, medium educational infrastructure.
203 Chapter VI Level of Agricultural Development
Fig. 6.3
204 Chapter-VI: Level of Agricultural Development
Low Level of Socio-Economic Development:
The low level of socio-economic development (< -0.26 score) is found in six blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-II, Old Malda, Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-II and Kaliachak-III covering about 40 per cent blocks of the district due to low literacy rate, low income, less educational development.
6.7.2. Level of Socio-Economic Development (2010-2011):
In order to assess the level of socio-economic development, block wise Z- score of fifteen indicators have varying nature and character is calculated separately. A composite index of each blocks have been worked out on the basis of these indicators. The blocks may be conveniently arranged into three categories i.e. high (above 0.23 score), medium (-0.23 to 0.23 score) and low (below -0.230 score) of socio-economic development.
Table 7.14: Spatial Pattern of Socio-Economic Development in Malda District (2011)
Category Composite Score Range No. of Blocks Percentage of the total Blocks
High Above + 0.23 3 20.00
Medium - 0.23 to + 0.23 9 60.00
Low Below -0.23 3 20.00
15 100
Source: Computed by Researcher
205 Chapter VI Level of Agricultural Development
Fig. 6.4
206 Chapter-VI: Level of Agricultural Development
The spatial pattern of socio-economic development is uneven all over the blocks and presents a very complex picture (Fig. 6.4). Considering these grades separately, it is found that the blocks having high level of socio-economic constitute one distinct regions in the district. It lies in the eastern part of the district.
High Level of Socio-Economic Development:
Fig. 6.4 shows that three blocks namely, Gazole, Bamongola and Habibpur are placed under high category (> 0.23 score) of socio-economic development covering about 20 per cent blocks. These blocks have high level of socio-economic development because of high literacy rate, high income, better educational facilities and urbanization.
Medium Level of Socio-Economic Development:
The medium level of socio-economic development (-0.23 to + 0.23 score) are found in nine blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-I , Chanchal-I, Chanchal-II, Ratua-I, Ratua-II, Old Malda, English Bazar, Manikchak and Kaliachak-II covering about 60 per cent blocks of the district due to medium level of literacy rate, moderate income, medium educational infrastructure.
Low Level of Socio-Economic Development:
The low level of socio-economic development (< -0.23 score) is found in 3 blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-II, Kaliachak-I and Kaliachak-III covering about 33 per cent blocks of the district due to low literacy rate, low income, less educational development.
6.8. Agricultural Development and its impact on Socio-Economic Development:
Agriculture is the prime source of income for the rural people of Malda district. Nearly 75 percent people are engaged in agricultural activities. The socio- economic condition of the people depends on agriculture. Agricultural practices in Malda district is age sensitive, as younger generation is coming up and actively participating in the decision making process of the household affairs. Funding of agriculture in the rural areas where the bulk of the farmers live have also brought a lacuna in accelerating socio-economic development via agriculture.
207 Chapter VI Level of Agricultural Development
Table 6.15 Agricultural Development vis-à-vis Socio-Economic Development in Malda District (2000-2001)
Composite Z Composite Z Agricultural Score of Score of Socio- Development vis-à- Blocks Agricultural Economic vis Socio-Economic Development Development Development
Harishchandrapur-I 0.072 0.037 AD2SED2
Harishchandrapur-II -0.046 -0.596 AD2SED3
Chanchal-I 0.364 0.195 AD1SED2
Chanchal-II -0.363 -0.399 AD3SED3
Ratua-I 0.107 -0.236 AD2SED2
Ratua-II 0.384 0.149 AD1SED2
Gazole 0.240 0.879 AD1SED1
Bamongola 0.222 0.722 AD1SED1
Habibpur 0.199 0.861 AD1SED1
Old Malda -0.091 -0.271 AD2SED3
English Bazar 0.077 0.370 AD2SED1
Manikchak -0.529 -0.251 AD3SED2
Kaliachak-I -0.181 -0.443 AD3SED3
Kaliachak-II -0.241 -0.286 AD3SED3
Kaliachak-III -0.189 -0.751 AD3SED3
Source: Calculated by Researcher
AD1 = High Agricultural Development, AD2 = Medium Agricultural Development,
AD3 = Low Agricultural development
SED1= High Socio-Economic Development, SED2 = Medium Socio-Economic Development,
SED3 = Low Socio-Economic Development
208 Chapter-VI: Level of Agricultural Development
Fig. 6.5
209 Chapter VI Level of Agricultural Development
6.8.1. Agricultural Development vis-à-vis Socio-Economic Development (2000-2001):
The agricultural development vis-à-vis socio-economic development are shown in Fig. 6.3. In the key of the map, abscissa represent agricultural development and ordinate the levels of socio-economic development. The figure reveals that there is only three block namely, Gazole, Bamongola and Habibpur have high grade of agricultural development as well as high grade of socio-economic development. Chanchal-I and Ratua-II blocks have high level of agricultural development and medium level of socio-economic development. Only two blocks i.e. Harishchandrapur-I and Ratua-I have medium level of agricultural development as well as medium level of socio-economic development.
Harishchandrapur-II and Old Malda have medium level of agriculture development and low level of socio-economic development. Manikchak block has low level of agricultural development and medium level of socio-economic development.
English Bazar block has high grade of socio-economic development and medium level of socio-economic development. Chanchal-II, Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-II and Kaliachak-III blocks have low level of socio-economic development as well as agriculture development.
The block wise distribution of composite Z score reveals that the levels of agricultural development in the eastern blocks namely, Gazole, Bamongola and Habibpur are clearly marked and that blocks of the region are agriculturally well developed owing to good infrastructural and technological factors, as compared to southern blocks, where the impact of socio-economic factor is low. The less agriculturally developed blocks of the region require proper and timely supply of new technology.
6.8.2. Agricultural Development vis-à-vis Socio-Economic Development (2010-2011):
The agricultural development vis-à-vis socio-economic development are shown in Fig. 6.4. In the key of the map, abscissa represent agricultural development and ordinate the levels of socio-economic development. The figure reveals that there is three blocks namely, Gazole, Bamongola and Habibpur blocks have high level of agricultural development as well as high level of socio-economic development. Only
210 Chapter-VI: Level of Agricultural Development three blocks i.e. Chanchal-I, Ratua-II and Kaliachak-II blocks have high level of agricultural development and medium level of socio-economic development. Only four blocks i.e. Harishchandrapur-I, Chanchal-II, Ratua-I and Old Malda have medium level of agriculture development as well as medium level of socio-economic development. Harishchandrapur-II block has medium level of agricultural development and low level of socio-economic development.
Table 6.16: Agricultural Development vis-à-vis Socio-Economic Development in Malda District (2010-11)
Composite Z Agricultural Composite Z Score Score of Development vis-à-vis Blocks of Socio-Economic Agricultural Socio-Economic Development Development Development
Harishchandrapur-I -0.014 -0.211 AD2SED2
Harishchandrapur-II 0.046 -0.428 AD2SED3
Chanchal-I 0.179 -0.047 AD1SED2
Chanchal-II -0.038 -0.172 AD2SED3
Ratua-I -0.106 -0.125 AD2SED2
Ratua-II 0.182 0.084 AD1SED2
Gazole 0.216 0.852 AD1SED1
Bamongola 0.470 0.822 AD1SED1
Habibpur 0.311 0.781 AD1SED1
Old Malda -0.029 -0.142 AD2SED2
English Bazar -0.517 -0.073 AD3SED2
Manikchak -0.221 -0.088 AD3SED2
Kaliachak-I -0.170 -0.526 AD3SED3
Kaliachak-II 0.157 -0.036 AD1SED2
Kaliachak-III -0.491 -0.691 AD3SED3
Source: Calculated by Researcher
AD1 = High Agricultural Development, AD2 = Medium Agricultural Development,
AD3 = Low Agricultural development
SED1= High Socio-Economic Development, SED2 = Medium Socio-Economic
Development, SED3 = Low Socio-Economic Development
211 Chapter VI Level of Agricultural Development
Fig. 6.6
212 Chapter-VI: Level of Agricultural Development
Medium level of socio-economic development and low level of agricultural development are found in the blocks of English Bazar and Manikchak. Two blocks namely, Kaliachak-I and Kaliachak-III have low level of socio-economic development as well as low level of agriculture development.
After the foregoing analysis it is clear that agriculture has a great impact on the development of socio-economic development in Malda district during the study period i.e. 2000-01 and 2010-11. It is inevitable and essential for increase the income of the population and also meet the demand of the food to sustain their life. The farmer produce crops to get high returns from their field. Therefore, agricultural practices has been a great importance in the rural areas of the district. It is clear from the study that those blocks which are agriculturally developed, they are also socio- economically developed and vice versa. It means there is an integrated development where agriculture plays a very important role in the socio-economic development in the district.
213 Chapter VI Level of Agricultural Development
References:
Bagchi, K. (1979): Agriculture in Drought Prone Areas, Geographical Review of India, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 184-197.
Bhagabati, A.K. (1984): “Level of Agricultural Development in the Brahmaputra Valley: A Geographical Analysis, unpublished M.Phil Dissertation, Gauhati University, Guwahati.
Bhagabati, A.K. (1990): Spatial Analysis of small scale Agriculture in Assam: A case Study of Nalbari District, unpublished Ph.D Dissertation, Guwahati University, Gauhati.
Bhagabati, A.K. and Dutta, M (2001): Agricultural Geography of Assam, A.K. Bhagabati et al (ed.), Rajesh Publications, New Delhi.
Chattaraj, S. and N. Sahu, R. (1983): “Intra-District Variations in Agricultural Development: An Exploratory Study of Kamrup District, Assam”, Hill Geographer, Vol. 2, No.1 pp.21-25.
Das, M.M. (1984): Peasant Agriculture in Assam, Inter-India publications, New Delhi.
Datta, L. (1983): Agricultural Occupance of Nagaon District: A Spatio-Temporal Analysis, unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Gauhati University, Guwahati.
Dua, Rachna and Mohammad Noor (1998): Spatial variation in the level of Agricultural Development in Haryana, The Geographer, Vol.45, No.1, pp. 45-54.
Gopalkrishnan, R. (1989): Intra-District Variations in agricultural Development: An Exploratory Study of Kamrup district, Assam, Hill Geographer, Vol.2, No.1 pp. 21-25.
Khan et al. (2009): Spatial Pattern of Agricultural Development in Murshidabad District (W.B.), Indian Journal of Regional Science, Vol.41, No. 1, pp. 73.
Kundu, H. (1980): Measurement of urban process, a study in regionalization, popular publication, Bombay, p. 48
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Mahmood, A. (1993): Statistical Methods in Geographical Studies, Rajesh Publications, New Delhi, pp.159-167.
Mipun, B.S. (1988): Impact of Immigrants on the Agricultural Development of Lower Brahmaputra Valley (Assam), unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, North Eastern Hill University, Shillong.
Mitra, A. (1967): Levels of Regional Development in India, Census of India, Indian Statistical Institute, New Delhi, pp. 8-9.
Mohammad, Noor (1992): Spatial variation in levels of development in U.P. in Dynamics of Agricultural Development, Vol. 7, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, pp. 175-195.
Mohammad, Noor, (1999): Socio-economic transformation of schedule caste in eastern Uttar Pradesh, The Geographer, Vol. 46, p. 15
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Parimala, G. and Qureshi, M.H. (1983): Levels of Agricultural Development in Tamil Nadu, The Indian Geographical Journal, Vol.58, No. 2, pp. 119-126.
Rao, C.H. Hanumantha (2000): Declining Demand for Foodgrains in Rural India: Causes and Implications, Economic and Political Weekly, 22 (January): 201-206.
Rao, H. (1984): Regional disparities and development in India, Ashish publication, New Delhi, p. 197
Rao, V. M. (1996): Agricultural Development with a Human Face, Economic and Political Weekly, 31(26): A-52 - A-62.
Raza, M and Agarwal (1986): Transport geography of India, Commodity, flows and regional structure of Indian economy, Concept Publication, New Delhi
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Saikia, H. (1987): Size of Holding and Productivity: A Geographical Analysis: Case Study of Nowgong District, Assam Unpublished M.Phil Dissertation, North- Eastern Hill University, Sillong.
Saxena, H. M. (1988): Rural markets and development, Rawat publication, p. 1
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216
Chapter-VII Socio-Economic Transformation – A Micro Level Analysis Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
CHAPTER-VII
SOCIO-ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATION – A MICRO LEVEL ANALYSIS
7.1. Socio - Economic Transformation:
Socio-economic conditions reflect the quality of life of the society as a whole as well as that of its constituents. The major components of socio-economic life of the people in any society are the level of per capita income, income pattern, consumption and saving pattern, housing conditions, level of literacy, attitude towards marriage, sex ratio and position of women. The main objective of our five years plan is the improvement in the quality of life and removal of disparities. For example in 8th five- year plans, it has been mentioned that the objective of fulfilling the social and human aspiration of the people meeting the essential requirements of living, raising income levels and improving their quality of life are at the center of our development efforts. Moreover, a large number of studies have been done on various aspects that reflecting socio-economic conditions of the farmers such as income level, consumption pattern, female status and education level etc. of different region. In maximum studies, the researchers have found that the economic condition of farmers mainly depends on agriculture production and other sources of income, related to agriculture side-lines. After the independence of India, many researchers found in survey of social conditions of rural households that maximum farmers of our nation are socially backward. They are not in a position to leave the old social rules to maintain the classical social structure of India.
It is an established economic theory that performance of agricultural sector has great impact on socio-economic conditions of the people living on agriculture. The development strategies of the government will have to include changes in the social and economic characteristics of the farmers. The changes in agriculture sector have tremendous impact on literacy levels, occupational diversification, land ownership pattern, tenancy practices, land utilization, cropping pattern and cropping intensity in farm economics. To have a close look at these factors a total number of 450 respondents were selected in the study area.
217 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
Agricultural development and social change are intimately linked to each other. Development of agriculture leads to increase in real income as well as the purchasing power of the farmers, which they use in further investment in their occupations as inputs, ultimately resulting in more profit and capital in their hands. Later the change in the earning level brings in substantial changes in the expenditure patterns of the farmers. They begin to spend more money for educating their children, getting medical care, improving their dwelling places, consuming luxury goods and recreations. Increase in educational level enables them to accept the idea of birth control and late marriage. They have more exposure to the outer world and are able to combat different types of distresses. In short the conventional structure of a farmer's life undergoes total transformation. Thus, through agricultural development, a change in the hegemonic structure of the society becomes conspicuous. To assess if the nature and pattern of social life has really been changed with the process of agricultural development in Malda district, an empirical survey has been conducted. Fifteen villages are selected for this purpose, covering agricultural development as well as the social and economic change. All these villages have their own location characteristics, which significantly affect agricultural development and associated socio-economic changes.
Socio-economic transformation represents the development in social and economic status of human being. Transformation is a process, spread over a period of time. It refers to a tangible and verifiable change in the well-being and standard of living. Socio-economic change, amongst others is a hallmark and a major indicator of transformation. Interventions, financial and non-financial are stimuli for transformation requiring consistent exposure over time. In recent years transformation of lives and livelihood of the underprivileged has gained highest prominence the world over, particularly in developing economics, “Socio- economic transformation” defines a measureable, sustainable and significant growth in the economic and social spheres depicted through a change in economic capacity ( income, expenditure and savings) and social development ( education, health, capacity building etc.). It is a gauge of the appreciation of an individual, family and society as a whole. In India, several interventions have been experimented at central as well as state level to bring about the desired transformation and presently more emphasis is on inclusive growth. Inclusive growth is “growth inspired and contributed by all sections of the society
218 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis through equal opportunities and equitable distribution of resources and the benefits there of enjoyed by all” and an outcome of socio-economic transformation. Further, the concept of socio-economic transformation is closely related with availability of finance at grassroots level, thus the need of financial inclusion has become paramount. Gradually man tries to achieve better condition of life. However, there is many variations in the modes of socio-economic change and standard of living. In social transformation we study the attitude of human behaviour and mode of life. However, the economic transformation is more rapid than the social.
Village Profile:
The field survey is an essential component for collecting and gathering information at the local level or ground level by conducting primary survey through observations, questionnaire, schedule and interviews. The field work has been conducted in 15 villages of Malda district on the basis of purposive random sampling. Thirty respondents are selected from each block, one is selected along the road and other is more than 3 km far away from the road. The population size of each village falls approximately between 1500 to 2000 persons (Census of India, 2011) and 10 percent of households from each village are surveyed with the help of a well prepared schedule and general observation of the condition of the farmers. The researcher visited villages herself to collect the information about age, education status of farmers, size of land holdings, effects of various factors on cropping pattern, use of agricultural implements, and sources of irrigation. The survey work has been carried out in Rabi season during January 2016 to March 2016. The researcher has also collected the information about Kharif crops of 2015.
Barui:
Barui is a large village located in Harischandrapur - I of Maldah district, West Bengal with total 360 families residing. The village has population of 1419 of which 762 are males while 657 are females as per Population Census 2011. Average sex ratio is 913 which is lower than West Bengal state average of 950. Literacy rate of Barui village is 71.94 % while male literacy stands at 79.26 % and female literacy rate is 63.84 %. As per constitution of India and Panchayat Raj Act, the village is administrated by Sarpanch (Head of Village) who is elected representative of village. Most of the villagers are from Schedule Caste (SC). Schedule Caste (SC) constitutes
219 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
56.41 % while Schedule Tribe (ST) were 0.10 % of total. Out of total population, 1177 were engaged in work activities. 91.33 % of workers describe their work as Main Work (Employment or Earning more than 6 Months) while 8.67 % were involved in Marginal activity providing livelihood for less than 6 months in the village. Of 494 workers engaged in Main Work, 108 were cultivators (owner or co- owner) while 239 were agricultural labourer.
Talbha Kuria:
Talbha Kuria is located under Harishchandrapur-II Block. It is bounded by Hardamnagar in the North, Talbangrua in the west, Jagannathpur in the East and Talgachi and Malipakur in the South. It is the most backward village in the Malda district. Total areas of the village are 233.22 hectares and household is 682. According to 2011 census total population is 3580. It is located 75 km away from the district headquarter English bazaar. Communication of the village is very bad; there is no market in the village, only some small shops are present in the village. The economy of the village is predominately agriculture oriented. It is the Muslim populated village and 100 per cent of the villages’ people are Badia community. They are other back ward caste (OBC). In Talbha Kuria village out of total population, 2175 were engaged in work activities. 66.44 % of workers describe their work as Main Work (Employment or Earning more than 6 Months) while 33.56 % were involved in Marginal activity providing livelihood for less than 6 months. Of 688 workers engaged in Main Work, 108 were cultivators (owner or co-owner) while 365 were Agricultural labourer.
Alihanda
It is located just near the sub division Chanchal. Socio-economically it is most developed village in the block. The total literacy rate in the village is 86.43 percent in which the male literacy is 51.83 percent and female literacy is 48.17 percent. Alihanda is surrounded by Chanchal-II Block towards East, Balrampur Block towards North, Harishchandrapur-II Block towards west and Harishchandrapur-I. The total population of the village is 2335 and household is 569. Out of total worker, 589 were engaged in Main work, 353 were agricultural labourer and 195 were cultivators.
220 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
Fig. 7.1
221 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
Jitarpur:
The tribal village Jitarpur is lies under Chanchal-II block. It is bounded by Enayatpur and Sholabagha Belungoon in the south, Anandaganj in the west, Gourhanda in the East and Meghdumra in the south-east. It spreads over 280.59 hectares areas. Total population of the village is 2322 and household is 491. It is located about 72 km away from district headquarters English Bazar. The nearest bus stand is located from the village 10 km to 5km., there are one primary school and one high school, one post office and one gramin gour bank. Electricity is available for domestic uses and agricultural purposes and sources of drinking water are well and tube well. The sex ratio is high as compared to other village. Literacy is the important factor of socio-economic development of any society.
The literacy rate of the scheduled tribe population in Jitarpur is only 55.26 percent and 52.38 percent are male and 47.62 percent are female. Sex wise work participation rate clearly indicates that there is variation between male and female. Male work participation rate is very high 80.55 percent and remaining 19.15 percent are the female.
Baharal:
Baharal is located under Ratua-I block. It is surrounded by Samsi in the north, Ratanpur in the north-east, Amarsinghi and Hare Krishnapur in the south, Sripur in the east and Motiganj in the west. It spreads over 333.68 hectares area. Total population of the village is 2694 and household is 632. It is located 31 KM towards west from District head quarter English Bazar. This village has total worker of 891 of which 279 are marginal while 612 are main worker as per Population Census 2011.
Paranpur:
Paranpur of Ratua-II block is the second village in this cluster situated at about 20 km. away from its nearest urban centre Malda town and is connected with all seasons Ratua - Manikchak road. It is bounded by Kadamtola and Sibapur in the north, Bishanpur in the south, Nijganparanpur in the west, Purba Bhairampur in north- east and Jogigofa Bahadesrpur in the east. Total population of the village is 1267 and household is 244. The geographical situation of this village is 23°45' North latitude and 87°45' east longitude.
222 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
Table 7.1: Profile of Selected Villages in Malda District, 2016
Population Literate Worker Selected no. of Village Name Name of the Block Total Households Agri. Lab Cultivators Respondent Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Marginal Main
Barui Harishchandrapur-I 360 1419 762 657 757 463 294 534 40 494 239 108 30
Talbha Kuria Harishchandrapur-II 682 3580 1843 1737 1500 759 741 929 241 688 365 263 30
Alihanda Chanchal-I 569 2335 1191 1144 1372 724 648 822 233 589 353 195 30
Jitarpur Chanchal-II 491 2322 1192 1130 1252 753 499 1079 567 512 346 92 30
Baharal Ratua-I 632 2694 1383 1311 1622 939 683 891 279 612 218 52 30
Paranpur Ratua-II 255 1267 644 623 464 250 214 358 89 269 196 66 30
Chaksundar Gazole 264 565 286 279 310 189 121 165 12 153 139 2 30
Adatala Bamongola 479 2403 1231 1172 1494 842 652 891 337 554 61 474 30
Rishipur Habibpur 466 1951 1023 928 1158 678 480 935 760 175 36 27 30
Balarampur Old Malda 667 2840 1446 1394 1537 766 771 1005 207 798 341 174 30
Uttar Jadupur Englishbazar 465 2191 1130 1061 1140 610 530 778 215 563 52 54 30
Sekhpura Manikchak 645 3022 1529 1493 1652 900 752 829 196 633 251 117 30
Gayesbari Kaliachak-I 356 1888 982 906 702 352 350 834 12 822 32 7 30
Panchanandapur Kaliachak-II 500 2513 1251 1262 1427 744 683 994 496 498 262 46 30
Suzapur Mandai Kaliachak-III 1615 8807 4406 4401 3365 1910 1455 3810 1251 2559 663 702 30
Source: Based on Data Obtained from Villages and Primary Census Abstract, Malda District (2011) and Field Survey (2016)
223 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
The village presents no characteristically distinct pattern from the physiographical point of view as it has apparently perfect levelled surface which is significantly monotonic. One inch topographical sheet shows that the average elevation of the village is approximately 120 feet with a minor variations around one or two feet only. The village has a general slope from north-east to south-west. The soil is pre- dominantly loamy except to that of a small area in the central portion where it is sandy loam with moderate percentage of sand in the composition. The climatic condition of the village presents a similar pattern as to the overall condition of the entire district. Hindu population dominates the demographic setup of the village.
Chaksundar:
The second village of this cluster is Chaksundar which comes under Gazole block. It is situated approximately at 25° north latitude and 88°-10' east longitude. It is characterized by a plain surface land. The nearest urban center is Gazole town (approximately 2 km away). It is situated along Gazole Balurghat state highway and connected with a metalled road. Chaksundar is characterized by a relatively upland plain stretching from state highway in the west up to village metalled road having a general slope from North to South. The surface elevation of the village is about 150 feet above the sea level and is well drained except some water logged patches in the southernmost corner, where the village boundary slopes into a marshy tract. The texture of the soil is generally loam and sandy loam and fertile in nature. But due to frequent changes in the gap between the surface and the water table, the colour and the texture of the soils present distinctly contrasting views. Though climatically the village does not differ greatly from the rest of the northern part of the district, but on an average it receives a little higher amount of rainfall, which is slightly more than 1500 mm per annum. Chaksundar has a total area of 347 hectares with 144 households, accounting for its total population of 565. The village has both Hindu and Muslim families.
Adatala:
Adatala is a large village located in Bamangola of Maldah district, West Bengal with total 479 families residing. The Adatala village has population of 2403 of which 1231 are males while 1172 are females as per Population Census 2011. Average Sex Ratio of the village is 952 which are higher than West Bengal state average of 950. In 2011, literacy rate of the village was 69.59 while male literacy
224 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis stands at 76.41 % and female literacy rate was 62.39 %. In this village out of total population, 891 were engaged in work activities. 62.18 % of workers describe their work as Main Work (Employment or Earning more than 6 Months) while 37.82 % were involved in Marginal activity providing livelihood for less than 6 months. Of 891 workers engaged in Main Work, 474 were cultivators (owner or co-owner) while 61 were Agricultural labourer.
Rishipur:
The Rishipur village (Habibpur Block) situated at 24°30' north latitude and 88°45' east longitude, is the first village of the cluster-II representing a predominantly immigrant Hindu population. It is situated along Aiho-Bamongola metalled road. The nearest urban centre from this village is the English Bazar (town), located approximately 13 km. away. The surface feature of this village is uniform alluvial plain as has a general slope towards south-east from the north-eastern side.
The composition of soil is characterized by the old alluvium structure, the texture of soil which is mainly loamy and sandy-loamy with negligible acidic differences. The climatic condition of Rishipur is more or less similar to that of the rest of the region. The village covers a total area of 649 hectares of land with a total population of 1476. The Bengali-Hindus constitute the majority of the population. These people have mostly emigrated from Bangladesh around 1971-72 and immediately there had been and appreciable and noticeable shift in the agricultural land use pattern. The village also has a few santhal households.
Balarampur:
Balarampur is a large village located in Old Maldah block of Maldah district, West Bengal with total 851 families residing. The Balarampur village has population of 2840 of which 1446 are males while 1394 are females as per Population Census 2011. Average Sex Ratio of is 993 which is higher than West Bengal state average of 950. Literacy rate of Balarampur village was 58.81 % while Male literacy stands at 64.04 % and female literacy rate is 53.60 %. In this village out of total population, 1493 were engaged in work activities. 53.45 % of workers describe their work as Main Work (Employment or Earning more than 6 Months) while 46.55 % were involved in Marginal activity providing livelihood for less than 6 months. Of 1005 total workers, 798 engaged in Main Work, 174 were cultivators (owner or co-owner) while 341 were Agricultural labourer.
225 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
Uttar Jadupur:
Uttar Jadupur represents the large village of Malda district. It comes under English Bazar block approximately at 24°50' north latitude and 88°15' east longitude and characterized by the plain surface land. The nearest urban centre from this village happens to be the district town Malda and connected with all, weather gravelled road with the National Highway (NH) 34. It has a total population of 1197 and covers an area of 561 hectares of land distributed among 208 households. The most important physiographic feature of this village is that it is located on an extensive tract of Ganga, hence, the surface is characterized by unvarying monotony of levelled tract, with total absence of natural undulations. The surface is well-drained and it has a gentle slope towards the south. The structure of soil also presents a monotonic character which is primarily clay loam. The texture of the soil is generally medium except that of the northern corner of the village where it is slightly heavier in nature. Though rainfall is the principal factor in determining the cropping pattern and extent of cropped area cultivation in this village nevertheless, irrigation cover a substantial part in the village. The village is mainly dominated by the Muslim population.
Sekhpura:
Sekhpura is a large village located in Manikchak of Maldah district, West Bengal with total 645 families residing. The Sekhpura village has population of 3022 of which 1529 are males while 1493 are females as per Population Census 2011. Average Sex Ratio of the village is 976 which is higher than West Bengal state average of 950. In 2011, literacy rate of the village is 63.39 % while male literacy stands at 68.29 % and female literacy rate is 58.39 %. The village Sekhpura currently does not have any Schedule Tribe (ST) population. In Sekhpura village out of total population, 829 were engaged in work activities. 76.36 % of workers describe their work as Main Work (Employment or Earning more than 6 Months) while 23.64 % were involved in Marginal activity providing livelihood for less than 6 months. Of 829 workers engaged in Main Work, 117 were cultivators (owner or co-owner) while 251 were Agricultural labourer.
Gayesbari:
Gayesbari is a large village located in Kaliachak - I of Maldah district, West Bengal with total 2026 families residing. The Gayesbari village has population of 1888 of which 982 are males while 906 are females as per Population Census 2011.
226 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
Average Sex Ratio of the village is 932 which are lower than West Bengal state average of 950. In 2011, literacy rate of Gayesbari village was 77.89 % while male literacy stands at 77.22 % and female literacy rate was 78.61 %. There is no population of Schedule Caste (SC) and Schedule Tribe (ST) in Gayesbari village. Out of total population, 834 were engaged in work activities. 76.70 % of workers describe their work as Main Work (Employment or Earning more than 6 Months) while 23.30 % were involved in Marginal activity providing livelihood for less than 6 months. Of 822 workers engaged in Main Work, 133 were cultivators (owner or co-owner) while 162 were Agricultural labourer.
Panchanandapur:
Panchanandapur village is popularly known among the villages of Kaliachak – II block of Malda district of West Bengal. According to the census of village have 2513 of total population, in which the total male population is 1251 and female population is 1262. In this village the total literate population is 1427, in which 744 and 683 male and female persons are literate respectively. Out of total population, 64.75 % of workers describe their work as Main Work (Employment or Earning more than 6 Months) while 35.25 % were involved in Marginal activity providing livelihood for less than 6 months. Of 498 workers engaged in Main Work, 146 were cultivators (owner or co-owner) while 262 were agricultural labourer.
Suzapur Mandai:
Suzapur Mandai is a large village located in Kaliachak - III of Maldah district, West Bengal with total 1615 families residing. The Suzapur Mandai village has population of 8807 of which 4406 are males while 4401 are females as per Population Census 2011 Average Sex Ratio of Suzapur Mandai village is 999 which is higher than West Bengal state average of 950. In 2011, literacy rate of Suzapur Mandai village was 46.29 % while male literacy stands at 52.52 % and female literacy rate was 40.05 %. In Suzapur Mandai village, most of the villagers are from Schedule Caste (SC). Schedule Caste (SC) constitutes 50.66 % while Schedule Tribe (ST) were 0.05 % of total population. Out of total population, 67.17 % of workers describe their work as Main Work (Employment or Earning more than 6 Months) while 32.83 % were involved in Marginal activity providing livelihood for less than 6 months. Of 2559 workers engaged in Main Work, 702 were cultivators (owner or co-owner) while 663 were Agricultural labourer.
227 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
7.3 Personal and Household Characteristics of Respondents:
Besides the physio-economic factors, the socio-cultural factors especially human psychology and behaviour play an important role in the process of socio- economic transformation. It affects the choice of occupation, adoption of family welfare programme, education and job of the children, social mobility, status of political awareness and involvement, housing condition and so on. These are the expression of age, education, caste, family size, occupation, place of residence, which are related with one another. But there is a lot of spatial variations among them in these parameters. The basic aim of this chapter is, therefore, to assess the homogeneity and dissimilarities in the personal and family attributes of 450 selected respondents of the study area with reference to the selected parameters.
7.3.1. Age - Composition of Respondents in Decision Making Process:
In the process of overall development in general and agricultural development in particular the age composition of population plays very significant role as it helps in adoption of new ideas and practices which in turn bring economic benefits and prosperity. It has been observed that the younger generation is more interested in various kinds of innovations, whereas at an advanced stage people find it difficult to change from age old practices, and they resist to adoption of innovations (Mohammad, N. 1978). With this view, all the respondents have been classified into four categories on the basis of their age.
Table 7.2: Age Composition of all Respondents
Age Group Age of Range No. of Respondents % to Total Respondents Very Young Below 30 86 19.11 Lower Middle 30-40 113 25.11 Upper Middle 40-50 102 22.66 Old Age Above 50 149 33.12 Total 450 100
Source: Based on Primary survey, Jan & Feb, 2016
228 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
AGE COMPOSITION OF ALL RESPONDENT
Below 30 30-40 40-50 Above 50
Fig. 7.2
Table 7.2 gives very interesting picture regarding the age composition of the respondents. Generally the number of respondents increases with increasing age, which indicates that the elder people still dominate in the decision making process. But the encouraging fact is that the middle aged respondents (both lower middle and upper middle) accounts for 47.77 per cent of the respondents as compared to old age group i.e. 33.12 per cent, which shows that gradually the younger generation is coming up and actively participating in the decision making process of the household affairs. About 19.11 per cent of younger generation participate in decision making process. However, the above analysis gives only aggregate picture but there is a lot of spatial variation in the study area.
7.3.2. Educational Status of Respondents:
The role of education in the socio-economic transformation of the common masses in general barely needs attention. It is considered one of the chief component through which a society socializes its members and brings attractive changes in its people. In fact education is the aggregate of all the processes by means of which a person develops abilities, attitudes and other forms of behaviour of positive values in the society he lives in or it is a social process by which people are subjected to the influence of selected and controlled environment so that they can attain social competence and optimum individual development. As such, it could be argued that
229 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis education influences the course of behaviour of both society and its individuals. Various studies have proved that there is close relationship between educational level and socio-economic transformation.
Education is the process of socio economic transformation, which indicates a positive sign of transformation level. It has also become quite obvious that the literacy level among younger generation is more than the older ones which is a very encouraging feature. It has been observed that the rural people have high ambitions and aspirations regarding not only the education of their children but also their jobs. Therefore, an attempt has been made to find the preferences of the parents regarding the nature and locations of the schools for their children. As the educational attainment of the respondents varies from informal education with the simple ability of reading and writing in their mother – tongue without any formal certificate to Post- Graduate degree which are neither comparable nor can be aggregated. Hence, the judicious scoring scheme has been evolved.
Table 7.3: Educational Status of all Respondents
Category Score Range No. of Respondents % to Total Respondents Illiterate 0 171 38.00 Less Educated <1.5 142 31.56 Moderately Educated 1.5-2.5 98 21.78 Highly Educated 2.6 & Above 39 8.66 Total 450 100
Source: Based on Primary Survey, Jan & Feb 2016
Finally, they have been arranged in ascending order and divided into four categories which shows that 171 out of 450 respondents accounted to nearly 38 per cent illiterate which is a very discouraging picture. Another discouraging picture, which emerges, is that nearly 31.56 per cent of the respondents are less educated. Hence, it leaves only 21.78 per cent for moderately and 8.66 per cent for highly educated respondents.
A closer look at the summary table and the scrutiny of the questionnaire reveals that the majority of the educated respondents belong to the younger age group, while much larger percentage of the elder group seems to be illiterate or very poorly
230 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis educated. This further show that the various programmes and policies of the government for the upliftment of rural population has started bearing the fruit but it has not affected the population on a large scale. However, there is a hope of improvement in the educational level of the rural people, which is a sign of social transformation.
EDUCATIONAL STATUS OF ALL RESPONDENTS 40 [VALUE].00
31.56
30
21.78 20
Percentage 10 8.66
0 Illiterate Less Educated Moderately Highly Educated Educated
Fig. 7.3
7.3.3. Family Size of the Respondents:
Most of the families, especially in the rural area, are large in size and extended or joint in composition. Parents generally prefer to live with their married sons with their families. By and large, it is the family, instead of the individuals, which is the unit of social action. The thought and actions of the individual members in the family, in a large measure, are influenced by the family as a single entity. The personality of a member of a large family is somewhat different from that of a member belonging to a small family. Hence, the size of a family has a major role in deciding the type of occupation to be adopted as well as in the process of its development. Therefore, the total member of the selected respondents were enumerated during the course of the fieldwork. In the present study the family includes all the members of the selected respondents who live in one household and share the single kitchen. On the basis of the total members of the household, families were arranged in ascending order, and finally, grouped into five categories.
231 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
As is evident from table 7.4 that the size of family of the respondents ranges between below 5 members to more than 15 members. The small size of family accounts roughly 23.56 per cent of the total households, while the medium size covers roughly 56.22 per cent of the total households.
Table 7.4: Family Size of all Respondents
Category Size of Family No. of Respondents % to Total Respondents Small <5 106 23.56 Medium 5-10 253 56.22 Large 10-15 82 18.22 Very Large 15 & above 9 2.00 Total 450 100
Source: Based on Primary survey, Jan & Feb, 2016
Family Size of All Respondent
56.22 60 50
40 23.56 30 18.22 20 PERCENTAGE 10 2.00
0 Small Medium Large Very Large
Fig. 7.4
As such almost 80 per cent of the respondents belong to small and medium size of family, which shows a positive sign of social transformation. These respondents are realizing the importance and advantages of smaller size of the family as compared to large ones. The large size of family accounts roughly 18.22 per cent of the total number of households, while the very large size family covers only 2 per cent of the total households. This is again the testimony of the fact that people do not prefer large size of family.
232 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
7.3.4. Size of Landholding of Respondents:
There is an inherent relationship between size of holding and socio-economic transformation. The sociological and anthropological studies provide enough evidence to prove the fact that the extent of land ownership is an important indicator of one’s socio-economic status. It is more so in an essentially agricultural country like India where land, being scarce, is much valued by the people. There are mainly two types of landholdings, viz. Actual and operational. Actual size of holding includes all the land entered in the name of an individual in the government records irrespective of the fact whether he cultivates it by himself or not, whereas operational size of holding is the land on which the farmers operate to produce agricultural commodities.
Table 7.5: Operational Size of Land Holdings of all Respondents
Category Acre Range No. of Respondents % to Total Respondents Marginal <1 236 52.45 Small size 1-2.5 114 25.33 Semi-Medium 2.5-5 53 11.78 Medium 5 -10 29 6.44 Large >10 18 4.00 Total 450 100
Source: Based on Primary Survey, Jan & Feb, 2016
OPERATIONAL SIZE OF LAND HOLDING
6% 4%
12%
53%
25%
Marginal Small size Semi-Medium Medium Large
Fig. 7.5
233 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
It is evident from table 7.5 that only 52.45 per cent of respondents practice agriculture with marginal size of land holdings, while 25.33 per cent of the respondents are practice agriculture with small size of land holding. Nearly 18.22 per cent of the respondents are practice agriculture with semi-medium and medium size of land holdings and only 4 per cent respondents have large size of land holdings. The above discussion clearly indicates that the size of holding is marginal among the farming respondents
7.3.5. Level of Innovativeness:
The operational size of holdings and their mode of utilization during different cropping seasons ascertains the economic status of the rural masses in India. Larger the size of holding coupled with high intensity of cropping together with high yield indicate the high economic status and vice versa is true in the opposite case. But the high intensity of cropping and high yield of crops are dependent on adoption of agricultural innovation such as farm implements, chemical fertilizers, high yielding varieties of seeds, insecticides and pesticides and irrigation facilities. Therefore, data were collected regarding the adoption of these innovations during the fieldwork. As these innovations are varied in nature and character, they cannot be added or averaged in order to calculate the composite index of adoption for the assessment of level of innovativeness. Hence in order to bring all the innovations and the several variations in their adoption at uniform level, a well thought of scoring scheme has been used. The scores of individual respondents are added together in order to get his final scores. The respondents are arranged in ascending order on the basis of their score. Finally they have been grouped into five categories.
Level of Innovativeness of all Respondents:
It is obvious from table 7.6 that majority of the respondents are not very innovative. Roughly 13 percent of the total farming respondents are least innovative while about 46 percent are less innovative.
234 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
Table 7.6: Level of Innovativeness of all Respondents
Category Score Range No. of Respondents % to Total Respondents Least Innovative <1.50 59 13.11 Less Innovative 1.51-2.50 209 46.44 Moderately Innovative 2.51-5.00 76 16.89 Highly Innovative 5.01 -7.50 69 15.34 Very Highly Innovative >7.50 37 8.22 Total 450 100
Source: Based on Primary Survey, Jan & Feb, 2016
Level of Innovativeness of All Respondents
46.44 50 40
30
20 16.89 15.34 13.11 Percentage 8.22 10
0 Least Less Moderately Highly Very Highly Innovative Innovative Innovative Innovative Innovative
Fig 7.6
As depicted above about 59 percent of the total farming respondents fall under this category (Fig.7.6). This is because of the fact that the farmers neither have the infrastructure nor the capital to adopt agricultural innovations. About 24 percent farming respondents belong to highly and very highly category of level of innovativeness. A close look of the master table and the questionnaire indicates that they are the respondents with large size of holdings and improved infrastructural facilities.
235 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
7.4. Level of Social Transformation:
Ever since independence, government has formulated and implemented various programmes and policies through its various plans for the development of agriculture, but the main aim of the government was social upliftment of the public. As a result, there have been considerable changes in various social parameters of the people. Among various social parameters changing attitude of the respondents towards education, marriage, family planning, religion, political awareness and involvement have been considered here.
7.4.1. Preference of the Quality of Education:
Preference of the quality of the education is a good indicator of the desire and ambition of the parents for the education of their children. While processing the questionnaire regarding the preference of location of school for the education of the children it was found that 176 respondents covering 39.22 per cent have preferred government schools for their daughters and sons. While 274 respondents covering 60.88 per cent of the total have preferred private schools for the education of their children’s.
Table 7.7: Preference of School for their Children
Preference Children No. of Respondents % to Total Respondents Daughter Son
Govt. School 84 92 176 39.22
Private School 112 162 274 60.88
Total 450 100
Source: Based on Primary Survey, Jan & Feb, 2016
236 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
Prefernce of School for Children
39.22
60.88
Govt. School Private School
Fig. 7.7
The statistical analysis presents that the parents are not only concerned about the education of their children but they prefer quality education by sending their children to private school, they almost equally concerned with the quality of education for their daughters and finally, in the lower standards, particularly for primary education the preference is more toward private schools as compared to government school. The above analysis represents the overall picture of preference of school of their children but there is a lot of variation at spatial level.
7.4.2. Preference of Location of School:
Preference of the location of the school is a good indicator of the desire and ambition of the parents for the education of their children. It has been observed that generally the parents prefer a school, which is very easily accessible irrespective of its quality. But parents who are concerned about quality education prefer to send their children outside the village or even to the towns and cities in search of quality of education.
237 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
Table 7.8: Preference of Location of School of Respondents for their Children
Children Location No. of Respondents % to Total Respondents Son 339 75.33 Within Village Daughter 111 24.67 Total 450 100
Son Outside 402 89.33 Daughter Village 48 10.67 Total 450 100
Source: Based on Primary Survey, Jan & Feb, 2016
Preference of Location of School 100 89.33 90 80 75.33
70 60 50 40 Percentage 30 24.67 20 10.67 10 0 Within Village Within Village Outside Village Outside Village
Son Dautghter Son Daughter
Fig. 7.8
The aspiration for the education of the children may be even stronger if they prefer to send their children outside their place of residence. It is generally observed that if the parents send their children for education outside their locality. It is very strong proof of their desire of the higher and quality education.
It is obvious from table 7.9 that 339 respondents covering about 75.33 per cent of the total respondents have given their preferences regarding the education of their sons within the village while only 24.67 per cent of the respondents shows their desire
238 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis to educate their daughter within the village. On the other hand 89.33 per cent of the total respondents have given their preferences regarding the education of their sons outside the village while only 10.67 per cent of the respondents shows their desire to educate their daughter outside the village, which makes sense that it is more risky and problematic to send daughters outside the village
7.4.3. Attitude towards Marriage:
Marriage is a socio-religious bond among the people of the opposite sex and is normally expected to remain intact till the termination of life. In the past there were many superstitions, misbelieves and traditional and orthodox view point about various parameters of marriage but now the whole marriage system is in the process of change. The attitude towards various aspects of marriage such as child marriage, widow marriage, widowhood, re-marriage, love marriage and inter caste marriage has undergone a major change. Various rituals of marriage have not only changed but have become more simple and modernized. They are becoming more liberal and more receptive to modern ideologies. They are becoming more liberal and more respective to modern ideologies. The process of change has been set in motion and it may pick up very soon.
Table 7.9: Preference of age of Marriage for Boy Child
Preferred Age No. of Respondents % to Total Respondents
< 22 272 60.45
22-25 137 30.44
>25 41 9.11
Total 450 100
Source: Based on Primary Survey, Jan & Feb, 2016
239 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
Preference of age of Marriage for Boy Child
70 60
50 40 30 Percentage 20
10 0 < 22 22-25 >25
Fig. 7.9
Table 7.10: Preference of age of Marriage for Girl Child
Preferred Age No. of Respondents % to Total Respondents
< 18 353 78.44
18 – 21 72 16.00
> 21 25 5.56
Total 450 100
Source: Based on Primary Survey, Jan & Feb, 2016
However, in order to assess the change in the attitude of the respondents towards the marriage several indicators such as age at marriage, nature of marriage, distance of marriage, process of marriage, dowry system etc. have been taken into consideration. The responses of the respondents have been recorded and the brief summary of the same is presented below.
240 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
Preference of age of Marriage for Girl Child 90 80 . 70
60 50 40
Percentage 30 20
10 0 < 18 18 – 21 > 21
Fig. 7.10
The preference of age at the marriage for the female child is different from the male child. It has been observed that the respondents prefer lower age for their marriage of their daughters. Table 7.10 showing the age preference for the female child indicates that 62.89 per cent respondents prefer less than 18 years of the age for girl child marriage, while around 37.11 per cent has reported above 18 years of age for girl child marriage. It has been revealed that child marriage is rampant in rural Malda and an adolescent girl is normally married by the age of 15 or 16. This study reveals that many rural and backward communities more particularly the Muslim, Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Other Backward Classes (OBCs) communities in Malda commonly observe the practice of child marriage. Such a relationship between child marriage and community is not a mere coincidence. It has rather been observed that social and economic exclusions in the form of poverty, landlessness, unemployment, illiteracy, lack of awareness and large family size of a great majority of members of such communities contribute to the resilience and stability of the practice. It has also been observed that persistence of strong social and community bonds due to kinship ties, religious obligations and social practices leave very little space for any individual or family to rise above the tradition.
241 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
7.4.4. Attitude towards Family Planning:
The explosive rate of growth of population is considered to be the greatest menace in the course of transformation of our society. Earlier the rural masses had conservative approach regarding the size of family. They considered large size family as a measure for social security and instrument for generating economic pursuit. According to them children are the gift of nature and any measure to prevent it is really a sin. But the younger and educated people are changing their structure and system of the family.
Table 7.11: Index of Family Planning
Category Score Range No. of Respondents % to Total Respondents High >3.50 67 14.89 Medium 3.50 – 2.50 105 23.33 Low < 2.50 278 61.78 Total 450 100
Source: Based on Primary Survey, Jan & Feb, 2016
ATTITUDE TOWARDS FAMILY PLANNING
14.89
23.33 61.78
High Medium Low
Fig. 7.11
It is clear from table 7.11 that about 61.78 per cent of the respondents are at lower wave in case of adoption of family planning programmes. It shows their strong bonds with rituals, traditions, customs and religion. However, there is hope of
242 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
adoption of this programme because 23.33 percent respondents belong to medium category, while 14.89 percent are in higher category. A scrutiny of master table shows that most of the respondents in the higher category are the educated younger generation respondents.
7.4.5. Level of Religiosity:
Religion is a very important social indicator which provides a very strong bond of social fabric among the masses especially in Indian context. It has a very deep root in Indian social system and has a strong bearing on various other social parameters. In the past all the events in the society were attributed to religion. Various kind of superstitions and misbelieves were there. Religion has a very strong bearing on the economic activity of the people too. But gradually with the increasing level of education the attitude towards religion is changing. People are becoming more liberal, less superstitious and less orthodox. They are now more receptive to new ideas and practices.
Table 7.12: Level of Religiosity of all respondents
Level of religiosity Score range No. of Respondents % to Total Respondents
Less religiosity < 1.25 120 26.67
Moderately religiosity 1.25 - 2.00 141 31.33
Highly Religiosity > 2.00 189 42.00
Total 450 100
Source: Based on Primary Survey, Jan & Feb, 2016
A cursory glance at table 7.12 shows an overall change in the level of religiosity of all the categories of respondents. More than one-fifth respondent have come out to be less religious. A closure look of the questionnaire shows that they have become less superstitious, lesser believer in climate as the punishment of God and performing poojas at various occasions. Nearly 31 percent of respondents have moderate belief in religion while 42 percent respondent have high belief in it.
243 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
7.4.6. Political Awareness and Involvement:
An attempt has been made to assess the political awareness and involvement among respondents by imposing a number of questions related to national and international political affairs. Queries were made regarding their involvement at national and local level politics. As the nature of the questions it was difficult to aggregate them. Therefore, the responses of the respondents were given weighted score. Respondents were arranged in ascending order of their score and grouped into three categories (Table 7.13).
Table 7.13: Political Awareness of all Respondents
Category Score range No. of Respondents % to Total Respondents Less involved <1.00 199 44.22 Moderately involved 1.00-1.50 143 31.78 More involved >1.50 108 24.00 Total 450 100
Source: Based on Primary Survey, Jan & Feb, 2016
POLITICAL AWARENESS OF RESPONDENTS
44.22 50 40 31.78 24.00 30
20 Percentage 10
0 Less involved Moderately More involved involved
Fig. 7.12
Table 7.13 showing the degree of political awareness and involvement of the selected respondent indicates that around 44 percent of the respondents are poorly involved in the political affairs at national or state or local levels, whereas about 32
244 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis percent fall under moderate category, remaining around 24 percent are highly involved in political affairs. This statistical analysis clearly indicates the higher involvement of masses into the national and local level politics.
7.4.7. Level of Social Mobility:
Mobility by and large, symbolises progressiveness. Mobility paves the path of progress, while immobility leads to stagnation. A mobile person gets exposed to a wide range of human endeavour. Repeated exposure to new ideas and increasing familiarity with new socio-cultural order speeds up the process of social change and provides impetus towards greater socio-economic transformation.
Table 7.14: Level of Social Mobility of all Respondents
Category Score range No. of Respondents % to Total Respondents Less Mobile <1.50 279 62.00 Moderately Mobile 1.50-1.75 89 19.78 Highly Mobile >1.75 82 18.22 Total 450 100
Source: Based on Primary Survey, Jan & Feb, 2016
LEVEL OF SOCIAL MOBILITY OF RESPONDENT
62.00 70 60 50 40 19.78 18.22 Percentage 30
20 10 0 Less mobile Moderately More mobile mobile
Fig. 7.13
245 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
The process and speed of mobility depends on mode of mobility which is the function of availability of transport, infrastructure of the state of the one hand and individual’s capability to have his own means of transport on the other hand which is again the manifestation of economic importance. As the mode of transport, places and persons visited, distance travelled etc. are different, and they have given weightage score in order to bring them uniform level. The mobility scores of all respondents have been work out separately, and finally, they have been classified into three categories on the basis of standard score change. Table 7.14 indicates about 18 percent of the total respondents are highly mobile using their own convenience and frequently visiting friends, relatives and Govt. officials. There are 89 respondents covering 19 percent of the total respondents who are moderately mobile. As such about one-third of the total respondent are mobile which is an indicator of social transformation. Less than two-thirds of the respondents have come out to be less mobile because of their poor economic conditions, low level of education and lesser contacts with the officials.
7.4.8. Overall Level of Social Transformation:
In the preceding discussion the social transformation has been described and explained with respect to 6 selected indicators which have shown positive and encouraging level of change at differential levels. As these indicators are of different character and nature, and have been given different scoring scheme, they cannot be directly averaged out in order to get overall level of social transformation. Therefore, a composite index of social transformation with the help of following formula has been worked out:
∑ Composite Index of Transformation (CIT) =
Where, Xij = Score value of ith social element
N = Number of Social elements
246 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
Table 7.15: Composite Index of Social Transformation
Category Score range No. of Respondents % to Total Respondents High >3.50 116 25.78 Medium 3.50-2.50 139 30.89 Low <2.50 195 43.33 Total 450 100
Source: Based on Primary Survey, Jan & Feb, 2016
The result thus obtained is 3.10 in which 0.40 is added and a rounded scale of more than 3.50 scores (High), 3.50-2.50 scores (Medium) and less than 2.50 scores (Low) has been taken to classify the respondents. Consequently the respondents have been grouped into three categories based on their individual scores of social transformation (Table 7.15).
Table 7.15 gives a very encouraging result of social transformation indicating that about one-fourth of the total respondents have high level of social transformation, while almost one-third fall in the medium category. The scrutiny of individual score of transformation of respondents indicates that about half of respondents have scores higher than the standard scale of social transformation. However, a little more than two-fifths of respondents have low level of social transformation.
7.5. Level of Economic Transformation:
Ever since independence government has formulated and implemented various programmes and policies for the overall transformation of the country. Many of these programmes had been directly related with the upliftment of the rural masses in particular. The aggregate effect of all these programmes and policies is manifested in overall economic prosperity of the rural masses. It has been observed that the process of transformation is comparatively more quick and rapid among the people with better economic status than the people with lower ones.
For the economic transformation there could be several indicators but it is very difficult to generate data for all these indicators. Therefore, for the assessment of economic transformation income level, standard of living housing condition, exposure to mass media have been taken into consideration. A brief account of each of these are given here.
247 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
7.5.1. Level of Per Capita Income:
After Independence, India has been persistently trying to increase the per capita income to raise the standard of living of its masses by inducting various programmes and policies during Five year Plans which have actually started bearing the fruit after mid- sixties when the Green Revolution Programme was launched in 1966-67 in India. Subsequently various other programmes of rural upliftment especially for weaker and downtrodden section of the society were introduced with have diversified the occupational structure of the rural masses and subsequently have helped in increasing their income level. Although per capita income is very good indicator for the assessment of economic status. However, in order to work out per capita income of the respondents, the earnings of all family members in what so ever form it was, were ascertained by putting several questions in different forms. The total earnings including agricultural produce of the household, thus ascertained into monetary value with a uniform standard conversion scale, and finally, divided with the total members of the household. Finally, based on the results, the respondents have been grouped into three categories.
Table 7.16: Index of income level of all respondents
Category Income range No. of Respondents % to Total Respondents
Low <1500 181 40.22
Medium 1500-3000 153 34.00
High >3000 116 25.78
Total 450 100
Source: Based on Primary Survey, Jan & Feb, 2016
248 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
INDEX OF INCOME LEVEL OF RESPONDENTS 45 40.22 40 34.00 35
30 25.78 25 20
Percentage 15 10 5 0 Low Medium High
Fig. 7.14
Table 7.16 shows that around two-fifths of the total respondents fall under the category of low-income group, while about 34 per cent fall under medium category. As such nearly 74 per cent respondents do not have enough income to maintain a reasonable standard of living. A closure look at the master table indicates that majority of the respondents belong to schedule caste and other backward population. About 26 per cent respondents belong to higher income group. Many of them are non- schedule caste and higher caste respondents having large size of holdings.
7.5.2. Level of Standard of Living:
In fact the standard of living is a very effective indicator to estimate the socio- economic condition of the people. Although mere observation and making qualitative comments of standard of living is easier but its quantitative measurement is comparatively difficult because it is, by and large, manifestation of income, housing condition, dress and dressing materials, exposure to mass media, social status and a host of such conditions. Per capita income is, perhaps, the main factor but it is not everything for the assessment of standard of living. However, in order to gauge it, various pin pointed and inferential questions were framed and administered on various possible parameters considered to be contributing to standard of living. As the nature of queries and the responses of the respondents were of varied nature, judicious
249 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis scores have been given to them. And on the basis the standard of living and the changes there have been worked out for all the respondents who have been classified into three categories according to the scale of standard of change (Table 7.17).
Table 7.17: Level of Standard of living of all respondents
Category Score range No. of Respondents % to Total Respondents Poor <2.5 189 42.00 Moderate 2.5-3.5 167 37.11 Good >3.5 94 20.89 Total 450 100
Source: Based on Primary Survey, Jan & Feb, 2016
LEVEL OF STANDARD OF LIVING OF ALL RESPONDENTS
20.89 42.00
37.11
Poor Moderate Good
Fig. 7.15
The above analysis an observation of collected facts and semi-processed data reveal many obvious results about the degree of change in standard of living of the respondents. As a result of all these a little less than one-fifth of the total respondents fall in the high category. A close look at the master table indicates that most of these respondents are non-scheduled caste respondents with larger size of land holdings. Nearly 37 per cent respondents come under medium category. About 42 per cent respondents have lower standard of living. Majority of these are scheduled castes.
250 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
7.5.3. Level of Housing Condition:
The house is an individual identity symbol reflecting ones socio-economic status and prestige. A suitable house is one of those basic needs of human life without which one cannot conceive of a life worth living. It influences ones physical health and mental efficiency. Consequently it affects the skill and productivity which ultimately determines individual’s socio-economic status. Prior to Independence or even up to two decades late, the rural houses of the rural masses were in bad shape and were mainly made of mud walls and thatched roofs which they could not renovate annually due to lack of financial resources. They use to keep their cows, goats and other animals, if at all they were there, in one of the corners of the same house. But as the process of transformation has brought economic prosperity respondents have started investing a lot in improving their housing condition. They are gradually changing their mud-thatched houses into mud-tiles, brick-tiles and ultimately into reinforced bricks and cement (RBC) houses. Reinforced cement and concrete (RCC) houses are also frequently observed.
It is more complex to decide the housing condition in rural area. Housing is universally complex commodity and it is difficult to gouge and compare them in totality. With this view many questions related to various component of houses such as size, location, storage, number of rooms, guest rooms, building materials, households, toilets have been taken into consideration in this study. Based on the housing condition, the respondents have been grouped into three categories (Table 7.18).
Table 7.18: Level of Housing Condition of all respondent
Category Score range No. of Respondents % to Total Respondents Poor <5 131 29.11 Moderate 5---10 227 50.44 Good >10 92 20.44 Total 450 100
Source: Based on Primary Survey, Jan & Feb, 2016
251 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
HOUSING CONDITION OF RESPONDENTS
20.44 29.11
50.44
Poor Moderate Good
Fig. 7.16
Table 7.18 shows that the houses of around 20 per cent of the total respondents are good, while a little more than 50 per cent come under moderate category. Nearly 29 per cent of the respondents have poor housing condition (Fig 7.18). This statistical account clearly shows that the housing condition of the rural masses has improved with the increase of their income.
7.5.4. Level of Exposure to Mass Media:
Exposure to mass media is an important indicator of socio-economic transformation as it reaches the audience more easily and many a times directly, and affects knowledge, attitude, opinion and behaviour of individual. It not only exposes the masses regarding various innovations and technologies in different fields but it also demonstrates the benefits and achievements of people who have opted them. With this backlog an attempt has been made to assess the level of exposure of the respondents by posing questions regarding various sources of mass media such as radio, transistor, television, newspaper etc.
252 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
Table 7.19: Level of Exposure to mass media of all respondents
Category Score range No. of Respondents % to Total Respondents Less Exposed <2.00 84 18.67 Moderately Exposed 2.00 - 5.00 192 42.67 Highly Exposed >5.00 174 38.67 Total 450 100
Source: Based on Primary Survey, Jan & Feb, 2016
LEVEL OF EXPOSURE TO MASS MEDIA OF RESPONDENTS
42.67 50 38.67
40
30 18.67
20 Percentage 10
0 Less Exposed Moderately Highly Exposed Exposed
Fig. 7.17
A glance at individual scores shows that there is a lot of variation in its ranging from 1.00 to 7.50 scores, but larger number of respondents are on moderate side. Table 7.19 showing the level of exposure of respondents to mass media indicate that 38.67 per cent respondents are highly expose to mass media, while about 42.67 per cent are moderately exposed the higher level of exposures is due to the fact that radio, transistors and television have become very common. The increasing level of literacy, the newspaper and magazines especially the local ones are also contributing to the level of exposure. Moreover, tea stalls, local hats, market places and many such other places of gathering are also contributing a lot to the level of exposure because here people not only discuss the political affairs of local and national nature but many innovative technologies and their achievements are also discuss which ultimately enhance their level of exposure.
253 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
7.5.5. Level of Occupational Transformation:
Due to induction of various programmes and policies by the government during the Five Year Plans and growing awareness and awakening, the occupational structure of the masses has undergone a change. They are no longer satisfied with a single occupation and various subsidiary occupations not only to meet the requirement of their household but also to improve their socio-economic status. The study reveal that apart from agriculture which is the main occupation of the mass respondent’s dairy farming, poultry farming, fishing and labourer to other occupation which have been adopted by the respondent on commercial as well as subsistence basis. As all these occupations are of different in nature, they cannot be aggregated. Hence, the weightage have been given in order to assess the occupational transformation and the results are represented in the Table 7.20.
Table 7.20: Level of Occupational Transformation
Category Score range No. of Respondents % to Total Respondents
Low <2.00 129 28.67
Medium 2---3 178 39.56
High >3.00 143 31.78
Total 450 100
Source: Based on Primary Survey, Jan & Feb, 2016
Table 7.20 shows that a less than one-third respondent have high level of occupational transformation, while 178 respondents accounting 39.56 percent of the total belongs to medium category.
254 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
LEVEL OF OCCUPATIONAL TRASFORMATION OF ALL RESPONDENT
Low Medium High
Fig. 7.18
The remaining 28.67 percent fall in low category. A closure look in the questionnaire and master table indicates that there is not much difference in occupational transformation at inter-caste level. By and large, younger generation and educated respondents belong to higher category, while older ones and less educated fall either in medium or low category.
7.5.6. Overall Level of Economic Transformation:
The above discussion and analysis of level of economic transformation with respect to selected economic indicators show intra and inter indicator variations in all of them. Hence, in order to get the aggregate picture of level of level of economic transformation the composite index of economic transformation has been worked out using the same formula used in overall social transformation.
The result obtained in this equation is 3.26 which has been rounded up to 3.50 and finally three grades viz. more than 3.50 scores, 3.50 to 2.50 scores, less than 2.50 scores have been identified. Accordingly the respondents have been grouped into three categories (Table 7.21)
255 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
Table 7.21 shows that about 17 percent of the total respondent have recorded high economic transformation who comparatively have larger size of holding. About 32 percent respondent shown moderate change and they are distributed across all the categories of respondents. Nearly half of the respondents have shown low level of economic transformation and they are mostly poor respondents.
Table 7.21: Composite Index of Economic Transformation
Category Score range No. of Respondents % to Total Respondents
High <3.50 78 17.33
Medium 2.50-3.50 143 31.78
Low > 2.50 229 50.89
Total 450 100
Source: Based on Primary Survey, Jan & Feb, 2016
7.6. Level of Socio-Economic Transformation:
Although while discussing and explaining various demographic characteristics such as age composition, educational status of respondents and household, attitude towards education, size of family, attitude towards family welfare programmes, religiosity, occupational structure and its transformation, housing condition, income level, standard of living, social mobility etc., the levels of social and economic transformation have been discussed at various level. However, in order to evaluate socio-economic transformation with reference to certain parameters, the composite index of socio-economic transformation has been worked out by using very simple technique with reference to general caste and other caste, young and old, economically well and poor, educated and illiterate respondents. The weightage scores of all parameters of change of individuals of a category have been added together and divided by number of individuals in the category.
256 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
Table 7.22: Composite Index of Socio-Economic Transformation of the Respondents
No. of C.I of Sl. No. Types of Respondents Respondents Transformation 1.a. General Caste 127 3.25
1.b SCs, STs & OBC Caste 323 2.19
2.a. Younger Respondents 184 3.18
2.b. Older Respondents 266 1.63 Economically well of 3.a 122 3.84 Respondents 3.b. Poor Respondents 328 1.97
4.a. Educated Respondents 198 4.01
4.b. Illiterate Respondents 252 1.93
The result of this exercise reveals that the composite index of socio-economic transformation of general caste 28 percent of the total respondents is 3.25 while in other caste respondents who cover 72 percent of the total is 2.19 (Table 7.22). Therefore, it proves that the level and rate of socio-economic transformation is more among general caste as compared to other caste population.
The table also shows that the younger generation accounting about 41 percent of the total respondents have also high level of socio-economic transformation. The composite index in case of younger people is 3.18, whereas it is only 1.63 for older people. Hence, it may safely be inferred that level and rate of socio-economic transformation is more among younger generation than the older ones.
An attempt has also been made to work out the composite index of socio- economic transformation of economically well of and poor respondents 27 percent and 73 percent of the total respondent respectively. The composite of the former ones is 3.84, while it is 1.97 in case of later. Hence, it proves level and rate of socio- economic transformation is more among economically well of respondents as compared to poor ones.
257 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
Another difference in the level of socio-economic transformation is found at the differential level of education. The results show that the educated respondents which account 44 percent of the total respondents have a composite index of 4.01, while corresponding figure is 1.93 in case of illiterate respondents. It also proves that level and rate of socio-economic transformation is more among educated people as compared to illiterate people.
Table 7.23: List of Variables of Agricultural Development
Variables Description of Variables
X1 Percentage of farmers to total population Human Resource X2 Percentage of literates to total population
X3 Number of tractors per 10000 hectares to gross cropped area
X4 Number of pumpset per 10000 hectares to gross cropped area
X5 Number of threshers per 10000 hectares to gross cropped area Technology X6 Number of power tillers per 1000 hectares to gross cropped area
X7 Number of sprayers per 1000 hectares to gross cropped area
X8 Consumption of fertilizers in kg/hectares
X9 Area irrigated by pump-sets in percent
Irrigation X10 Area irrigated by tube-wells in percent
X11 Gross irrigated area to gross cropped area
X12 Area under medium land holdings in percent Land Holdings X13 Area under small land holdings in percent Percentage farmers using agricultural cooperative societies to total X14 farmers Finance X15 Percentage of seed store to total farmers
7.7. Level of Agricultural Development in Sampled Villages:
The level of agricultural development of the sampled villages has been assessed on the basis of selected variables (Table 7.23). Fifteen variables of agricultural development has taken into consideration.
258 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
Table 7.24: Spatial Pattern of Agricultural Development in Selected Villages
No. of Category Indices Name of the Villages Villages
High Above 0.122 3 Chaksundar, Rishipur, Adatala
Alihanda, Baharal, Paranpur, Balampur, Medium 0.122 - -0.122 7 Sekhpura, Panchanandapur, Suzapur Mandai Barui, Talbha Kuria, Jitarpur, Uttar Low Below -0.122 5 Jadupur, Gayesbari
Source: Prepared by Researcher
7.7.1. High Level of Agricultural Development:
The level of agricultural development is set out into three groups, viz. high, medium and low. The high level of agricultural development has been observed in three villages namely, Rishipur (0.374), Chaksundar (0.354) and Adatala (0.353) with an index range above 0.122. These villages have the high level agricultural development due to use fertilizers, HYV seeds, use of machineries with good irrigation facilities, high level of literacy among farmers.
7.7.2. Medium Level of Agricultural Development:
There are seven villages marked with medium level of agricultural development with an index range between 0.122 to -0.122. These seven villages are Alihanda (-0.106), Baharal (0.068), Paranpur (0.112), Balarampur (0.009), Sekhpura (0.092), Panchanandapur (0.099) and Suzapur Mandai (-0.037).
7.7.3. Low Level of Agricultural Development:
The low agricultural development has been confined in five villages, namely Barui (-0.322), Talbha Kuria (-0.232), Jitarpur (-0.189), Uttar Jadupur (-0.363) and Gayesbari (-0.235). Poor technology, poor irrigation facilities and small land holdings, less consumption of fertilizer are the causes for low level of agricultural development in these villages.
259 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
Fig. 7.19
260 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
7.8. Village wise Level of Socio-Economic Transformation:
Although while discussion and explaining various indicators of socio- economic transformation such as education quality, distance of education, age of marriage, family planning, religiosity, political awareness, per capita income, living standard, housing condition and media awareness have been discussed at village level.
Therefore, in order to assess the overall socio-economic transformation a composite index of transformation have been worked out by using Kendall’s rank order score method. According to this method, the village which has high score fall under low category of development and vice-versa.
Table 7.25: Spatial Pattern of Socio-Economic Transformation in Selected Villages
No. of Category Indices Name of the Villages Villages
High Below – 1.69 3 Chaksundar, Rishipur, Adatala
Alihanda,, Paranpur, Balampur, Medium 7.57 - -1.69 7 Sekhpura, Jitarpur, Uttar Jadupur, Gayesbari
Barui, Talbha Kuria, Baharal, Low Above 7.57 5 Panchanandapur, Suzapur Mandai
Source: Prepared by Researcher based on Appendix
7.8.1. High Level of Socio-Economic Transformation:
The category of high transformation consists of three villages namely, Chaksundar, Adatala and Rishipur with an index range below –1.69. The villages with high transformation index received better quality of education, high income level, better living condition, good housing condition, political awareness, media awareness. All these indicators are responsible for high level of socio-economic transformation in these three villages.
261 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
Fig. 7.20
262 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
7.8.2. Medium Level of Socio-Economic Transformation:
There are seven villages marked with medium transformation index and show a range of variation between 7.57 to -1.69. The villages belonging to medium transformation index are Alihanda, Jitarpur, Uttar Jadupur, Paranpur, Balarampur, and Sekhpura. All these villages have recorded moderate level of social and economic conditions.
7.8.3. Low Level of Socio-Economic Transformation:
Remaining six villages fall under the low category of socio-economic transformation with the index value above 7.57. These six villages are Barui, Talbha Kuria, Baharal, Gayesbari, Panchanandapur and Suzapur Mandai show low transformation index. The concentration of backward class people particularly muslims is high in these villages which is the most important factor for low level of socio-economic transformation. Apart from it, poor quality of education, low per capita income, early marriages (girls), less involved in politics, less awareness about mass media, low standard of living are the responsible factors for low development in these villages.
7.9. Agricultural Development vis-à-vis Socio-Economic Transformation:
Agriculture is the prime source of income for the rural people of Malda district. Nearly 75 percent people are engaged in agricultural activities. The socio- economic condition of the people largely depends on agriculture. Agricultural practices in the district is age sensitive, as younger generation is coming up and actively participating in the decision making process of the household affairs. Funding of agriculture in the rural areas where the bulk of the farmers live have also brought a lacuna in accelerating socio-economic development via agriculture.
The agricultural development vis-a-vis socio-economic transformation is shown in Fig. 7.21. In the key of the map, abscissa represents socio-economic transformation and ordinate represent agricultural development.
The Fig. 7.21 reveals that there is three villages namely, Chaksundar, Rishipur and Adatala villages have high level of agricultural development as well as high level of socio-economic transformation. Only four villages i.e. Alihanda, Paranpur, Balarampur and Seikhpura villages have medium level of agricultural development and medium level of socio-economic transformation. Three villages i.e. Jitarpur, Uttar
263 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
Jadupur and Gayesbari have low level of agriculture development and medium level of socio-economic transformation. Baharal, Panchanadapur and Suzapur Mandai are the three villages which have medium level of agricultural development and low level of socio-economic transformation.
It is clear from the above analysis that the villages where agricultural development is high, socio-economic transformation is also high and vice versa. It means that there is integrated development between agriculture and socio-economic transformation. Therefore, it is proved that agricultural development has a great impact on the socio-economic transformation in the villages of the district.
Table 7.26: Agricultural Development vis-à-vis Socio-Economic Transformation in selected villages of Malda District (2016)
Composite Composite Score Agricultural Score of of Socio- Development vis-à-vis Name of Village Agricultural Economic Socio-Economic Development Transformation Transformation
Barui -0.32 18.39 AD3SET3
Talbha Kuria -0.23 12.48 AD3SET3
Alihanda -0.11 5.49 AD2SET2
Jitarpur -0.19 6.24 AD3SET2
Baharal 0.07 -1.29 AD2SET3
Paranpur 0.11 7.25 AD2SET2
Chaksundar 0.35 -13.75 AD1SET1
Adatala 0.35 -8.39 AD1SET1
Rishipur 0.37 -12.46 AD1SET1
Balarampur 0.01 -0.78 AD2SET2
Uttar Jadupur -0.36 10.33 AD3SET2
Seikhpura 0.09 -1.15 AD2SET2
Gayeshbari -0.24 2.84 AD3SET2
Panchanandapur 0.10 10.32 AD2SET3
Suzapur Mandai -0.04 8.65 AD2SET3
Source: Prepared by Researcher
AD1= High Agricultural Development, AD2= Medium Agricultural Development,
AD3= Low Agricultural Development,
SET1= High Socio-Economic Transformation, SET2= Medium Socio-Economic
Transformation, SET3= Low Socio-Economic Transformation
264 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
Fig. 7.21
265 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
Hypotheses Testing:
Hypothesis has been tested by Karl Pearson correlation method. All research hypotheses are accepted and null hypotheses are rejected at 1 percent or 5 percent significance level.
H1: Agricultural Development is directly related to Agricultural Technology
Table 7.27
Agricultural Development
** Pearson Correlation 0.882 Agricultural Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 Technology N 15
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 significance level (2-tailed)
From the table 7.27, it can see that the correlation coefficient between agricultural development and agricultural technology is 0.882 and the p-value for two-tailed test of significance less than 0.0005 (value less than 0.0005 are shown as 0.000 in SPSS outputs). From this table, we can conclude that there is a strong positive correlation between agriculture development and agricultural technology and this correlation is significant at the significant level of 0.01. Therefore, this research hypothesis is accepted.
H2: The farmers having adequate and assured irrigation facilities are more adoptive of agricultural technology as compared to others.
Table 7.28
Agricultural Technology
* Pearson Correlation 0.626 Irrigation Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000
N 450
**Correlation is significant at the 0.05 significance level (2-tailed)
266 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
Irrigation plays a significant role in adopting agricultural technology. Without irrigation, fertilizers and HYV seeds cannot be used. The relationship between agriculture technology and irrigation can be tested by Karl Pearson correlation technique. Therefore, it can be concluded that there is a significant positive relationship between irrigation and agricultural technology at 5 percent significance level. It means that those farmers who have adequate and assured irrigation facilities can adopt agricultural innovations practices.
H3: Socio-economic transformation is positively related to agricultural development
Table 7.29
Socio-Economic Transformation
** Pearson Correlation 0.746 Agricultural Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 Development N 15
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 significance level (2-tailed).
There is a strong positive correlation between socio-economic transformation and agricultural development and this correlation is significant at the significant level of 0.01. Therefore, this research hypothesis is accepted. It means it can be said that socio-economic transformation is positively related to agricultural development.
267 Chapter-VII: Socio-Economic Transformation - A Micro Level Analysis
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Conclusion & Suggestions Conclusion and Suggestions
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS
The present study is an attempt to examine the existing level of agricultural development and its impact on socio-economic transformation in Malda district. Administratively the region is divided into fifteen community development blocks. The main findings of the research are based on computation of data collected through extensively secondary sources as well as field survey and empirical observations.
Because of abundance of rivers (both large and small) and consequent alluvial soils, Malda has been an important agricultural district since antiquity and commands dense human settlements within its boundaries. Rice cultivation has traditionally been high in the district, making it the breadbasket of Bengal. Shifting rivers and overall ecological changes have however, left an inevitable stamp on the present patterns of human settlement, as a consequence of which settlement density varies considerably across the district. A large part of the Diara, now the most intensely settled region of Malda, began to attract habitations from the early 20th century, after the alluvial ‘Chars’ (lands vacated by a river shifting its course) exposed by the Ganga’s west side migration were opened for revenue settlements. The region on the other hand was in earlier times sparsely habitated and had a substantial forest cover. Relative scarcity of water in this region had made it unsuitable for intensive agriculture. The overall growth of agriculture and allied sectors in Malda has been very slow. Slow growth is a matter of serious impediment towards the target for achieving 4% annual growth in agriculture.
The land use classification of Malda has been made with a view to derive maximum benefits from each type of land whether agricultural or non- agricultural. The land classification envisages in grouping of lands according to their suitability for producing plants of economic importance. It has been noticed that marginal changes have been occurred in all the land use categories in Malda district during the study period. During the study period, positive changes have been noticed in non- agricultural uses, land under miscellaneous uses, culturable waste land and fallow land other than current fallow, whereas negative changes have been observed in current fallow and net sown area. The proportion of net sown area has sharply declined from 222.91 thousand hectares in 2000-01 to 217.98 thousand hectares in 2010-11. This ought to be declined because of urbanization, construction of buildings and developmental works (roads, railways etc.).
270 Conclusion and Suggestions
Cropping patterns of a region are the extent to which the arable land under different agricultural activities can be put to use. The agricultural fields of Malda district are dominated by the cultivation of foodgrains (cereals and pulses). Among the foodgrain crops, rice (Oryza Sativa) is the main staple food in this area and also dominate the district’s agricultural landscape covering about more than half of the district’s total cropped area. It is observed that the area under foodgrains, oilseeds and cash crops decreased during the study period. The reasons behind decrease in crop production of the district are seasonal migration of the people to other state in search of alternative works, less involvement towards agricultural practices, low return from the field and fear of crop loss. During 2000-01, cereals occupied 74.19 percent while pulses occupied only 9.26 percent. Oilseeds covers 9.41 percent and cash crops covers only 7.14 percent of the district. In the year of 2010-11, cereals occupied 75.50 percent while pulses occupied only 5.67 percent in the district as a whole. In case of oilseeds, it covers 10.76 per cent and cash crop covers only 8.08 per cent.
An analysis of growth rate in area and production of individual crops indicates that rice is the leading crop and occupied an area of 213.30 thousand hectares during 2000-01. It has since decreased to 200.80 thousand hectares in 2010-11. As against this the production of rice was 536.20 thousand tonnes in 2000-01, it has decreased to 636.50 thousand tonnes in 2010-11. The average yield of rice rose up from 2513 kg per hectare in 2000-01 to 3140 kg per hectare in 2010-11. Wheat occupied an area of 49.30 thousand hectares in 2000-01 and the area under its cultivation increased sharply to 47.60 thousand hectares in 2010-11. The production of wheat has recorded 129.10 thousand tonnes in 2000-01 and it has increased to 144.00 thousand tonnes in 2010-11. The average yield of wheat was 2616 kg per hectare in 2000-01. It has been decreased to 2220 kg per hectare in 2005-06 and again increased to 3027 kg per hectare in 2010-11.
The area under masur was 7.01 thousand hectares in 2000-01 and the area under its cultivation decreased to 5.68 thousand hectares in 2005-06. It has declined sharply to 3.62 thousand hectares in 2010-11. The production of masur has recorded 7.54 thousand tonnes in 2000-01. The production of masur decreased to 4.67 thousand tonnes in 2005-06 and it has again decreased to 3.29 thousand tonnes in 2010-11. The average yield of gram was 1075 kg per hectare in 2000-01. It has been decreased to 820 kg per hectare in 2005-06 and increased to 908 kg per hectare in 2010-11.
271 Conclusion and Suggestions
The area under maskalai was 16.26 thousand hectares in 2000-01. It has declined sharply to 7.47 thousand hectares in 2010-11. The production of maskalai has recorded 7.53 thousand tonnes in 2000-01. The production of maskalai increased to 8.03 thousand tonnes in 2005-06 and it has decreased to 7.43 thousand tonnes in 2010-11. The average yield of maskalai was 463 kg per hectare in 2000-01 and increased to 993 kg per hectare in 2010-11.
The area under khesari cultivation has come down from 38.80 thousand hectares in 2000-2001 to 35.32 thousand hectares in 2005-06. Its area again decreased to 19.83 thousand hectares in 2010-11.The production of khesari, which was 4.17 thousand tonnes in 2000-01, 3.29 thousand tonnes in 2005-06 and 2.21 thousand tonnes in 2010-11. The average yield of khesari was 1074 kg per hectare in 2000-01. It has been decreased to 933 kg per hectare in 2005-06 and again increased to 1099 kg per hectare in 2010-11.
The area under gram was 7.10 thousand hectares in 2000-01 and the area under its cultivation decreased to 6.10 thousand hectares in 2005-06. It has declined sharply to 2.30 thousand hectares in 2010-11. The production of gram has recorded 5.20 thousand tonnes in 2000-01. The production of gram decreased to 5.10 thousand tonnes in 2005-06 and it has again decreased to 2.40 thousand tonnes in 2010-11. The average yield of gram was 733 kg per hectare in 2000-01. It has been increased to 847 kg per hectare in 2005-06 and again increased to 1074 kg per hectare in 2010-11. From the Table 3.4, the growth rate of area under gram decreased by 67.61 per cent from 2000-01 to 2010-11. The growth rate of production of gram decreased by 53.85 per cent while yield increased by 46.52 per cent.
The area under rapeseed and mustard was 34.90 thousand hectares in 2000-01, 38.00 thousand hectares in 2005-06 and 30.40 thousand hectares in 2010-11.The production of rapeseed and mustard was 36.70 thousand tonnes in 2000-01 and it has decreased to 41.60 thousand tonnes in 2005-06. In the next quinquennial periods, however, the production increased to 31.80 thousand tonnes in 2010-11. The average yield of rapeseed and mustard was 1051 kg per hectare in 2000-01 and it has increased to 1095 kg per hectare in 2005-06. It has decreased to 1047 kg per hectare in 2010-11.
272 Conclusion and Suggestions
The area under sugarcane cultivation has come down from 3.60 thousand hectares in 2000-2001 to 2.60 thousand hectares in 2005-06. Its area again decreased to 2.20 thousand hectares in 2010-11.The production of sugarcane was 299.80 thousand tonnes in 2000-01, which was declined to 288.70 thousand tonnes in 2005- 06 and again declined 212.00 thousand tonnes in 2010-11.The average yield of sugarcane was 83820 kg per hectare in 2000-01. It has been increased to 113012 kg per hectare in 2005-06 and again decreased to 98925 kg per hectare in 2010-11.
In 2000-01, the area under potato was 2.45 thousand hectares but it rose to 2.50 thousand hectares in 2005-06. It has increased to 5.55 thousand hectares in 2010- 11. The production has achieved from 44.50 thousand tonnes in 2000-01 to 38.50 thousand tonnes in 2005-06 to 146.80 thousand tonnes in 2010-11.The average yield of potato was 17838 kg per hectare in 2000-01. It has been decreased to 15243 kg per hectare in 2005-06 and again it increased to 29153 kg per hectare in 2010-11.
The area under jute cultivation has come down from 27.70 thousand hectares in 2000-2001 to 22.20 thousand hectares in 2005-06 18.00 thousand hectares in 2010- 11. The production of jute was 370.80 thousand bales in 2000-01, which was declined to 298.10 thousand bales in 2005-06. It also decreased to 255.60 thousand bales in 2010-11.The average yield of jute was 13.40 bales per hectare in 2000-01. It has been increased to 13.50 bales per hectare in 2005-06 and again increased to 14.20 bales per hectare in 2010-11.
The aggregate growth rate of area under jute decreased by 35.02 per cent from 2000-01 to 2010-11.The growth rate of production of jute decreased by 31.07 per cent and the yield of jute increased by 5.97 per cent.
A comparative analysis reveals that the area under rice crop has grown significantly due to spatial diffusion of technology and development in irrigational facility. Although there is no clear trend in case of other crops but they also appear to have grown in terms of area during the last ten years. It is all because of the availability of water for irrigation. After paddy and wheat, oilseeds and pulses are the other most dominant food crops. The area under pulses also appears to have marginal decreased in size.
273 Conclusion and Suggestions
The index of intensity of cropping in the district was 150 percent in 2000-01, which has increased to 183 percent in 2010-11 which is a sign of healthy agricultural economy. Though for the Malda district the index of intensity of cropping is 183, but there are significant variations across the district. Among the blocks the high cropping intensity found in five blocks namely, Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-I, Chanchal-II and Kaliachak-I during 2000-01. It is because of favourable irrigation facility, extent of new farm technology, climatic and edaphic condition for cultivation of crops. Ratua-I, Gazole, Bamongola, Habibpur and English Bazar are in the category of low index of cropping intensity.
In 2010-11, all the blocks have shown increasing trend of cropping intensity, except Manikchak and Kaliachak-I block. There are five blocks Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-I, Chanchal-II, and Ratua-II which have more than 221 percent of cropping intensity index. Gazole, Bamongola, Habibpur, Old Malda and Manikchak have low index of cropping intensity. These blocks inhabited mostly by general and tribal indigenous population who have not taken interest in the development of agriculture.
During the period of 2000-01 the higher level of crop diversification has been found in Ratua-I, Ratua-II, Manikchak, Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-II and Kaliachak-III. Moderate level of crop diversification has covered Harishchandrapur-I, Chanchal-I, Chanchal-II, Bamongola, Old Malda and English Bazar whereas lower level of crop diversification was in Harishchandrapur-II, Gazole and Habibpur. In 2010-11 the higher level of crop diversification has been registered in Ratua-I, Ratua-II, English Bazar, Manikchak, Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-II and Kaliachak-III. Blocks under moderate level of crop diversification include only two blocks i.e. Harishchandrapur-I and Chanchal-I. The low level of crop diversification has found in Harishchandrapur- II, Chanchal-II, Gazole, Bamongola, Habibpur and Old Malda.
Crop combination regions were worked out keeping in view the importance of integrated assemblage of various crops grown for planning purposes. It has been observed during the study periods i.e. 2000-2001 and 2010-2011 that crop combination ranges from mono crop to eight crops in the entire Malda district. With the passage of time, and the demand, blocks are approaching towards specialization of crops cultivation. For instance the blocks of Ratua-I having three crop
274 Conclusion and Suggestions combination (Rice, Wheat and Jute) during 2000-01. Later on in 2010-11, the block shows two crop combination (Rice and Wheat). Block of Ratua-II was having eight crop combination (Rice followed by Wheat, Jute, R & M, Masur, Khesari, Maskalai and Gram) during 2000-01, its crop combination restricted to seven crop combination (Rice, Wheat, R&M, Jute, Masur, Gram and Maskalai) during 2010-11. The block of Bamongola have two crop combination (Rice and R&M) during 2000- 01. Later on in 2010-11, it shows monoculture (Rice). Kaliachak-I block having five crop combination (Rice, Wheat, Maskalai, R&M and Jute) during 2000-01. During 2010-11, the block shows four crop combination (Wheat, Rice, Jute and R&M). Block of Kaliachak-III shows eight crop combination (Wheat is the dominant crop, followed by Rice, Gram, Maskalai, Jute, Masur, R&M and Khesari during 2000-01, later on in 2010-11, the block having only four crop combination (Rice, R&M, Maskalai and Jute).
Technological and institutional factors are strong inputs for the better productivity of land because their use increases the farm efficiency, saves time and minimize production cost. The type of machinery is changing fast; the older ones are replaced by the better performing the newer ones leading to further increase farm efficiency and farm output. It is therefore better to examine the position of farm machinery in different periods of time for assessing the nature of agricultural development in the study region. The agricultural machinery used for agricultural purposes in Malda relates to tractor, power tiller, pumpset, thresher, laveller and sprayer or duster. The use of these modern agricultural implements has increased during the last decades. Therefore, the number of these implements per 10,000 hectares of gross cropped area has also been increased.
The average number of tractor was 54.17 per ten thousand hectares of gross cropped area in 2000-01, which has increased to 59.28 per ten thousand hectares of gross cropped area in 2010-11. The number of tractors increased in almost all the blocks of Malda (with few exceptions) during the period of study. The number of power tiller also increased from 74.46 to 99.64 per ten thousand hectares of gross cropped area during 2000-01 to 2010-11. The number of pumpset has increased due to uncertainty of rainfall. In same way the number of sprayer has increased because use of pesticides increased for high production of crops.
275 Conclusion and Suggestions
The farmers have gradually become aware of the benefit of fertilizer application and has therefore progressively increased it’s per hectare consumption of fertilizer in the region. The actual quantity of fertilizers applied in 2000-01 was 43.30 kg per hectare but it rose up to 99.10 kg hectare in 2010-11.
At present various types of tube wells are the major source of irrigation in the study area but there are a lot of variations at block level. Shallow tube well is the major sources of irrigation of the study area. The farmers have been tempted to switch over from traditional to modern agricultural especially in those blocks where irrigational facility has improved. The pace of change is slow but it has been set into motion. In the view of rising cost of chemical fertilizers and the large amount of subsidies given to farmers, it is felt that natural waste and by products of crops could be a good source of organic matter to increase the fertility of soil. Waste products include animal dung, bagasse, weeds, straw, sewage, sludge, rice husks and seed weeds. The composition and recycling of these waste products would provide cheap and ideal organic manure to the soil. Bio fertilizers are considered as an effective, cheap and renewable supplement to the chemical fertilizers. Rhizobium has been found to be effective for pulses and pulses.
The total number of agricultural labourers is increasing and the percentage of agricultural labourers to the total workers is also increasing during the periods in Malda district. Table 4.9 illustrates that the number of agricultural labourers was 246420 in the year 2001 in the region but it raised up to 322151 in 2011. The share of agricultural workers to the total workers was 19.40 per cent in 2001, but it increased to 22.42 per cent agricultural labourers in 2011. The percentage of literates to total population in the district has gone up from 50.28 percent in 2001 to 61.73 percent in 2011. The share of co-operative societies to the ten thousand populations was 1.90 per cent in 2001, and it decreased to 1.13 per cent co-operative societies in 2011. It is clear that the percentage of co-operative societies and their percentage to ten thousand populations are decreasing almost in every block (except Bamongola block) of the district during 2001 to 2011 Census year.
To delineate the general pattern of productivity and demarcate high, medium and low productivity regions a composite yield index computed for fifteen blocks of Malda district in 2000-2001 and 2010-2011 respectively. It is quite clear that during
276 Conclusion and Suggestions the last decade, high productivity area under cereals has recorded a significant increase i.e. 3450 hectares, while medium and low productivity area suffered with a great loss by 27770 hectares and 35038 hectares respectively. The increase in terms of percentage was 2.57 per cent for high productivity, and decrease in terms of percentage was 60.66 per cent for medium productivity and 99.08 per cent for low productivity. Thus the area under high, medium and low productivity of cereals on the whole shows a mixture of positive as well as negative sign. On the whole, the productivity area under cereals has declined by 59358 hectares (27.55 per cent), while the productivity area under pulses also decreased by 18119 hectares (112.05 per cent). The productivity area under oilseeds and cash crops has shown significant increase by 4176 hectares (13.61 per cent) and 3385 hectares (14.68 per cent) respectively. The overall productivity is also decreased by 85038 hectares (29.80 per cent). It may be seen from the analysis that farmers are highly inclined towards the cultivation of oilseeds and cash crops rather than cereals and pulses, because these crops give maximum returns to the farmers. Agricultural performance in the district is characterized with marked productivity variations. Among small and marginal farmers, agricultural productivity is hampered by poor logistical support and weak infrastructure. These variations in productivity are influenced by the physical and socio-economic factors.
The factor analysis of the variables for the year 2000-2001 indicates that 75.18 percent of the total variance is explained by three factors. Factor 1 explains 28.44 percent of the total variance. The positive signs of the variables are associated with the higher development of agriculture. The positive signs of the variables are associated with the higher development of agriculture. The variables which have the positive loading more than 0.500 are agricultural productivity (0.816), net sown area (0.811), fertilizer depot (0.645), electrified mouza (0.612) and co-operative societies (0.513). The variables which have negative loading more than -0.500 is only cropping intensity (-0.819).
Factor 2 accounts for 17.30 per cent of the total variance explained. The variables which have the positive loadings of more than 0.500 are pumpset (0.962), shallow tube well (0.936) and area under foodgrain (0.586). The variables which have negative loading more than -0.500 is co-operative societies (-0.526).
277 Conclusion and Suggestions
Factor 3 accounts for 12.33 per cent of the total variance explained. It is strongly loaded on large number of the variables but the variables which are having the loadings more than 0.550 are cultivators (0.842), agricultural labourer (0.547), electrified mouza (0.634) and fertilizer depot (0.566). The variables which have negative loading more than -0.500 are sprayer (-0.709) and tractor (-0.692).
The value of 22 variables have been computed for fifteen blocks for the year 2010-2011, resulting in 22×15 data matrix for the study region. This data matrix collapsed into each other leads to three factor of agricultural development. It shows that in all 74.87 percent of the total variance is explained by three factors. Factor 1 explains 28.45 per cent of the total variance. The variables which have the positive loading more than 0.500 are net sown area (0.962), electrified mouza (0.719), fertilizer depot (0.538) and primary school (0.521). The variables which have the negative loading more than -0.500 are cropping intensity (-0.950), agricultural labourer (-0.652).
Factor 2 explains for 21.18 per cent of the total variance is composed of three variables of high positive loading of more than 0.500. These variables are tractors (0.917), sprayer (0.835) and deep tube well (0.527). Only three variables i.e. area under food grain (-0.720), cultivators (-0.599) and electrified mouza (-0.526) has negative loading i.e. more than -0.500. Factor 3 accounts for 13.47 per cent of the total variance explained. Only two variables i.e. shallow tube well (0.967), pumpset (0.963) has positive loading more than 0.500. Only one variable which have the negative loading more than -0.500 is road length (-0.702).
Correlation matrix has been used to see the relationship between variables of agricultural development. During 2000-01, it is seen that agricultural productivity is significantly positively correlated with variables of fertilizer depot, seed store and pumpset whereas during 2011-12, it is significantly positively correlated with sources of fertilizer depot, cultivator and irrigation. Literacy is positively correlated with advance agricultural techniques.
For determining the spatial pattern and level of agricultural development, 22 variables have been selected which may be considered as the important variables of agricultural development. To determine the overall spatial pattern and the level of
278 Conclusion and Suggestions agricultural development, the data related to the 22 variables were transformed and combined using Z-score technique, and the development districts were classified into three development levels on the basis of their composite score. There is a spatial and temporal variation in the level of Agricultural Development in Malda district during the study period. Based on composite Z-score, it has been divided into high, medium and low level of agricultural development for the two periods, i.e. 2000-2001 and 2010- 2011. It has been observed that even after a lapse of ten years, there is slight change in the spatial pattern of high medium and low levels of agricultural development.
During 2000-01, high level of agricultural development lies in north-central and eastern part of the region. They include the blocks of Chanchal-I (+0.364), Ratua-II (+0.384), Gazole (0.240), Bamongola (+0.222) and Habibpur (+0.199). The medium level of agricultural development occupies the blocks of Harishchandrapur-I (+0.072), Harishchandrapur-II (+0.046), Ratua-I (+0.107) in the northern part, Old Malda (- 0.091) and English Bazar (+0.077) in south-central part of the study region. The low level of agricultural development lies in the north, south-eastern, western and southern part of the region. They include the blocks of Chanchal-II (-0.363), Manikchak (- 0.529), Kaliachak-I (-0.181), Kaliachak-II (-0.241) and Kaliachak-III (-0.189).
During 2010-11, high level of agricultural development i.e. (> +0.13) lies in northern, eastern part of the study region. They include the blocks of Chanchal-I (+0.179), Ratua-II (+0.182), Gazole (+0.216), Bamongola (+0.470) and Habibpur (+0.311). The medium level of agricultural development i.e. (+0.13 to -0.13) was recorded in the blocks of Harishchandrapur-I (-0.014), Harishchandrapur-II (0.046), Chanchal-II (-0.038), Ratua-I (-0.106) in the northern, and Old Malda (-0.029) in the south-eastern part of the study region. The low level of agricultural development lies in the central, western and southern part of the region. They includes the blocks of English Bazar (-0.517), Manikchak (-0.221), Kaliachak-I (-0.170) and Kaliachak-III (- 0.437). The farmers belonging to the blocks of high level of agricultural development having the facilities of large share of net sown area, high irrigation and cropping intensity, high productivity, fertile soil and better agricultural technology, while in the low levels of agricultural development, the impact of these variables are comparatively low. To earn more returns, the farmers of this region adopted the cultivation of horticulture rather than crop production.
279 Conclusion and Suggestions
The blocks witnessed a slight improvement in the levels of agricultural development in the blocks during the last decade i.e. 2000-01 to 2010-11. The study reveals that there were only five blocks namely Chanchal-I, Ratua-II, Gazole, Bamongola and Habibpur have high level of agricultural development in both the study period. Only Kaliachak-II block emerged with high levels of agricultural development in from 2000-01 to 2010-11. It may be attributed to interplay of combination of factors which include improvement and rise in irrigational facilities, cropping intensity, share of net sown area, application of modern technological inputs etc.
However, Manikchak, Kaliachak-I and Kaliachak-III continued to be agriculturally less developed blocks in the study period i.e. 2000-01 to 2010-11. Low irrigation and cropping intensity, small share of net sown area, less application of modern agricultural inputs and very low level of agricultural yield have been major determinants resulting into low levels of agricultural development in these blocks.
Agriculture is the prime source of income for the rural people of Malda district. Nearly 75 percent people are engaged in agricultural activities. The socio- economic condition of the people depends on agriculture. Agricultural practices in Malda district is age sensitive, as younger generation is coming up and actively participating in the decision making process of the household affairs. Funding of agriculture in the rural areas where the bulk of the farmers live have also brought a lacuna in accelerating socio-economic development via agriculture. The blocks of Gazole, Bamongola and Habibpur (lies in eastern part of the district) have high level of agricultural development as well as high level of socio-economic development during both the year.
Socio-economic conditions reflect the quality of life of the society as a whole as well as that of its constituents. The major components of socio-economic life of the people in any society are the level of per capita income, income pattern, consumption and saving pattern, housing conditions, level of literacy, attitude towards marriage, sex ratio and position of women.
It has been observed that rural people have high ambitions and aspirations regarding not only for the education of their children but also for their jobs. There have been considerable changes in various social parameters in the study region.
280 Conclusion and Suggestions
Among various social parameters changing attitude of the respondents towards education, marriage, family planning, political awareness and involvement has been considered. It is also found that the respondents are also concerned about the preference of schools for their children but there is a lot of variation at spatial level. The attitude towards various aspects of marriage such as child marriage, widow marriage and inter caste marriage has undergone a major change. Various ritual of marriage have not only changed but have become more simple and modernised. They are becoming more liberal and more receptive to modern ideologies.
Religion is a very important social indicator which provides a very strong bond of social fabric among the masses. But with the increase in the level of education, the attitude towards religion is changing. The people are becoming more liberal, less superstitious and less orthodox. They are now more receptive to new ideas and practices. Per capita income is a very good indicator for the assessment of economic status of the respondent but it is very difficult to workout per capita income.
Younger generation accounting about 41 percent of the total respondents has also high level of socio-economic transformation. The composite index in case of younger people is 3.18, whereas it is only 1.63 for older people. Hence, it may safely be inferred that level and rate of socio-economic transformation is more among younger generation than the older ones.
An attempt has also been made to work out the composite index of socio- economic transformation of economically well of and poor respondents 27 percent and 73 percent of the total respondent respectively. The composite of the former ones is 3.84, while it is 1.97 in case of later. Hence, it proves that the level and rate of socio-economic transformation is more among economically well of respondents as compared to poor ones.
Another difference in the level of socio-economic transformation is found at the differential level of education. The results show that the educated respondents which account 44 percent of the total respondents have a composite index of 4.01, while corresponding figure is 1.93 in case of illiterate respondents. It also proves that level and rate of socio-economic transformation is more among educated people as compared to illiterate people.
281 Conclusion and Suggestions
It is quite interesting that those villages (Chaksundar, Adatala and Rishipur) which recorded high level of agricultural development also have high level of socio- economic transformation. The villages which have recorded low level of agricultural development as well as low level of socio-economic transformation are Barui and Talbha Kuria during both the study period. The relationship between agriculture and socio-economic transformation reveals that the village where agricultural development is high, socio-economic transformation is also high and vice versa. It means that there is integrated development between agriculture and socio-economic transformation. Therefore, it is proved that agricultural development has a great impact on the socio-economic transformation in the villages of the Malda district.
Suggestions:
On the basis of information and addressed issues related to agriculture development and its impact on socio-economic transformation, some suggestions have been proposed to develop the agricultural scenario and to reduce regional variation in the study area.
Agriculture is the source of livelihood in the study area but it is badly affected by the occurrence of flood in almost each and every year in some selected blocks such as Kaliachak-II, Kaliachak-III, Harishchandrapur-I, Harishchandrapur-II, Manikchak. Therefore, it is essential to control flood by establishing concrete along the river banks to protect crops.
The rate of unemployment is very high in the study area. Therefore, employment opportunities should be provided to the people firstly by establishing small scale agro based industries and secondly by infrastructural and rural development schemes. It is also very important to reduce the seasonal migration of the people to other district or state for the development of agriculture.
There is a high concentration of scheduled caste and backward class households in the study area. Therefore, special employment and education programme should be introduced in order to raise their social and economic status.
282 Conclusion and Suggestions
Around 39 percent people are illiterate in the study area, while the gender gap between male and female is also high (roughly 11 percent). Therefore, there is a need to increase the literacy rate through introducing various programmes and policies. Because education is the best policy to eradicate poverty.
Modern technology requires adequate knowledge. It is remarked that famers are ignorant of agricultural techniques and poor in skill. Therefore, training should be provided for farmers to increase the productivity.
It has been observed at a micro level that yield of crop is not increasing in those areas where same crop is continuous practicing. It is essential requirement of crop diversification in such areas for improving crop yield.
It is clear after the field survey that about sixty percent farmers belong to small and marginal farmers. Therefore, they are the backbone of economy. These farmers do not possess adequate means to improve their method of cultivation. Therefore, policies should be made for small and marginal farmers.
Income obtained from cash crops is likely to be reinvested in the agriculture of these regions in the form of modernized inputs like fertilizers, pesticides, agricultural implements and tube-wells. This will result in increasing agricultural productivity in these regions.
During the survey it was found that yield of crops, except rice in few pockets is low. Traditional methods of farming, limited irrigation facilities, low agricultural mechanization, limited use of HYV of seeds and fertilizers due to poverty and small size of holdings, poor connectivity of villages to the urban centres, huge dependency on agriculture, poor marketing facilities and complete lack of industrial development are some of the factors responsible for low level of agriculture and socio-economic development. During the survey it was found that the workforce has nothing to do as they spend day and night, weeks and months without employment. Most of the people get employment at the time of sowing and harvesting crops in different agricultural seasons.
283 Conclusion and Suggestions
Most persons are unaware of the legal entitlement of the Act. For instance, the Act mandates that any individual holding a job card can apply for work and will be provided an employment within 15 days with the submission of submitting application. If the applicant does not get work, he or she is entitled to unemployment allowance. It was noticed that in most of the villages not a single job application was received.
The practice of chemical fertilizers is losing soil fertility. Bio-fertilizers should be used instead of chemical fertilizers. Bio-fertilizers are considered as an effective, cheap and renewable supplement to chemical fertilizers. Farmyard manures like animal dung, bagasse, weeds, straw, sewage, sludge, oil cakes, vegetables processing waste, rice husks and seeds weeds can be a good source of organic matter to increase the fertility of soil by composting and recycling of these waste products. Green manure crops help in making the soil fertile. Green leguminous crops, like dhaincha, barseem and pulses, when they attain some height, are ploughed in the field along with their roots, stems and leaves. This helps all the nutrients obtained from the soil to go back to the soil.
Inadequate electricity supply is major problem for running tube-wells. Therefore, supply of electricity should be adequate at the time of crop irrigation.
The only way to convince farmers is that technologies should be applied practically in front of them and let them see with their eyes how much more benefits and profits they can get in such application. For conducting practical demonstration, suggestion is that government takes some land from farmers on rent and applies new techniques on these lands
It is observed that farmers face critical problem for storing to their crops. In absence of storing, they dump their crops in market at very low price. Sometimes, crops like wheat and potato spoil in the field. Therefore, small cold storages or granaries should be opened at village level especially in the southern and north-western part of the district. Hence, it eliminates dumping of excess crops in the market yard.
284 Conclusion and Suggestions
Encouraging the small and marginal farmers including backward castes to maintain the increased production tempo by providing different inputs on subsidy at reasonable price.
During field survey, it is noticed that farmers are not aware about credit system. Illiteracy and ignorance are major hindrance before the farmers to familiar with the regulation of banks. Therefore, monetary support, loan facilities and insurance policies should be provided to all size of land holdings without hindrance and rules should be liberalized. Zero percent interest loans should be made available for poor farmers.
It is seen that the villages of Barui, Talbha Kuria, Gayesbari, Panchanandapur and Suzapur Mandai show low level of agricultural development. These block requires special attention for development.
285
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304
Appendices
Appendices
Appendix-1: Crop Combination Region of Malda District for Cropping Year 2001 and 2011
2001 2011 Blocks Mono 2 Crop 3 Crop 4 Crop 5 Crop 6 Crop 7 Crop 8 Crop Mono 2 Crop 3 Crop 4 Crop 5 Crop 6 Crop 7 Crop 8 Crop
Harishchandrapur-I 1078.46 747.88 640.06 618.33 - - - - 1451.61 750.13 552.61 491.05 461.35 - - -
Harishchandrapur-II 342.99 1405.85 1326.93 1166.81 1027.00 - - - 683.29 1076.66 919.68 838.12 748.63 671.10 - -
Chanchal-I 1041.99 712.77 700.73 628.23 - - - - 901.20 904.97 816.25 706.05 648.72 - - -
Chanchal-II 1143.11 797.91 700.44 589.06 550.63 - - - 558.84 1164.3 1029.2 905.07 505.91 - - -
Ratua-I 3453.91 195.80 161.54 206.73 217.34 224.84 220.52 - 2303.08 244.26 305.31 351.72 353.31 339.24 318.31 281.11
Ratua-II 2250.55 550.08 425.99 362.06 318.83 284.59 265.39 250.91 2332.89 473.30 346.37 298.15 292.6 298.71 273.56 -
Gazole 660.49 888.30 896.14 875.90 768.99 - - - 653.31 1067.36 921.40 838.02 754.97 - - -
Bamongola 1311.00 363.73 587.98 596.74 - - - - 546.15 928.84 1026.32 1042.14 833.02 - - -
Habibpur 92.92 1866.94 1663.92 1426.44 - - - - 249.00 1259.31 ------
Old Malda 1069.94 651.91 636.28 632.62 - - - - 704.70 1111.80 931.89 822.64 746.43 643.75 - -
English Bazar 2032.2 532.45 443.51 389.38 344.49 319.02 300.67 - 2403.94 203.68 360.89 368.8 349.34 327.75 308.06 -
Manikchak 4803.87 481.19 72.67 59.55 92.17 109.75 112.52 - 1810.50 587.20 436.89 385.75 383.51 367.93 344.03 -
Kaliachak-I 4238.01 322.08 137.42 120.66 116.35 136.72 - - 2830.24 441.72 205.11 185.76 229.4 236.15 231.23 -
Kaliachak-II 5327.54 685.93 157.12 54.96 32.55 50.88 59.23 - 3038.21 609.95 259.02 197.44 184.07 187.32 181.65 177.50
Kaliachak-III 5133.72 530.33 221.49 122.25 94.17 80.79 75.65 73.10 4133.20 340.15 131.63 127.66 156.89 149.47 143.93 - Source: Statistical Handbook of Malda District 2001 & 2011
305 Appendices
Appendix-2: Block-Wise Area under Different Crops of Malda District in 2001 and 2011
2001 2011 Blocks Rice Wheat Masur Maskalai Khesari Gram R & M Potato Jute Total Rice Wheat Masur Maskalai Khesari Gram R & M Potato Jute Total
Harishchandrapur-I 67.16 12.06 0.11 0.50 0.29 0.11 4.14 0.29 15.34 100 61.90 12.48 0.86 2.91 0.63 0.14 7.53 0.41 13.14 100
Harishchandrapur-II 81.48 7.33 0.06 1.23 0.00 0.00 7.09 0.09 2.72 100 73.86 9.21 1.09 1.81 0.61 0.28 10.20 0.23 2.71 100
Chanchal-I 67.72 6.86 0.11 0.14 0.18 0.07 7.99 0.77 16.16 100 69.98 7.45 0.86 0.43 0.81 0.15 6.69 1.19 12.44 100
Chanchal-II 66.19 8.31 0.16 1.98 0.06 0.10 13.48 0.48 9.24 100 76.36 7.35 0.65 0.35 0.02 0.30 9.58 1.40 3.99 100
Ratua-I 41.23 32.26 1.61 5.98 0.09 0.14 4.60 1.29 12.79 100 52.02 27.99 2.12 0.47 1.19 1.20 3.87 1.03 10.12 100
Ratua-II 52.56 16.93 5.72 2.54 5.48 1.61 6.69 0.44 8.02 100 51.70 19.28 3.90 1.17 0.99 2.28 9.29 0.54 10.85 100
Gazole 74.30 6.98 0.02 0.68 0.00 0.07 15.56 1.15 1.24 100 74.44 9.53 0.14 1.53 0.00 0.07 10.79 3.40 0.10 10
Bamongola 63.79 6.95 0.06 0.32 0.00 0.06 26.82 1.48 0.51 100 76.63 3.20 0.25 0.06 0.00 0.07 16.11 2.50 1.17 100
Habibpur 90.36 3.56 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.72 4.12 0.19 0.06 100 84.22 0.98 0.43 0.02 0.04 0.02 13.29 0.98 0.02 100
Old Malda 67.29 10.31 0.00 0.67 0.00 0.15 18.30 3.06 0.22 100 73.01 3.74 0.05 0.30 3.82 0.22 8.39 8.84 1.63 100
English Bazar 54.92 17.74 0.98 6.74 3.42 6.32 8.38 0.19 1.31 100 50.97 29.84 3.95 5.74 0.41 2.69 4.84 0.13 1.43 100
Manikchak 20.90 25.72 3.64 30.69 0.15 2.97 4.61 0.05 11.27 100 12.16 57.45 1.08 16.55 0.00 1.02 1.72 0.94 9.07 100
Kaliachak-I 34.90 29.60 0.15 13.40 0.00 2.36 9.87 0.74 8.98 100 16.93 46.80 1.37 0.08 0.44 1.05 11.51 1.37 20.45 100
Kaliachak-II 27.01 13.66 20.96 16.58 0.73 12.20 4.38 0.21 4.28 100 44.88 15.45 2.75 0.27 7.00 1.06 15.29 2.75 10.54 100
Kaliachak-III 25.67 28.35 7.39 9.18 5.22 9.93 6.12 0.41 7.73 100 28.18 35.71 2.00 8.56 0.00 3.35 14.25 0.88 7.06 100
Malda 72.86 15.98 2.27 5.26 1.25 2.35 11.26 0.79 7.76 100 63.36 15.01 1.14 2.36 0.56 0.71 9.58 1.59 5.69 100 Source: Statistical Handbook of Malda District, 2001 & 2011
306 Appendices
Appendix-3: Standard scores of selected variables of Agricultural Development in Malda District (2000-01)
Blocks X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9 X10 X11 X12 X13 X14 X15 X16 X17 X18 X19 X20 X21 X22 C.S Harishchandrapur-I -0.773 -1.310 0.343 2.036 0.301 1.555 -0.139 0.912 -0.387 -0.455 -0.554 -0.780 -1.043 -0.332 0.928 0.367 0.853 -0.609 1.192 -0.434 -0.157 0.063 0.072 Harishchandrapur-II 1.260 -0.594 1.562 0.046 -1.493 0.514 -0.117 2.475 -0.374 -0.455 -0.584 -1.466 0.258 -1.049 2.370 -0.434 0.938 -0.835 0.319 -0.690 -0.637 -2.034 -0.046 Chanchal-I -0.333 -1.272 0.499 1.447 0.278 1.493 0.217 0.214 -0.207 -0.359 3.411 1.686 -0.129 -0.434 0.057 -0.180 0.625 -0.694 1.778 -0.541 -0.201 0.650 0.364 Chanchal-II -2.439 -1.000 0.407 0.545 0.691 1.065 -0.133 -0.097 -0.377 -0.449 -0.325 -0.691 -0.324 -0.089 -0.197 -0.720 -0.862 -0.512 -0.428 -1.187 -0.346 -0.524 -0.363 Ratua-I -0.408 0.920 0.102 -0.194 0.639 -0.943 -0.206 0.638 -0.309 -0.329 0.493 -0.590 0.723 0.327 0.948 -0.450 0.000 -0.256 1.983 -0.597 -0.201 0.063 0.107 Ratua-II 0.532 -0.644 0.762 0.165 0.204 0.577 0.159 -0.483 -0.283 -0.039 -0.364 -0.007 2.722 2.414 -0.665 -0.619 1.736 0.248 0.674 0.717 -0.927 1.573 0.384 Gazole 1.608 1.151 0.713 0.134 1.150 -1.108 -2.108 -0.080 -0.510 -0.476 -0.363 0.646 -0.121 0.050 -0.120 0.455 0.733 -0.052 -1.217 1.473 2.590 0.734 0.240 Bamongola 0.255 0.427 -1.203 0.435 1.546 -0.549 1.049 0.202 -0.263 -0.477 -0.090 1.684 0.466 -1.508 -0.026 1.714 -0.368 0.043 -0.192 1.710 0.381 -0.357 0.222 Habibpur 0.870 1.508 0.140 0.331 0.942 -1.343 -0.831 -0.949 -0.465 -0.655 -0.594 0.071 0.051 -1.087 -1.124 1.399 1.130 0.412 -0.754 1.424 1.907 1.992 0.199 Old Malda 0.718 0.405 -1.461 -0.278 0.435 -0.529 -0.017 -1.207 -0.200 -0.526 -0.022 -0.027 0.952 0.659 -1.065 1.179 -1.477 0.651 -0.886 0.639 0.017 0.046 -0.091 English Bazar 0.074 1.791 0.751 -0.544 -0.913 -1.513 0.712 -1.184 -0.345 -0.045 -0.611 0.527 -0.025 1.263 -1.016 0.058 -0.099 3.200 -0.256 -0.300 0.279 -0.105 0.077 Manikchak -0.903 0.010 -1.453 -0.088 -0.536 -0.161 -1.486 -0.557 -0.341 -0.118 -0.285 -0.772 -0.666 -0.931 -0.584 0.633 0.038 -0.096 -0.811 -1.217 -0.462 -0.860 -0.529 Kaliachak-I 0.301 -0.869 -1.280 -1.951 -2.001 0.877 2.089 0.543 1.046 1.838 0.397 1.319 -1.018 -0.069 0.897 -1.914 -1.199 -0.365 -0.378 -0.749 -0.724 -0.776 -0.181 Kaliachak-II -0.675 -0.205 -0.946 -0.445 -0.701 0.062 0.721 -1.174 -0.348 2.908 -0.267 -0.363 -0.454 0.403 -1.057 -0.086 -0.577 -0.027 -0.600 -0.882 -0.913 0.315 -0.241 Kaliachak-III -0.093 -0.316 1.060 -1.644 -0.534 0.184 0.089 0.748 3.364 -0.365 -0.243 -1.250 -1.399 0.387 0.656 -1.406 -1.557 -1.079 0.000 0.615 -0.608 -0.776 -0.189
Source: District Statistical Hand book of Malda, 2001
307 Appendices
Appendix-4: Standard scores of selected variables of Agricultural Development in Malda District (2010-11)
Blocks X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9 X10 X11 X12 X13 X14 X15 X16 X17 X18 X19 X20 X21 X22 C.S Harishchandrapur-I -0.116 -1.154 0.185 1.608 0.338 1.270 -0.573 0.270 -0.445 -0.455 -0.574 -1.599 -1.119 -0.460 0.269 0.140 0.646 0.213 1.857 -0.480 -0.199 0.060 -0.014 Harishchandrapur-II 0.876 -0.954 1.929 0.599 0.840 0.927 -0.159 2.280 -0.379 -0.442 -0.607 -1.204 0.439 -1.065 2.264 -0.587 0.617 -0.858 -0.038 -0.817 -0.618 -2.041 0.046 Chanchal-I 0.576 -1.405 0.774 1.466 0.280 1.773 -0.339 -0.362 -0.352 -0.406 3.359 1.073 -0.466 -0.680 -0.364 -0.081 -0.336 0.256 -0.495 -0.741 -0.253 0.648 0.179 Chanchal-II 0.449 -0.979 0.798 1.267 0.640 0.968 -0.405 -0.480 -0.424 -0.447 -0.395 -0.558 -0.259 -0.370 -0.471 -0.741 0.542 0.247 0.764 -0.078 -0.375 -0.529 -0.038 Ratua-I 0.002 -0.412 -0.397 -0.040 0.432 0.194 -0.850 -0.121 -0.432 -0.422 0.235 0.024 -0.107 -0.151 -0.117 -0.599 -1.019 -0.207 1.919 -0.076 -0.253 0.060 -0.106 Ratua-II 0.572 -0.991 0.660 0.890 -0.064 0.988 0.044 -0.661 -0.319 -0.288 -0.400 -0.813 2.503 2.264 -0.644 -0.689 1.498 -0.336 -0.452 -0.411 -0.929 1.572 0.182 Gazole -1.261 0.946 0.978 -0.313 1.662 -0.935 -1.359 -0.270 -0.511 -0.443 -0.370 0.646 -0.353 0.192 -0.278 0.483 0.702 0.505 0.102 1.550 2.341 0.732 0.216 Bamongola 1.461 0.771 -0.084 -0.116 1.406 -0.825 0.555 0.017 -0.296 -0.440 -0.135 1.710 0.633 -1.461 0.013 1.734 -0.473 2.524 0.831 2.542 0.341 -0.361 0.470 Habibpur 1.251 1.916 0.689 -0.308 0.417 -1.423 -0.457 -1.009 -0.448 -0.512 -0.604 -0.257 0.517 -0.754 -1.004 1.484 1.315 0.651 0.241 0.882 2.274 1.992 0.311 Old Malda 0.854 0.771 -1.346 -0.299 0.032 -0.825 -0.256 -1.162 -0.276 -0.466 -0.146 -0.087 1.135 1.034 -1.146 1.028 0.488 -0.376 -0.322 0.709 -0.023 0.043 -0.029 English Bazar -0.321 0.461 -1.160 -1.020 -1.250 -0.611 -0.187 -1.348 -0.436 -0.256 -0.650 0.638 -0.397 0.498 -1.337 -0.019 0.310 -2.346 -1.485 -0.558 0.206 -0.108 -0.517 Manikchak -1.873 0.932 -0.025 -0.109 -1.118 -0.926 0.108 0.821 -0.131 -0.042 0.001 -0.476 0.082 -0.588 0.833 0.314 -0.305 0.231 -0.586 -0.710 -0.429 -0.865 -0.221 Kaliachak-I -1.420 0.541 -1.198 -1.928 -1.644 -0.669 1.926 1.713 1.289 1.704 0.727 1.108 -1.104 0.094 1.759 -1.810 -1.610 -0.126 -0.481 -1.108 -0.726 -0.781 -0.170 Kaliachak-II -0.244 0.252 -1.519 -0.823 -1.225 -0.448 2.484 0.133 -0.090 2.992 -0.047 1.032 0.090 1.579 0.211 0.715 -0.404 0.173 -0.764 -0.218 -0.739 0.312 0.157 Kaliachak-III -0.807 -0.691 -0.288 -0.871 -0.749 0.542 -0.532 0.182 3.250 -0.433 -0.395 -1.242 -1.593 -0.137 0.011 -1.367 -1.987 -0.643 -1.232 -0.456 -0.618 -0.739 -0.491
Source: District Statistical Hand book of Malda, 2011
308 Appendices
Appendix-5: Standard Scores of Variables of Socio-Economic Development in Malda District (2000-2001)
Source: District Statistical Handbook of Malda, 2001
309 Appendices
Appendix-6: Standard Scores of Variables of Socio-Economic Development in Malda District (2010-2011)
Source: District Statistical Hand book of Malda, 2011
310 Appendices
Appendix-7: Standard Scores of Variables of Agricultural Development in Sampled Villages of Malda District (2016)
Village Name X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9 X10 X11 X12 X13 X14 X15 C.S.
Barui 0.276 -0.88 -0.224 -0.499 -0.835 0.323 0.527 1.266 -2.636 -0.872 0.354 -0.996 0.502 -0.447 -0.685 -0.322
-0.376 0.645 -0.871 -0.142 -1.011 0.568 -1.051 1.04 -0.242 0.028 0.182 0.393 -1.828 0.027 -0.844 -0.232 Talbha Kuria Alihanda -0.249 -1.785 -1.395 0.233 0.482 0.877 0.156 0.471 0.327 -0.935 -1.291 0.58 -1.719 0.601 2.051 -0.106
Jitarpur -0.68 -0.322 0.894 -1.649 1.17 -1.511 0.391 0.266 -0.12 0.251 -1.083 -0.142 0.502 -0.106 -0.7 -0.189
Baharal -1.091 0.366 -0.672 0.233 0.071 1.066 -0.686 -0.923 -0.242 0.242 0.398 0.925 0.284 0.916 0.139 0.068
-0.791 0.657 0.894 -0.966 -0.925 0.834 -0.187 0.866 -1.523 3.036 -0.227 -0.143 0.575 0.365 -0.779 0.112 Paranpur Chaksundar -0.031 -0.295 2.232 -0.006 0.877 -0.347 -0.386 -0.092 0.848 0.901 -0.706 0.88 1.052 -1.329 1.716 0.354
Adatala -1.094 -0.182 -0.393 0.648 0.278 0.409 0.565 0.756 -0.456 0.536 0.153 0.997 0.606 0.428 2.051 0.353
Rishipur 0.65 0.318 0.373 0.784 -1.201 0.935 0.941 0.635 -0.624 0.139 0.599 0.122 0.834 0.338 0.744 0.372
Balarampur -0.791 0.505 -1.035 -1.278 -0.163 -0.026 0.754 -1.066 1.511 -0.105 1.05 -0.767 0.129 0.648 0.767 0.009
Uttar Jadupur -0.174 0.389 0.629 -0.883 -0.544 -0.434 0.271 -1.379 -0.773 -0.536 0.117 -2.335 0.367 -1.523 1.366 -0.363
Sekhpura 0.415 -0.27 0.167 0.419 -0.246 -1.581 -0.187 -0.021 0.684 0.577 0.76 1.055 -0.193 -0.477 0.273 0.092
Gayesbari -0.588 0.498 -0.695 -0.142 0.223 -0.467 0.175 1.773 -0.773 -0.371 -0.665 -1.447 0.18 -0.89 -0.335 -0.235
Panchanandapur 0.131 0.757 1.727 0.921 0.851 -1.392 -0.443 0.055 -0.549 3.036 -0.05 -0.791 -1.688 -0.244 -0.83 0.099
Suzapur Mandai 0.905 -0.52 -0.08 -0.22 0.592 0.321 -1.051 0.138 1.406 0.302 0.354 0.149 -1.844 -0.013 -0.993 -0.037 Source: Computed by Researcher based on data obtained from field survey, 2016
311 Appendices
Appendix-8: Composite Scores of Socio-Economic Transformation in Selected Villages
Per Educatio Distance of Age of Family Political Living Housing Media Name of Village Religiosity Capita Total n Quality Education Marriage Planning Awareness Standard Condition Awareness Income Barui 4.98 6.21 1.05 0.61 0.94 0.73 1.78 1.63 0.82 -0.36 18.39 Talbha Kuria 4.21 0.52 0.72 2.52 1.52 0.29 -0.09 2.65 0.68 -0.54 12.48 Alihanda 4.93 -2.42 0.04 1.23 -0.93 1.01 1.08 -0.90 0.41 1.04 5.49 Jitarpur 3.28 4.11 1.42 1.17 -0.95 -0.89 -1.19 -0.60 -0.89 0.78 6.24 Baharal 3.8 0.82 0.86 0.74 1.99 0.31 0.65 -0.50 1.08 0.58 10.33 Paranpur 2.61 2.18 1.36 1.75 0.99 1.05 1.37 -0.67 -2.13 -1.26 7.25 Chaksundar -3.02 -3.03 -1.23 -0.96 -0.72 -1.08 -0.64 -0.42 -1.46 -1.19 -13.75 Adatala -2.22 -1.91 -0.24 -0.65 -0.57 -0.88 -0.39 -0.12 -1.17 -0.24 -8.39 Rishipur -2.58 -2.32 -1.03 -1.16 -1.06 -1.35 -0.42 -0.60 -1.02 -0.92 -12.46 Balarampur 0.12 0.37 0.42 -0.32 1.16 0.87 -0.98 -0.75 0.16 -1.83 -0.78 Uttar Jadupur -0.18 0.69 -1.45 -0.66 -0.93 1.71 0.27 0.02 -1.02 0.26 -1.29 Sekhpura -1.45 0.29 0.13 -0.28 -0.64 0.67 0.33 -0.67 -0.74 1.21 -1.15 Gayeshbari 3.73 0.66 -0.31 -0.39 -0.06 1.24 0.19 -0.11 -0.75 -1.36 2.84 Panchanandapur 2.59 1.89 1.15 0.72 0.99 0.13 0.45 -0.19 0.99 1.60 10.32 Suzapur Mandai 4.92 0.76 0.63 -0.11 0.37 0.9 0.27 0.04 0.59 0.28 8.65 Source: Computed by Researcher based on Kendall’s Rank Order Score Method (N.B.: Higher the index value lower the development and vice-versa)
312 Appendices
APPENDIX-9
QUESTIONNAIRE
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY, ALIGARH-202002
SOCIO-ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATION OF RESPONDENTS IN MALDA DISTRICT OF W.B.
Schedule No...... Dated: ......
I. Personal and Household Characteristics
1. Name of the Village:
Block: Sub-division:
2. Name of the respondent:
Age: Religion: Caste:
3. Education:
Informal: Formal:
4. Total Members of the Household:
Age Group <15 15-30 31-60 >60
Marital Status M F M F M F M F
Members
II. Farming Characteristics
5. Total Agricultural Land of the Farmer (Area in Hectare):
6. Has your cropping pattern changed during last 5 years: Yes/ No
If Yes, give details:
7. Which crops you were growing before:
8. Has the yield of your crops: increased/ the same/ decreased
9. Do you adopt the agricultural innovations: Yes/ No
III. Farm Implementation:
Agricultural Implements Owned/Hired Tractor Thresher Power Tiller Laveller Pumpsets Spraying Machines
313 Appendices
IV. Educational Level:
10. Education qualification of members who have discontinued education:
Level of discontinuation of education Number of family members
Primary
Madhyamik or Matriculation
Higher Secondary
Graduation
11. Household Education Level:
Primary (I-V) Secondary (VI-X) Location Govt. School Public School Govt. School Public School
M Within Village F
M Outside Village F
12. Where do you prefer your children to study:
Within Village Outside Village Children Govt. School Public School Govt. School Public School
Daughter
Son
13. Why do you prefer public School: Better/ Nearness/ Any Other
14. What would be the order of preference regarding the profession of your children:
Children Doctor Engineer Civil Service Lawyer Teacher Other
Daughter
Son
V. Attitude Towards Marriage
15. What should be the age at marriage:
Boy: Girl:
16. At what age marriage use to take place:
a. <18 years b. >18 years
17. Where do you want to marry your children: Village/ Town/ City
18. At what place the children of your family are married:
a. Within the Village b. Outside the Village
314 Appendices
19. Do you prefer: Arranged/Love/Any other form of marriage
20. Do you like the dowry system: Yes/ No
21. Does the dowry system prevalent in your family/ Village: Yes/No
22. Are you aware of family planning programme: Yes/No
If Yes, do you practice it: Yes/No
VI. Religiosity
23. Do you believe in religion: Somewhat/ Moderately/ Strictly
24. Do you follow the religious rules in your routine life: Somewhat/ Moderately/ Strictly
25. Do you visit religious place outside your village: Frequently/Rarely
26. Is there any separate place of worship in your house: Yes/No
27. Do you think that the calamities in our life are result of our Karam in the past and present life: Yes/No
28. Is there any change in your attitudes towards religion: Yes/No
VII. Social Mobility
29. Normally how many times do you visit your friends/relatives outside village in a year
a. 4-6 times b. 7-9 times c. 10-12 times
if it is a distance of,
a. < 5 kms. b. 5-10 kms. c. >10 kms.
30. Normally how many times do you visit your relations in a year if it is a distance of
a. < 5 kms. b. 5-10 kms. c. >10 kms.
31. Do you contact the following political and administrative persons in a year:
a. M.P. b. M.L.A. c. B.D.O. d. C.O
32. In what purpose did you go to these people:
a. Personal b. Social
33. Has your mode of transport changed during the last decade: Yes/ No
If yes, what was it before:
34. Do you visit the periodic market: Regularly/ Never/ Rarely
35. Do you visit the fair and exhibition: Regularly/ Never/ Rarely
VIII. Housing Condition:
36. Types of houses:
a. Kuccha: b. Semi Pucca: c. Pucca:
37. Have you built it yourself or inherited it:
38. It is single/double storied:
39. How many rooms are there:
40. Is there a separate Kitchen: Yes/No
315 Appendices
41. Is there a separate Toilet : Yes/ No
42. Do you have separate room for Cattle Shed: Yes/ No
43. Have you taken electricity connection: Yes/ No
44. Which cooking fuel do you use :
a. Wood b. Cow Dung c. Coal d. Oil
45. What is the source of your drinking water:
a. Tube Well b. Well c. Hand pump d. Tank
IX. Political Awareness and Involvement
46. What is your assessment of performance of the
a. Central Govt.: Good/ Satisfactory/ Bad/ No Idea
b. State Govt.: Good/ Satisfactory/ Bad/ No Idea
47. Do you go to listen to political leaders when he comes to your area: Always/ Rarely/ Never
48. Do you take active part in organizing political party meeting: Yes/ No
49. Do you cast your vote at the time of election: Regularly/ Rarely/ Never
X. Exposure to Mass media
50. Do you have Radio/Transistor: Yes/No
If yes, year of purchase:
51. If no, do you listen to elsewhere: Frequently/ Rarely/ Never
52. Do you have a T.V. set: Yes/ No
If yes, year of purchase:
53. Do you have cable connection or DTH service:
54. If no, do you watch from your neighbourhood: Frequently/ Rarely/ Never
55. Do you subscribe/buy newspaper: Yes/ No
If yes, what is the name of the newspaper:
56. If no, do you read it from elsewhere: Frequently/ Rarely/ Never
XI. Means of Transport
57. Do you have:
a. Bicycle: Yes/No
b. Motor cycle: Yes/No
c. Car: Yes/No
d. Any other means:
58. When did you purchase it:
59. What is your most common means of transport:
316 Appendices
XII. Occupational Transformation
60. Do you practice dairy farming: Yes/No
If yes, since when:
61. a. Animal Details
Animal Detail Number Age Amount of Milk Milching Period Remarks Cow Buffalo
b. Commercial/Subsistence basis:
c. Average income per month:
d. Place of sale of milk and milk product:
62. Do you practice poultry farming: Yes/ No
a. Commercial/ Subsistence basis:
b. Where do you sell its product:
c. Do you also purchase and sell poultry products: Yes/ No
XIII. Other Occupations
63.a. Is there any member of your family in service: Yes/ No
If yes,
Member Nature of Job Place of Work Distance Monthly Salary
b. Does he stay at place of work: Yes/ No
64. Is there any member working outside village other than service
If yes,
Member Nature of Job Place of Work Distance Monthly Salary
65. Do you think that during last decades your:
a) Annual income: increased/ the same/ decreased b) Economic condition: increased/ the same/ decreased c) Social status: increased/ the same/ decreased d) Mobility: increased/ the same/ decreased e) Religiosity: increased/ the same/ decreased f) Family Education Level: increased/ the same/ decreased g) Housing Condition: increased/ the same/ decreased h) Level of Exposure: increased/ the same/ decreased i) Agricultural Production: increased/ the same/ decreased j) Agricultural Technology: increased/ the same/ decreased
317 Plates
PHOTO PLATE 1: WOODEN PLOUGH
PHOTO PLATE 2: TRACTOR
PHOTO PLATE 3: PUMPSET
318 Plates
PHOTO PLATE 4: PADDY FIELD
PHOTO PLATE 5: PADDY SOWING BY WOMEN
PHOTO PLATE 6: MUSTARD
319 Plates
PHOTO PLATE 7: TURMERIC
PHOTO PLATE 8: POTATO
PHOTO PLATE 9: CAULIFLOWER
320 Glossary
GLOSSARY
Masur- lentil Urad / Maskalai - Black gram Mouza - administrative division of a district Gramin Bank – Village Bank Pooja- Worship
321