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The ‘s Story – The

LEARNING STRAND: CHURCH HISTORY

RELIGIOUS EDUCATION PROGRAMME

FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN AOTEAROA NEW ZEALAND 10D TEACHER GUIDE THE LOGO The logo is an attempt to express Faith as an inward and outward journey.

This faith journey takes us into our own hearts, into the heart of the world and into the heart of Christ who is God’s love revealed.

In Christ, God transforms our lives. We can respond to his love for us by reaching out and loving one another.

The circle represents our world. White, the colour of light, represents God. Red is for the suffering of Christ. Red also represents the . Yellow represents the risen Christ.

The direction of the lines is inwards except for the cross, which stretches outwards.

Our lives are embedded in and dependent upon our environment (green and blue) and our cultures (patterns and textures).

Mary, the Mother of Christ, is represented by the blue and white pattern.

The blue also represents the Pacific…

Annette Hanrahan RSCJ

UNDERSTANDING FAITH

YEAR 10

This book is the Teacher Guide to the following topic in the UNDERSTANDING FAITH series

10D THE CHURCH’S STORY – THE MIDDLE AGES (800-1500 AD)

TEACHER GUIDE

© Copyright 2002 by National Centre for Religious Studies

No part of this document may be reproduced in any way, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means, without permission of the publishers.

Imprimatur: † Leonard Boyle DD Bishop of Dunedin Episcopal Deputy for Religious Studies October 2002

Authorised by the New Zealand Catholic Bishops’ Conference

Published by: National Centre for Religious Studies Catholic Centre P O Box 1937 Wellington New Zealand

Printed by: Printlink 33-43 Jackson Street Petone Private Bag 39996 Wellington Mail Centre Lower Hutt 5045

Māori terms are italicised in the text. The first time a

Māori term occurs its English meaning appears in

brackets after it. A Māori glossary at the back of the

book gives a more detailed explanation of these terms

and provides a guide for their pronunciation.

CONTENTS

Introduction to the Topic ...... 2

Part One: The and the Emperor ...... 30

Part Two: East and West ...... 40

Part Three: Monasteries ...... 45

Part Four: Pilgrimages ...... 49

Part Five: ...... 56

Part Six: Devotion to Mary ...... 61

Part Seven: Cathedrals and Universities ...... 67

Part Eight: and Reformers ...... 74

Glossary of General Terms ...... 84

Glossary of Māori Terms ...... 100

Acknowledgements ...... 103

1

TOPIC 10D: THE CHURCH’S STORY – THE MIDDLE AGES (800 – 1500 AD)

LEARNING STRAND: CHURCH HISTORY

INTRODUCTION TO THE TOPIC

This book contains the teacher material for Topic 10D “The Church’s Story – The Middle Ages” which forms the Church History Strand of the Understanding Faith programme at year ten.

The study of topics in the Church History Strand is intended to give students some historical perspective – an awareness of the interplay of continuity and change in the story of the Church.

This teacher material should be read alongside the following:

• The Religious Education Curriculum Statement for Catholic Secondary Schools in Aotearoa New Zealand. • The student resource book for 10D “The Church’s Story – The Middle Ages”. • The student write-on activities for 10D “The Church’s Story – The Middle Ages” in the year ten student workbook. • The supplementary material and activities on the website.

Topic 10D “The Church’s Story – The Middle Ages” picks up the history of the Church’s story where Topic 9D “The Church’s Story – The Beginnings” left off. It looks at ’s development and growth from around 800 to 1500 or thereabouts.

The year nine material covered the first eight centuries of the Church’s story. It emphasised the beginnings of the Church at , early Christian witness and martyrdom, the opening of the Church to Gentiles, features of Church life, persecution, the adoption of Christianity as the official religion of the Empire, the establishment of the canon of scriptures and the development of the creeds, early desert, Celtic and Benedictine monasticism, the Germanic invasions and the collapse of the Empire, and the first contacts between Christianity and Islam.

This topic begins with an overview of the Middle Ages before focusing on the partnership between the popes and Charlemagne that established the Holy Roman Empire. It goes on to examine the relationship between the Church in the East and the West and the eventual split that occurred between them, the

2 development and significance of monasticism, pilgrimages, the Crusades, devotion to Mary, the great Gothic cathedrals, challenges to the papacy and movements of renewal.

The Middles Ages is the longest era in Christian history and the most difficult to grasp and interpret. This topic is very selective in the material that it presents from seven of the most complex centuries in history.

While the Middles Ages can seem such an alien time, there are key themes that serve as “hooks” to an understanding of the period:

• Migrations of barbarian tribes reshaped the Roman world.

• Missions – often heroic ventures – reached all of Europe.

• Monasticism became a preserver of learning and Scripture and the spearhead of missions and education.

• The papacy grew more powerful and individual popes for better and for worse shaped not just religion but the whole of society.

• The interests of the Church merged with those of the State.

• The Eastern and Western parts of the Church developed in isolation from each other and eventually severed ties.

• Islam overtook established Christian centres and was perceived as a great threat to Christianity.

• Devotion to Mary and the increased and expressed itself in pilgrimages and new devotions.

• At times when the Church seemed to lose its sense of direction, Te Wairua Tapu (the Holy Spirit) inspired individuals and movements to renew Christian life.

Many of the year ten topics in Understanding Faith focus on the theme of journey. Missionary journeys, pilgrimages, crusades, papal journeys are all part of the Church’s story during this period.

ACHIEVEMENT AIMS

In this topic students will gain and apply knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to understand:

3 1. The story of the Church from the end of the eighth century (when the formation of the partnership between the pope and Charlemagne established the Holy Roman Empire) to the end of the fifteenth (and the eve of the ). 2. That God is revealed in history through the actions of the Church and the lives of Christian men and women. 3. That we come to a knowledge of God by reflecting on the events of history.

ACHIEVEMENT OBJECTIVES

Students will be able to:

1. Understand the circumstances that led to the establishment of the as the universal Church of Western Europe. 2. Explore similarities and differences between the Church in the East and in the West and identify factors that contributed to an eventual between the two. 3. Recognise the contribution of monasticism to the Church and to society. 4. Understand the significance of journeys – pilgrimages and crusades – in the life of the Church during the Middle Ages. 5. Recognise the development of Marian devotion and the construction of the great Gothic cathedrals as expressions of genuine Christian spirituality. 6. Develop an understanding of the role of the pope and of reformers within the Church and society of the Middle Ages.

CHURCH TEACHINGS AND LINKS WITH CHURCH DOCUMENTS

Underpinning the six achievement objectives for the topic are important teachings of the Church. Where possible direct links with the Catechism of the Catholic Church have been established and quotations used to highlight the relationship between the various achievement objectives and the Church teachings that they embody. On occasions, other Church documents are referred to and quoted.

In all cases the official translations of Church documents have been used, but where necessary changes have been made so that the language is gender inclusive.

Achievement Objective 1

Students will be able to understand the circumstances that led to the establishment of the Catholic Church as the universal Church of Western Europe.

4 Church Teachings

• The Church was established to spread Te Rangatiratanga (the reign of God) on earth rather than to gain temporal or political power. • The two powers of Church and State are distinct from each other, each having its own sphere of competency. • The Church has a right to scrutinise events in society and interpret them in the light of Te Rongopai (the or Good News).

Catechism and Church Document Links

The Church and State The Church, by reason of her role and competence, is not identified with any political community nor is it tied to any political community. It is at once the sign and the safeguard of the transcendental dimension of the human person. (The Church in the Modern World 76)

Founded to build the kingdom of heaven on earth rather than to acquire temporal power, the Church openly avows that the two powers – Church and State – are distinct from one another; that each is supreme in its own area of competency. But since the Church does dwell among humankind, she has the duty of scrutinising the signs of the times in the light of the Gospel. (Populorum Progressio 13)

Achievement Objective 2

Students will be able to explore similarities and differences between the Church in the East and in the West and identify factors that contributed to an eventual schism between the two.

Church Teachings

• For many centuries the churches of the East and the West, though they shared a common faith and sacramental life, developed in different directions that eventually resulted in a split or schism. • The separated churches of the East possess true sacraments, including and the , honour Mary as the Mother of God, and keep alive many rich spiritual traditions. • The separated churches of the East have their own valid disciplines and structures and possess great theological insight. • The Catholic Church desires full unity between the churches of the East and West. • The is a religious image, a sacrament, that makes Christ present among his people.

Catechism and Church Document Links

The Eastern and Western Churches For many centuries the and that of the West each followed their separate ways though linked in a brotherly union of faith and sacramental

5 life; the Roman See by common consent acted as guide when disagreements arose between them over matters of faith or discipline. Among other matters of great importance, it is a pleasure for this Council to remind everyone that there flourish in the East many particular or local Churches, among which the Patriarchal Churches hold first place, and of these not a few pride themselves in tracing their origins back to the apostles themselves. Hence a matter of primary concern and care among the Easterns, in their local churches, has been, and still is, to preserve the family ties of common faith and charity which ought to exist between sister Churches.

Similarly it must not be forgotten that from the beginning the Churches of the East have had a treasury from which the Western Church has drawn extensively – in liturgical practice, spiritual tradition, and law. Nor must we undervalue the fact that it was the ecumenical councils held in the East that defined the basic dogmas of the Christian faith, on the , on the Word of God Who took flesh of the Mary. To preserve this faith these Churches have suffered and still suffer much.

However, the heritage handed down by the apostles was received with differences of form and manner, so that from the earliest times of the Church it was explained variously in different places, owing to diversities of genius and conditions of life. All this, quite apart from external causes, prepared the way for decisions arising also from a lack of charity and mutual understanding.

For this reason the Holy Council urges all, but especially those who intend to devote themselves to the restoration of hoped for between the Churches of the East and the Catholic Church, to give due consideration to this special feature of the origin and growth of the Eastern Churches, and to the character of the relations which obtained between them and the Roman See before separation. They must take full account of all these factors and, where this is done, it will greatly contribute to the dialogue that is looked for. (Decree on Ecumenism 14)

Everyone also knows with what great love the Christians of the East celebrate the sacred , especially the eucharistic celebration, source of the Church's life and pledge of future glory, in which the faithful, united with their bishop, have access to through the Son, the Word made flesh, Who suffered and has been glorified, and so, in the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, they enter into communion with the most holy Trinity, being made "sharers of the divine nature". Hence, through the celebration of the Holy Eucharist in each of these churches, the Church of God is built up and grows in stature and through , their communion with one another is made manifest.

In this liturgical worship, the Christians of the East pay high tribute, in beautiful hymns of praise, to Mary ever Virgin, whom the of Ephesus solemnly proclaimed to be the holy Mother of God, so that Christ might be acknowledged as being truly Son of God and Son of Man, according to the Scriptures. Many also are the saints whose praise they sing, among them the Fathers of the universal Church.

6 These Churches, although separated from us, yet possess true sacraments and above all, by , the priesthood and the Eucharist, whereby they are linked with us in closest intimacy. Therefore some worship in common (communicatio in sacris), given suitable circumstances and the approval of Church authority, is not only possible but to be encouraged.

The very rich liturgical and spiritual heritage of the Eastern Churches should be known, venerated, preserved and cherished by all. They must recognise that this is of supreme importance for the faithful preservation of the fullness of Christian tradition, and for bringing about reconciliation between Eastern and Western Christians. (Decree on Ecumenism 15)

Already from the earliest times the Eastern Churches followed their own forms of ecclesiastical law and custom, which were sanctioned by the approval of the Fathers of the Church, of synods, and even of ecumenical councils. Far from being an obstacle to the Church's unity, a certain diversity of customs and observances only adds to her splendour, and is of great help in carrying out her mission, as has already been stated. To remove, then, all shadow of doubt, this holy Council solemnly declares that the Churches of the East, while remembering the necessary unity of the whole Church, have the power to govern themselves according to the disciplines proper to them, since these are better suited to the character of their faithful, and more for the good of their souls. The perfect observance of this traditional principle not always indeed carried out in practice, is one of the essential prerequisites for any restoration of unity. (Decree on Ecumenism 16)

What has just been said about the lawful variety that can exist in the Church must also be taken to apply to the differences in theological expression of doctrine. In the study of revelation East and West have followed different methods, and have developed differently their understanding and confession of God's truth. It is hardly surprising then, if from time to time one tradition has come nearer to a full appreciation of some aspects of a mystery of revelation than the other, or has expressed it to better advantage. In such cases, these various theological expressions are to be considered often as mutually complementary rather than conflicting. Where the authentic theological traditions of the Eastern Church are concerned, we must recognise the admirable way in which they have their roots in Holy Scripture, and how they are nurtured and given expression in the life of the liturgy. They derive their strength too from the living tradition of the apostles and from the works of the Fathers and spiritual writers of the Eastern Churches. Thus they promote the right ordering of Christian life and, indeed, pave the way to a full vision of Christian truth.

All this heritage of spirituality and liturgy, of discipline and theology, in its various traditions, this holy synod declares to belong to the full Catholic and apostolic character of the Church. We thank God that many Eastern children of the Catholic Church, who preserve this heritage, and wish to express it more faithfully and completely in their lives, are already living in full communion with their brethren who follow the tradition of the West. (Decree on Ecumenism 17)

7 After taking all these factors into consideration, this Sacred Council solemnly repeats the declaration of previous Councils and Roman Pontiffs, that for the restoration or the maintenance of unity and communion it is necessary "to impose no burden beyond what is essential". It is the Council's urgent desire that, in the various organisations and living activities of the Church, every effort should be made toward the realisation of this unity, especially by prayer, and by fraternal dialogue on points of doctrine and the more pressing pastoral problems of our time. Similarly, the Council commends to the shepherds and faithful of the Catholic Church to develop closer relations with those who are no longer living in the East but are far from home, so that friendly collaboration with them may increase, in the spirit of love, to the exclusion of all feeling of rivalry or strife. If this cause is wholeheartedly promoted, the Council hopes that the barrier dividing the Eastern Church and Western Church will be removed, and that at last there may be but the one dwelling, firmly established on Christ Jesus, the cornerstone, who will make both one. (Decree on Ecumenism 18)

The Icon The sacred image, the liturgical icon, principally represents Christ. It cannot represent the invisible and incomprehensible God, but the incarnation of the Son of God has ushered in a new "economy" of images:

Previously God, who has neither a body nor a face, absolutely could not be represented by an image. But now that he has made himself visible in the flesh and has lived with men, I can make an image of what I have seen of God . . . and contemplate the glory of the Lord, his face unveiled. (CCC 1159)

In the East, the art of the icon continued to flourish, obeying theological and aesthetic norms charged with meaning and sustained by the conviction that, in a sense, the icon is a sacrament. By analogy with what occurs in the sacraments, the icon makes present the mystery of the Incarnation in one or other of its aspects. That is why the beauty of the icon can be best appreciated in a church where in the shadows burning lamps stir infinite flickerings of light. As Pavel Florensky has written: “By the flat light of day, gold is crude, heavy, useless, but by the tremulous light of a lamp or candle it springs to life and glitters in sparks beyond counting—now here, now there, evoking the sense of other lights, not of this earth, which fill the space of heaven”. (Letter of Pope John Paul II to Artists, 1999, 8)

Achievement Objective 3

Students will be able to recognise the contribution of monasticism to the Church and to society.

Church Teachings

• The desire to witness more closely to Karaiti (Christ) and to live in greater holiness led to the emergence and development of religious life.

8 • Religious life is centred on liturgy, karakia (prayer), work, community life, and the ideals of poverty, chastity and obedience (the evangelical counsels). • Monasticism is one of the living sources of the Church’s spiritual life. • Monasteries provide opportunities for participation in the and more intense personal prayer. • Monasteries were centres of culture that safeguarded and handed on learning during the Middle Ages. • The tradition of Gregorian Chant, the music of the Church’s liturgy, developed in the monasteries of the Middle Ages.

Catechism and Church Document Links

Monastic Life Indeed from the very beginning of the Church men and women have set about following Christ with greater freedom and imitating Him more closely through the practice of the evangelical counsels, each in his own way leading a life dedicated to God. Many of them, under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, lived as or founded religious families, which the Church gladly welcomed and approved by her authority. (Decree on the Renewal of Religious Life 1)

Religious life was born in the East during the first centuries of Christianity. Lived within institutes canonically erected by the Church, it is distinguished from other forms of by its liturgical character, public profession of the evangelical counsels, fraternal life led in common, and witness given to the union of Christ with the Church. (CCC 925)

Many religious have consecrated their whole lives to prayer. Hermits, , and since the time of the desert fathers have devoted their time to praising God and interceding for his people. The consecrated life cannot be sustained or spread without prayer; it is one of the living sources of contemplation and the spiritual life of the Church. (CCC 2687)

In regions where monasteries exist, the vocation of these communities is to further the participation of the faithful in the Liturgy of the Hours and to provide necessary solitude for more intense personal prayer. (CCC 2691)

With the passing of centuries schools were established in the neighbourhood of cathedrals and monasteries, thanks especially to the zealous initiatives of bishops and monks. These schools imparted both ecclesiastical doctrine and secular culture, forming them into one whole. From these schools arose the universities, those glorious institutions of the Middle Ages which, from their beginning, had the Church as their most bountiful mother and patroness. (Apostolic Constitution on Christian Wisdom – Forward)

Religious should strive during the whole course of their lives to perfect the culture they have received in matters spiritual and in arts and sciences. (Decree on the Renewal of Religious Life 18)

9 A little later, Gregory the Great compiled the Antiphonarium and thus laid the ground for the organic development of that most original sacred music which takes its name from him. Gregorian chant, with its inspired modulations, was to become down the centuries the music of the Church's faith in the liturgical celebration of the sacred mysteries. The “beautiful” was thus wedded to the “true”, so that through art too souls might be lifted up from the world of the senses to the eternal. (Letter of Pope John Paul II to Artists, 1999, 7)

Achievement Objective 4

Students will be able to understand the significance of journeys – pilgrimages and crusades – in the life of the Church during the Middle Ages.

Church Teachings

• Christians have always gone on hīkoi tapu (pilgrimage) to sacred places, especially sites in the Holy Land and Rome, to celebrate their whakapono (faith). • In the Middle Ages, when it became impossible for pilgrims to visit Jerusalem, a new network of pilgrimage sites spread across Europe. • The Crusades were a form of hīkoi tapu where the desire for worldly power dominated spiritual concerns and widened divisions between religions and cultures. • Pilgrimages provide opportunities for the renewal of prayer and living the Christian life.

Catechism and Church Document Links

Pilgrimages Pilgrimages, a sign of the condition of the disciples of Christ in this world, have always held an important place in the life of Christians. In the course of history, Christians have always walked to celebrate their faith in places that indicate a memory of the Lord or in sites representing important moments in the history of the Church. They have come to shrines honouring the Mother of God and to those that keep the example of the saints alive. Their pilgrimage was a process of conversion, a yearning for intimacy with God and a trusting plea for their material needs. For the Church, pilgrimages, in all their multiple aspects, have always been a gift of grace. (The Pilgrimage in the Great Jubilee 2)

In the IV century, when persecution by the Roman empire was over, the sites of martyrdom were opened for public veneration and the intense flow of pilgrimages [to the Holy Land] started. While the conquest of Jerusalem in 638 made the visit to Christian memorials in the Holy Land more difficult, new itineraries in the West were opened. Rome, the site of the martyrdom of Peter and Paul and the seat of ecclesial communion around the successor of Peter, became a fundamental destination. But another goal was the tomb of St. James in Compostella. There were also the Marian shrines of the Holy House of Loreto, Jasna Gora in Czestochowa; visits to the great medieval monasteries, fortresses of the spirit and of culture; the places that

10 incarnate the memory of great saints, like Tours, Canterbury or Padua. Through them a network, which “promoted mutual understanding among such different peoples and nations”, was formed in Europe. (The Pilgrimage in the Great Jubilee 14)

Although with some exaggerations, this great phenomenon, which involved the common masses that were animated by simple and profound convictions, nourished the spirituality, increased the faith, stimulated the charity and animated the mission of the Church. The “palmer”, the “pilgrim to Rome”, the “pilgrims” with their specific attires almost constituted their own separate “ordo”, that reminded the world of the pilgrim nature of the Christian community, that tends towards a meeting with God and communion with Him. (The Pilgrimage in the Great Jubilee 14)

Pilgrimages evoke our earthly journey toward heaven and are traditionally very special occasions for renewal in prayer. For pilgrims seeking living water, shrines are special places for living the forms of Christian prayer "in Church". (CCC 2691)

The Crusades A special form was attributed to pilgrimages with the advent of the Crusades between the XI and the XIII centuries. In them, the ancient religious ideal of going on pilgrimage towards the holy places of the Sacred Scriptures was mixed with the new instances and ideas typical of that historical period, that is, the formation of the class of knights, with its social and political tensions, the reawakening of commercial stimuli and cultural revolts in the East, the presence of Islam in the Holy Land. (The Pilgrimage in the Great Jubilee 14)

The conflict of power and interest often prevailed over the spiritual and missionary ideal. This attributed particular characteristics to the various Crusades, while the Churches of the East and of the West stood on the wall of division. This also influenced the practice of pilgrimages which were somehow ambiguous, as described well by St. Bernard of Clairvaux. He was an ardent preacher of the second Crusade but he did not hesitate to honour the spiritual Jerusalem present in Christian monasteries as the ideal goal of the pilgrim: “Clairvaux is this Jerusalem united to the heavenly Jerusalem by its profound and radical piety, by its life’s conformity, by some spiritual affinity”. A medieval hymn, which is still present in the liturgy, clearly exalted the heavenly Jerusalem which was built on earth through the of a church: “Jerusalem blessed city, / called image of peace, / built in the heavens / out of living stones”. (The Pilgrimage in the Great Jubilee 14)

Hence it is appropriate that, as the Second Millennium of Christianity draws to a close, the Church should become more fully conscious of the sinfulness of her children, recalling all those times in history when they departed from the spirit of Christ and his Gospel and, instead of offering to the world the witness of a life inspired by the values of faith, indulged in ways of thinking and acting which were truly forms of counter-witness and scandal. (Tertio Millennio Adveniente 33)

11 Achievement Objective 5

Students will be able to recognise the development of Marian devotion and the construction of the great Gothic cathedrals as expressions of genuine Christian spirituality.

Church Teachings

• Mary, the mother of Jesus, is acclaimed by the Church in the East and the West as Te Matua o Te Atua (the Mother of God). • The Church’s devotion to Mary is intrinsic to and encourages adoration of Te Atua (God). • In the West, the is the most common devotion to Mary. • The Rosary developed as a popular substitute for the Liturgy of the Hours. • Religious art expresses the infinite beauty of Te Atua. • The Gothic cathedrals express the faith of the people of the Middle Ages and communicate the mystery and wonder of God. • Through whakapono and reason men and women come to know and love God and discover the truth about themselves. • Thomas Aquinas contributed to the development of human understanding by building on the works of Jewish, Arabic and Greek philosophers to show the harmony that exists between faith and reason.

Catechism and Church Document Links

Mary Called in the "the mother of Jesus", Mary is acclaimed by Elizabeth, at the prompting of the Spirit and even before the birth of her son, as "the mother of my Lord". In fact, the One whom she conceived as man by the Holy Spirit, who truly became her Son according to the flesh, was none other than the Father's eternal Son, the second person of the Holy Trinity. Hence the Church confesses that Mary is truly "Mother of God" (). (CCC 495)

"All generations will call me blessed": "The Church's devotion to the Blessed Virgin is intrinsic to Christian worship." The Church rightly honours "the Blessed Virgin with special devotion. From the most ancient times the Blessed Virgin has been honoured with the title of 'Mother of God,' to whose protection the faithful fly in all their dangers and needs. . . . This very special devotion . . . differs essentially from the adoration which is given to the incarnate Word and equally to the Father and the Holy Spirit, and greatly fosters this adoration." The liturgical feasts dedicated to the Mother of God and Marian prayer, such as the rosary, an "epitome of the whole Gospel," express this devotion to the Virgin Mary. (CCC 971)

Beginning with Mary's unique cooperation with the working of the Holy Spirit, the Churches developed their prayer to the holy Mother of God, centring it on the person of Christ manifested in his mysteries. In countless hymns and antiphons expressing this prayer, two movements usually alternate with one

12 another: the first "magnifies" the Lord for the "great things" he did for his lowly servant and through her for all human beings the second entrusts the supplications and praises of the children of God to the Mother of Jesus, because she now knows the humanity which, in her, the Son of God espoused. (CCC 2675)

The Hail Mary and the Rosary This twofold movement of prayer to Mary has found a privileged expression in the Ave Maria:

Hail Mary [or Rejoice, Mary]: the greeting of the Gabriel opens this prayer. It is God himself who, through his angel as intermediary, greets Mary. Our prayer dares to take up this greeting to Mary with the regard God had for the lowliness of his humble servant and to exult in the joy he finds in her.

Full of grace, the Lord is with thee: These two phrases of the angel's greeting shed light on one another. Mary is full of grace because the Lord is with her. The grace with which she is filled is the presence of him who is the source of all grace. "Rejoice . . . O Daughter of Jerusalem . . . the Lord your God is in your midst." Mary, in whom the Lord himself has just made his dwelling, is the daughter of Zion in person, the ark of the covenant, the place where the glory of the Lord dwells. She is "the dwelling of God . . . with men." Full of grace, Mary is wholly given over to him who has come to dwell in her and whom she is about to give to the world.

Blessed art thou among women and blessed is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus. After the angel's greeting, we make Elizabeth's greeting our own. "Filled with the Holy Spirit," Elizabeth is the first in the long succession of generations who have called Mary "blessed." "Blessed is she who believed. . . . " Mary is "blessed among women" because she believed in the fulfilment of the Lord's word. Abraham because of his faith, became a blessing for all the nations of the earth. Mary, because of her faith, became the mother of believers, through whom all nations of the earth receive him who is God's own blessing: Jesus, the "fruit of thy womb". (CCC 2676)

Holy Mary, Mother of God: With Elizabeth we marvel, "And why is this granted me, that the mother of my Lord should come to me?" Because she gives us Jesus, her son, Mary is Mother of God and our mother; we can entrust all our cares and petitions to her: she prays for us as she prayed for herself: "Let it be to me according to your word." By entrusting ourselves to her prayer, we abandon ourselves to the will of God together with her: "Thy will be done."

Pray for us sinners, now and at the hour of our death: By asking Mary to pray for us, we acknowledge ourselves to be poor sinners and we address ourselves to the "Mother of Mercy," the All-Holy One. We give ourselves over to her now, in the Today of our lives. And our trust broadens further, already at the present moment, to surrender "the hour of our death" wholly to her care. May she be there as she was at her son's death on the cross. May she

13 welcome us as our mother at the hour of our passing to lead us to her son, Jesus, in paradise. (CCC 2677)

Medieval piety in the West developed the prayer of the rosary as a popular substitute for the Liturgy of the Hours. (CCC 2678)

The Rosary of the Virgin Mary, which gradually took form in the second millennium under the guidance of the Spirit of God, is a prayer loved by countless Saints and encouraged by the . Simple yet profound, it still remains, at the dawn of this third millennium, a prayer of great significance, destined to bring forth a harvest of holiness. It blends easily into the spiritual journey of the Christian life, which, after two thousand years, has lost none of the freshness of its beginnings and feels drawn by the Spirit of God to “set out into the deep” (duc in altum!) in order once more to proclaim, and even cry out, before the world that Jesus Christ is Lord and Saviour, “the way, and the truth and the life” (Jn 14:6), “the goal of human history and the point on which the desires of history and civilization turn”. (The Rosary of the Virgin Mary 1)

The Rosary, though clearly Marian in character, is at heart a Christocentric prayer. In the sobriety of its elements, it has all the depth of the Gospel message in its entirety, of which it can be said to be a compendium. It is an echo of the prayer of Mary, her perennial Magnificat for the work of the redemptive Incarnation which began in her virginal womb. With the Rosary, the Christian people sits at the school of Mary and is led to contemplate the beauty on the face of Christ and to experience the depths of his love. Through the Rosary the faithful receive abundant grace, as though from the very hands of the Mother of the Redeemer. (The Rosary of the Virgin Mary 1)

Against the background of the words Ave Maria the principal events of the life of Jesus Christ pass before the eyes of the soul. They take shape in the complete series of the joyful, sorrowful and glorious mysteries, and they put us in living communion with Jesus through – we might say – the heart of his Mother. At the same time our heart can embrace in the decades of the Rosary all the events that make up the lives of individuals, families, nations, the Church, and all humankind. Our personal concerns and those of our neighbour, especially those who are closest to us, who are dearest to us. Thus the simple prayer of the Rosary marks the rhythm of human life. (The Rosary of the Virgin Mary 2)

Of the many mysteries of Christ's life, only a few are indicated by the Rosary in the form that has become generally established with the seal of the Church's approval. The selection was determined by the origin of the prayer, which was based on the number 150, the number of the in the . (The Rosary of the Virgin Mary 19)

Certainly the whole mystery of Christ is a mystery of light. He is the “light of the world” (Jn 8:12). Yet this truth emerges in a special way during the years of his public life, when he proclaims the Gospel of the Kingdom. In proposing to the Christian community five significant moments – “luminous” mysteries –

14 during this phase of Christ's life, I think that the following can be fittingly singled out: (1) his in the Jordan, (2) his self-manifestation at the wedding of Cana, (3) his proclamation of the Kingdom of God, with his call to conversion, (4) his Transfiguration, and finally, (5) his institution of the Eucharist, as the sacramental expression of the .

Each of these mysteries is a revelation of the Kingdom now present in the very person of Jesus. The Baptism in the Jordan is first of all a mystery of light. Here, as Christ descends into the waters, the innocent one who became “sin” for our sake (cf. 2 Cor 5:21), the heavens open wide and the voice of the Father declares him the beloved Son (cf. Mt 3:17 and parallels), while the Spirit descends on him to invest him with the mission which he is to carry out. Another mystery of light is the first of the signs, given at Cana (cf. Jn 2:1-12), when Christ changes water into wine and opens the hearts of the disciples to faith, thanks to the intervention of Mary, the first among believers. Another mystery of light is the preaching by which Jesus proclaims the coming of the Kingdom of God, calls to conversion (cf. Mk 1:15) and forgives the sins of all who draw near to him in humble trust (cf. Mk 2:3-13; Lk 7:47-48): the inauguration of that ministry of mercy which he continues to exercise until the end of the world, particularly through the Sacrament of Reconciliation which he has entrusted to his Church (cf. Jn 20:22-23). The mystery of light par excellence is the Transfiguration, traditionally believed to have taken place on Mount Tabor. The glory of the Godhead shines forth from the face of Christ as the Father commands the astonished Apostles to “listen to him” (cf. Lk 9:35 and parallels) and to prepare to experience with him the agony of the Passion, so as to come with him to the joy of the Resurrection and a life transfigured by the Holy Spirit. A final mystery of light is the institution of the Eucharist, in which Christ offers his body and blood as food under the signs of bread and wine, and testifies “to the end” his love for humanity (Jn 13:1), for whose he will offer himself in sacrifice. (The Rosary of the Virgin Mary 21)

Sacred images in our churches and homes are intended to awaken and nourish our faith in the mystery of Christ. Through the icon of Christ and his works of salvation, it is he whom we adore. Through sacred images of the holy Mother of God, of the and of the saints, we venerate the persons represented. (CCC 1192)

Religious Art and the Cathedrals The fine arts, but above all sacred art, "of their nature are directed toward expressing in some way the infinite beauty of God in works made by human hands. Their dedication to the increase of God's praise and of his glory is more complete, the more exclusively they are devoted to turning people’s minds devoutly toward God". (CCC 2513)

In the West, artists start from the most varied viewpoints, depending also on the underlying convictions of the cultural world of their time. The artistic heritage built up over the centuries includes a vast array of sacred works of great inspiration, which still today leave the observer full of admiration. In the first place, there are the great buildings for worship, in which the functional is always wedded to the creative impulse inspired by a sense of the beautiful

15 and an intuition of the mystery. From here came the various styles well known in the history of art. The strength and simplicity of the Romanesque, expressed in cathedrals and abbeys, slowly evolved into the soaring splendours of the Gothic. These forms portray not only the genius of an artist but the soul of a people. In the play of light and shadow, in forms at times massive, at times delicate, structural considerations certainly come into play, but so too do the tensions peculiar to the experience of God, the mystery both “awesome” and “alluring”. (Letter of Pope John Paul II to Artists, 1999, 8)

Universities The cultural atmosphere in which a human being lives has a great influence upon his or her way of thinking and, thus, of acting. Therefore, a division between faith and culture is more than a small impediment to evangelisation, while a culture penetrated with the Christian spirit is an instrument that favours the spreading of the Good News.

Furthermore, the Gospel is intended for all peoples of every age and land and is not bound exclusively to any particular culture. It is valid for pervading all cultures so as to illumine them with the light of divine revelation and to purify human conduct, renewing them in Christ.

For this reason, the Church of Christ strives to bring the Good News to every sector of humanity so as to be able to convert the consciences of human beings, both individually and collectively, and to fill with the light of the Gospel their works and undertakings, their entire lives, and, indeed, the whole of the social environment in which they are engaged. In this way the Church carries out her mission of evangelising also by advancing human culture. (Apostolic Constitution on Christian Wisdom – Foreword I)

Subsequently, when civil authorities, to promote the common good, began and developed their own universities, the Church, loyal to her very nature, did not desist from founding and favouring such kinds of centres of learning and institutions of instruction. This is shown by the considerable number of Catholic universities established in recent times in nearly all parts of the world. Conscious of her worldwide salvific mission, the Church wishes to be especially joined to these centres of higher learning and she desires that they flourish everywhere and work effectively to make Christ's true message present in the field of human culture and to make it advance in that field. (Apostolic Constitution on Christian Wisdom – Foreword II)

Faith and reason are like two wings on which the human spirit rises to the contemplation of truth; and God has placed in the human heart a desire to know the truth—in a word, to know himself—so that, by knowing and loving God, men and women may also come to the fullness of truth about themselves. (Faith and Reason)

Thomas Aquinas A quite special place in this long development belongs to Thomas, not only because of what he taught but also because of the dialogue which he undertook with the Arab and Jewish thought of his time. In an age when

16 Christian thinkers were rediscovering the treasures of ancient philosophy, and more particularly of Aristotle, Thomas had the great of giving pride of place to the harmony which exists between faith and reason. Both the light of reason and the light of faith come from God, he argued; hence there can be no contradiction between them. (Faith and Reason 43)

Achievement Objective 6

Students will be able to develop an understanding of the role of the pope and of reformers within the Church and society of the Middle Ages.

Church Teachings

• ’s successor, the bishop of Rome or pope, exercises unique authority within the Church. • The pope leads the , the successors of the apostles, in governing and carrying out the mission of Christ’s Church on earth. • The pope is a sign of unity in the Church. • The Church is always in need of renewal. • Te Wairua Tapu (The Holy Spirit) constantly renews the life of the Church. • Saints have always been the source and origin of renewal in the most difficult moments in the Church's history.

Catechism and Church Document Links

The Pope and Bishops The Lord made Simon alone, whom he named Peter, the "rock" of his Church. He gave him the keys of his Church and instituted him shepherd of the whole flock. "The office of binding and loosing which was given to Peter was also assigned to the college of apostles united to its head." This pastoral office of Peter and the other apostles belongs to the Church's very foundation and is continued by the bishops under the primacy of the Pope. (CCC 881)

The Pope, Bishop of Rome and Peter's successor, "is the perpetual and visible source and foundation of the unity both of the bishops and of the whole company of the faithful". "For the Roman Pontiff, by reason of his office as Vicar of Christ, and as pastor of the entire Church has full, supreme, and universal power over the whole Church, a power which he can always exercise unhindered." (CCC 882)

The Church is apostolic. She is built on a lasting foundation: "the twelve apostles of the Lamb" (Rev 21:14). She is indestructible (cf. Mt 16:18). She is upheld infallibly in the truth: Christ governs her through Peter and the other apostles, who are present in their successors, the Pope and the college of bishops. (CCC 869)

As successors of the apostles and members of the college, the bishops share in the apostolic responsibility and mission of the whole Church under the authority of the Pope, successor of St. Peter. (CCC 1594)

17 Renewal Christ's call to conversion continues to resound in the lives of Christians. This second conversion is an uninterrupted task for the whole Church who, "clasping sinners to her bosom, [is] at once holy and always in need of purification, [and] follows constantly the path of penance and renewal". This endeavour of conversion is not just a human work. It is the movement of a "contrite heart," drawn and moved by grace to respond to the merciful love of God who loved us first. (CCC 1428)

The Holy Spirit is "the principle of every vital and truly saving action in each part of the Body". He works in many ways to build up the whole Body in charity: by God's Word "which is able to build you up"; by Baptism, through which he forms Christ's Body; by the sacraments, which give growth and healing to Christ's members; by "the grace of the apostles, which holds first place among his gifts"; by the virtues, which make us act according to what is good; finally, by the many special graces (called "charisms"), by which he makes the faithful "fit and ready to undertake various tasks and offices for the renewal and building up of the Church". (CCC 798)

By canonising some of the faithful, i.e., by solemnly proclaiming that they practised heroic virtue and lived in fidelity to God's grace, the Church recognises the power of the Spirit of holiness within her and sustains the hope of believers by proposing the saints to them as models and intercessors. "The saints have always been the source and origin of renewal in the most difficult moments in the Church's history." Indeed, "holiness is the hidden source and infallible measure of her apostolic activity and missionary zeal". (CCC 828)

ORGANISATION OF THE TOPIC

For teaching purposes the material in this topic is organised into eight sections each of which is linked to one of the achievement objectives:

Part One: The Pope and the Emperor Achievement Objective 1

Part Two: East and West Achievement Objective 2

Part Three: Monasteries Achievement Objective 3

Part Four: Pilgrimages Achievement Objective 4

Part Five: Crusades Achievement Objective 4

Part Six: Devotion to Mary Achievement Objective 5

Part Seven: Cathedrals and Universities Achievement Objective 5

Part Eight: Popes and Reformers Achievement Objective 6

18 LEARNING OUTCOMES

Each learning outcome for the topic is derived from one or more of the achievement objectives. The learning outcomes identify what students are expected to learn as they work through each section of the topic.

While teachers must ensure that the learning outcomes for the topic are covered so that all of the achievement objectives for the topic are met, it is not intended that students work through every task or activity.

Teachers should select a range of tasks appropriate for their students’ interests and abilities and well-matched to their own teaching style.

Learning outcomes for each of the eight sections of the topic are listed at the beginning of the appropriate part.

LINKS WITH OTHER LEARNING AREAS

Topic 10D “The Church’s Story – The Middle Ages” in so far as it deals with the cultural, social, political, historical and religious contexts within which Christianity developed, has clear links to a subject such as Social Studies. Because the topic also touches on the art, music and architecture of the Middle Ages it connects with Art and Music as well.

Teachers of Religious Education are encouraged to establish whether the Achievement Aims and Objectives for this topic can be linked with those of the Social Sciences Curriculum as they are delivered at your school.

The Social Studies Department may have resources, particularly maps, which could be useful for teaching this topic. The Art and Music Departments may have audio and visual resources that assist the teaching of the topic – tapes of plain chant and other music of the period, images of Mary and of the Great Gothic Cathedrals.

MĀORI SPIRITUALITY IN THE RELIGIOUS EDUCATION CURRICULUM

In Aotearoa New Zealand Māori spirituality is an essential dimension of the Religious Education Curriculum.

Māori students in Catholic schools have a right, supported by Church teaching, to have the faith explained to them in a culturally relevant way, using those traditional Māori concepts, beliefs and values which are still part of the life of Māori today. For example, te ao wairua (the spiritual world), Atua, tapu, mana, noa (free from tapu restrictions), hohou rongo (the restoring of tapu and mana), whānau, te wā (time). It is not sufficient to present the faith to them in wholly European terms while ignoring the riches of the Māori religious traditions and their belief system – this would be an alienating experience for Māori. Pope John Paul II himself affirmed the authenticity and integrity of

19 Māori spirituality when speaking to tangata whenua (the people of the land) during his visit to this country in 1986:

“It is as Māori that the Lord calls you, it is as Māori that you belong to the Church, the one .”

Since 1840 we have been a nation with two streams of culture as expressed in our founding document, Te Tiriti o Waitangi – the Treaty of Waitangi. The partnership, communication and mutual respect implied in the Treaty can only exist if there is mutual understanding. For Pakeha, such an understanding is impossible without an appreciation of the Māori culture’s underlying spirituality. There is also great potential for the enrichment of the spirituality of Pakeha young people when they are given the chance to develop an awareness and understanding of the Māori faith vision and belief system. All young people in Catholic schools, therefore, should be given the opportunity to understand key aspects of the culture and spirituality of Māori.

THE USE OF MĀORI LANGUAGE IN THIS PROGRAMME

The first time a Māori word or phrase appears in a particular topic, either in the teacher material or the student texts, it is followed by its English equivalent which is placed inside brackets. In most cases the meaning of the Māori terms can be worked out from the context in which they appear.

A glossary which gathers together all the Māori terms used in a particular topic is provided. This glossary often explores the Māori concepts in greater depth than is possible in the brief descriptions that appear in the teacher material and student texts.

THE USE OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

In recent years, as it has become clearer to psychologists and educationalists that different students have different strengths and learn best in different ways, the long established view that intelligence is a single underlying general ability characteristic has been challenged. Various theories of multiple intelligences have been proposed. Background material on multiple intelligences and their application in Religious Education is contained in the Curriculum Statement.

The following ideas may be useful for Religious Education teachers who wish to create their own activities and resources across seven of the intelligences.

The ideas have been adapted from Book One of Seven Ways At Once: Classroom Strategies Based on the Seven Intelligences by Helen McGrath and Toni Noble (Melbourne: Longman, 1995). This is an excellent resource that suggests ways in which teachers can translate the theory of multiple intelligences into classroom practice.

20 An eighth intelligence – naturalist or environmental – has been recognised more recently. Suggested activities for this intelligence are also listed.

Word Intelligence

Some Useful Verbs:

Write Tell Listen Spell Discuss Read Summarise Brainstorm Re-tell Debate Argue Review Interview Narrate Instruct List Explain

Some Interesting Products:

Talk on a topic Myth / legend Story Script Play Poem Essay Menu Newspaper Directions Diary / journal Letter Sentences Dialogue Story reading Review Newsletter Headline News report Headline Limerick Booklet Recipe Slogan Instructions Cartoon caption Word search Book Riddle Definitions Advertisement Report Monologue Proverb Audiotaped story Summary Fax Written interview Brochure text Lyrics Reading circle Anagrams Dictionary Joke Crossword Radio programme Sequel / next episode

21

Space and Vision Intelligence

Some Useful Verbs:

Draw Sketch Construct Sculpt Illustrate Create Design Print Read map Make game Photograph Film Videotape Make Paint Visualise Doodle

Some Interesting Products:

Map Sketch Drawing Mural Painting Poster Pop-up book / card Plan Timeline Flowchart Venn diagram Maze Diorama Construction Slideshow Display Guided imagery Photograph Stage set Mobile Illustration Screen printing Overhead Sign Overhead transparency Perspective drawing Collage Story map Tangram Chart Card game Calligraphy Design Graph Diagram Cartoon Symbol Print Logo Board game Videotape Frieze Stage set Colour scheme Scroll Banner Brochure Pamphlet

Body Intelligence

Some Useful Verbs:

Act out Mime Dance Move like Interpret Exercise Walk Juggle Choreograph Demonstrate Manipulate Visit Fix Make model Perform Build Construct Find

Some Useful Products:

Charades Floor games Roleplay Mime Creative drama Puppet play Demonstration Models Creative movement Gestures Movements Dance Human sculptures Choreography Body and mouth percussion Excursion Playing musical and non-musical instruments

22

People Intelligence

Some Useful Verbs:

Co-operate Interview Survey Teach Research (people) Encourage Team up to Lead Organise Perform Play Help Negotiate Mentor Mediate Act Decide together Discuss Work in pairs Listen Communicate Role play Give feedback Tutor Predict (behaviour) Collaborate Take turns Explain Persuade Sell Convince Manage

Some Interesting Products:

Interviews Survey Biography Play Class presentation Morning talk Social skills Speech Groups Group games Co-operative learning Leadership skills Conference Collaborative evaluation sheet Sociogramme Oral presentation Performance Games Class meeting Team logo Advertising campaign Role play Interview Tutoring Dialogue Marketing plan Simulations Mentoring Peer support programme

Self Intelligence

Useful Verbs:

Give opinion Rank Choose Record Describe Reflect Self-assess / evaluate Self-analyse State Set goals Meditate Discuss Dream Self-disclosure

Useful Products:

Personal goals Learning Goals Reflection sheet Values Autobiography Self-portrait Opinions Personal timeline Interests list Self-description Personal scrapbook Strengths list Family tree Personal reactions Journal Diary Self-assessment Dreams ‘Think’ book ‘I can’ book Preferences Fears Self-evaluation Personal logo Personal opinions Prayer Learning journal Feelings statements Meditation Similarities and differences to others

23

Music Intelligence

Some Useful Verbs:

Rhyme Sing Play Compose Hum Beat out Tap Create Chant Whistle Rap Record

Some Useful Products:

Jingle Song Lyrics Sounds Soundscape Sound story Musical mnemonic Chant Composition Sound effects Musical score Hymn Mood music Musical play Musical tape Rap Recording of environmental sounds Sound-off Tune

Logic and Maths Intelligence

Some Useful Verbs:

Survey Solve Group Explain Justify Draw to scale Plan Apply Analyse Sequence Carry out Test Experiment Find out Categorise Classify Prove Hypothesise Predict Order

Some Useful Products:

Solution Problem Experiment Pattern Result Estimates Sequence Survey Measurement Code Story ladder Story map Explanation Similarities Differences Data Graph Grid Table Chart Concept map Classification Theme Attributes Scale drawing Prediction Strategy Commonalities Deduction Hypothesis

24

Naturalist or Environmental Intelligence

Some Useful Activities:

Going on field trips and nature walks Forecasting and tracking the weather Observing the sky, clouds, stars, and space Walking in natural surroundings Reporting on nature videos Listing attributes of objects Recording changes or development over time Photographing nature Devising classifications Sorting and categorising items Caring for plants and animals Using graphic organisers Reconstructing the natural setting in a historical place Predicting the effects of extreme natural phenomena

CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING STYLES AND ACTIVITIES

The principles of co-operative learning are compatible with the aims and philosophy of Catholic schools.

The use of co-operative strategies in learning creates an environment in which students work together in ways that encourage and respect the contribution of all, and ensures their success. Meeting the needs of each individual student in this way is central to the Special Character of Catholic schools.

Co-operative learning is becoming a feature of all Essential Learning Areas in the curriculum but it is especially appropriate in Religious Education where its aims and outcomes are particularly desirable.

Simple explanations of co-operative learning activities are outlined below, but there are many excellent publications on this teaching and learning style available from educational bookshops.

The difference between co-operative learning groups and traditional groups is that they are structured in such a way as to ensure the success of each group member. The following elements are essential to co-operative learning.

1. Positive Interdependence – students understand that their individual success depends on the success of the group. 2. Face-to-Face interaction – students face each other so they can both learn from each other and be involved in the interaction.

25 3. Individual Accountability – all members of the group need to be clear about their task and their role and that they need to contribute their share if the group is to work successfully. 4. Small Group Skills – students learn collaborative skills effectively, that is, they communicate, share and co-operate well. 5. Group processing – students are helped to evaluate how effectively their group worked.

The teacher structures the groups and includes students of a mixed range of abilities in each group. Each person in the group has a part to play. It is important to use Wait Time (3 seconds) after a question has been asked and after a response has been given.

SUGGESTIONS FOR CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Teachers are encouraged to apply the following co-operative learning activities throughout the topic according to the task requirements and the needs and abilities of the students.

Timed Talking 1. Establish your pairs and nominate 1s and 2s in each pair so they will know the order of speaking. 2. Give the pairs the topic or question. 3. Have partners recall the important points of the topic or question in turn on a signal from the teacher. 4. Say “Go” and give the first speaker a fixed time, say 45 seconds. Then say, “change” and the second speaker is given a fixed time. Times and the number of turns can be varied to suit the topic or question and the ability of the class. 5. Pairs share their ideas with the whole group by telling one point they shared until the topic is complete. (Optional)

Think Pair Share 1. Students listen to a question. 2. Students have time to think about what was said. 3. Students turn to a partner and pair their ideas, discuss, ask a question, give an opinion and challenge ideas. 4. Students share ideas with other pairs, then large group.

Think Pair Square 1. Students in squares listen to a question. 2. Students take time to think about the question. 3. Students in their square turn to a partner and share their ideas, discuss, ask a question, give an opinion and challenge ideas. 4. Students share ideas with other pairs, then large group.

26 Team Reports: Inside / Outside Circle 1. Students work in an even number of groups preparing a presentation. 2. Groups pair off around the room facing each other forming an Inside/Outside Circle. 3. All Inside Circle groups present simultaneously to Outside Circle groups. 4. The Outside Circle groups then give specific feedback to their Inside Circle group stating what they liked and learned. 5. All Outside Circle groups give their presentations followed by feedback from Inside Circle groups. 6. Groups work on own presentation again to make any improvements. 7. Rotate. Teacher asks Outside Circle groups to right face and rotate one ahead to another team. Inside Circle groups stay put. 8. Teams repeat steps 3 – 5.

Team Mates Consult 1. Group appoints reader and checker. 2. All put pens down – preferably in a central container on table. 3. Reader reads first question, and group seeks answer through research or discussion. 4. Checker ensures that the whole team agrees with and understands the answer they have given to the question. 5. With agreement all pick up their pens and write the answer to the question in their own words – no dictation by one student to others. 6. Students follow the same process for each question. Those on the left of the previous reader and checker become the new reader and checker. 7. Teacher asks any student to share answers with the class.

Numbered Heads Together 1. One student needs to be a checker in each group. 2. Students are numbered off in groups. 3. Teacher asks question or sets task and time limit. 4. Students put their heads together and work on task – everyone must know the answer – checker asks if everyone understands. 5. Teacher or student calls a number and the child who has that number raises their hand and answers. 6. Further questions can be asked and different numbers called upon to answer but all numbers must be able to answer. 7. Giving students think time before putting heads together is also useful.

Roundtable 1. Students sit in groups of four with a large piece of paper with the question on it. 2. The paper is passed around the table as each student has a turn at writing what they think with help from others if necessary. 3. When the chart has been around the table and all have had a turn students can move on to another group and repeat the process or they can share what they have done with the class.

27 Team Statements 1. Think Time. Teacher announces topic and allows 20 seconds of Think Time. 2. Pair Discussions. Students pair and discuss their thoughts. 3. Individual Write. Students individually write one sentence on the topic. 4. Roundrobin. Students read their sentences to their team roundrobin with no comments. 5. Team Discussion. Team discusses ideas they have heard. 6. Consensus and Share. Team comes to a consensus on a team statement and shares it with the class. 7. Team Discussion: Compare Statements. Team discusses their statement in relation to other team statements.

Expert Jigsaw 1. Students form groups and number themselves 1, 2, 3 etc. around the group. (Determine the size of these groups according to how many students will profitably work together at the end of the exercise.) 2. All the 1s join together, all the 2s, and the 3s etc. to create new groups. 3. The new group researches a topic or completes an activity. 4. Each group has a different aspect of a topic in which to become an expert. 5. 1s, 2s and 3s then return to their original group and present their new knowledge.

Doughnut 1. Sit the group in a circle. 2. Number each person 1, 2, 1, 2, etc. around the circle. 3. Ask them to discuss the question in pairs. 4. After 5 minutes or more (depending on the question) ask the 1s to move two or more positions around the circle and continue the discussion with the partner of the person whose seat / place they now occupy. 5. This can be repeated until the 1s return to their seats. 6. Calculate the number of seats / places to be missed to give four or five moves.

This activity ensures that all class members have to speak and helps them to meet others.

Brain Drain 1. A reporter is appointed in each group. 2. When reporting back the reporter stands up and contributes one idea from their group. 3. The reporter from each group does the same in turn. 4. No ideas can be repeated.

28 5. The reporter sits down when their “brain is drained”. 6. The teacher records all the contributions.

Back to Back 1. Two students sit back to back. 2. One student has a picture; the other has a pencil and a blank piece of paper. 3. The student with the picture describes slowly in detail what he / she sees in the picture. 4. The student with the pencil and paper sketches what he / she perceives to be the picture – allow 5 to 10 minutes. 5. When the picture is completed students compare the picture and the sketch and discuss what has been included, what has been missed and what the picture is about. 6. An alternative is for one important detail to be left out of the description of the picture. On completion the effect this has had on the picture is discussed.

T Chart 1. Give the chart a heading as indicated in the lesson and draw a large T below it. 2. Below the bar of the T write LOOKS LIKE on the left and SOUNDS LIKE on the right. 3. Students give examples beneath each heading.

Telephone Exercise 1. Students form several teams. 2. One student from each team steps out of the room. 3. The teacher reads a short story or article to the class. 4. The students return to the classroom and join their team. 5. Teammates teach the student everything they can about the story or article. 6. That student answers questions about the story or article. 7. The team assesses themselves on how well they listened to, taught and learned about the message of the story or article. 8. Students discuss anything they missed or could do better.

29

PART ONE: THE POPE AND THE EMPEROR

Achievement Objective 1

Students will be able to understand the circumstances that led to the establishment of the Catholic Church as the universal Church of Western Europe.

Church Teachings

• The Church was established to spread Te Rangatiratanga on earth rather than to gain temporal or political power. • The two powers of Church and State are distinct from each other, each having its own sphere of competency. • The Church has a right to scrutinise events in society and interpret them in the light of Te Rongopai.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section of the topic students will:

• Define what is meant by the term the Middle Ages. • Understand that the partnership between the popes and the kings of the Franks enabled Christianity to spread through Western Europe. • Recognise the role played by key individuals and groups in the formation and weakening of the Holy Roman Empire.

Teacher Background

Defining the Middle Ages The Middle Ages was a term first used by devout Christians who saw themselves living in the interval between Christ’s first and . Later, in the fifteenth century, scholars began to talk of the “Middle Age” as the interval between the decline of the old Greek and Roman cultures and the revival of classical culture in their own time. For them the ancient world stood for high civilisation and the Middle Age represented a time of barbarism, chaos and religious bigotry.

There is no clear boundary marking the end of the ancient world and the start of the Middle Ages has been fixed at any number of points from the conversion of Constantine onwards. The end of the period has been fixed at anywhere between 1453 and 1517 – the latter date being the year the Reformation was said to have begun with Martin Luther posting his theses on the church door at Wittenberg.

30 Historians see the Middle Ages as falling into three distinct periods:

• The period from the fifth to the eleventh century – sometimes called the “Dark Ages” because of the chaos and destruction that accompanied the breakdown of the Roman world. • The twelfth century – often described as a period of renaissance or cultural rebirth. • The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries – the “high” Middle Ages that marked the peak of medieval civilisation.

However, while such distinctions can be applied to Western Europe they are inadequate descriptions of what happened in the East where the Roman Empire survived until 1453 and no renaissance was ever experienced.

The unifying feature of the Middle Ages is organised Christianity. During this period the Western Church was preserved from extinction, and European civilisation with it, by two institutions that alone had the strength and efficiency to withstand the threat of the surrounding barbarism – monasticism and the papacy.

The vacuum left by the decline of the Roman Empire was filled by the growing awareness of Christianity, not just as a religious faith but as a social and political force. Though the Roman Empire ultimately disappeared, its religion prospered. The spiritual and temporal leaders of Christianity gradually took on the mantle of the Roman emperors. In the West where the Empire first crumbled, it was the bishop of Rome who first conceived the idea of a new order based on the joint authority of the and a Catholic Emperor.

The chosen instrument of the papacy was found in the new Caesars or “Kaisers” of Germany. In the East where the Roman Empire survived far longer, such a concept emerged much later with the Tsars of Moscow. The first step towards the reorganisation of Christendom into new imperial systems can be seen in the coronation of Charlemagne on Christmas Day in the year 800. This date, as clearly as any, begins the chronology of the Middle Ages.

The Popes and the Franks

On Christmas Day 800, Pope Leo III took upon himself the right to crown Charlemagne as Emperor of the Romans. This was the culmination of a series of events that began in the previous century and which raised the leader of the Franks to be ruler of an Empire that stretched from Schleswig- Holstein far beyond Rome and from the Ebro across to the Elbe.

During the eighth century, after the conquest of the Spanish kingdom of the West Goths by the Arabs, the kingdom of the Franks had become the only kingdom on the continent of Western Europe between the Pyrenees and the Elbe. The popes of this period realised that it was essential that the Church prevent itself from falling under the control of the various rival kings and lords who were fighting over land and that the best way to guarantee their own independence was for the popes to have their own territory. The popes

31 entered a partnership with the Frankish kings – if the popes would support the interests of the Franks, the Franks would support them. In 755 Pope Stephen II anointed Pepin, the king of the Franks. In return Pepin fought for territory in Italy and handed it over to the pope.

The partnership between the Franks and the papacy was strongest under Pepin’s son, Charlemagne, who set out to create a Christian state based on education and learning where the Church would be a force for both continuity and unity. Charlemagne, as was the case with previous Frankish leaders, could not read or write himself. He realised that the clergy, the only group with literacy skills, were essential to handing on the ancient literature and, in time, creating a new written culture. With the help of Alcuin, a from Yorkshire, Charlemagne founded schools throughout his lands.

The close partnership between Church and State was based on Charlemagne’s belief that he was lord of the Church. Without any moral or religious scruples, Charlemagne imposed his form of Christianity on his subject peoples and engaged in a series of costly and cruel wars, which in the case of the Saxons lasted for thirty years and resulted in thousands of people being executed or deported. For Charlemagne, the unity of the Empire came first. However, he regarded the pope as the guardian of the apostolic traditions, responsible for questions of faith and the liturgy, but restricted to purely spiritual functions.

As a zealous reformer of the Church Charlemagne also concentrated on the duties of the bishops, on the establishment of parishes and communities of canons in the cathedrals, and on the participation of all the faithful in worship. He required that all Christians know the Lord’s Prayer and the creed in their own language but in the interests of the Empire demanded that the liturgy be celebrated in Latin – a foreign tongue that ordinary people could not understand. The ban on the use of the vernacular for liturgical purposes was to remain until the eve of the .

The liturgy that was adopted in Charlemagne’s empire was the highly ceremonial papal liturgy that increased genuflections, signs of the cross and the use of incense. There was now a ‘silent ’ celebrated by the priest alone without the people. The priest whispered the words, which were no longer understood by the congregation. Individual or private masses became more and more common. The priest stood at the altar with his back to the people. As few priests could now formulate prayers spontaneously in Latin, everything was written down and prescribed to the last word. The liturgy was tied to the book. The activity of the people was limited to looking on, to watching the sacred drama performed by the clergy.

After Charlemagne’s death his empire could not be held together, and with his three sons it collapsed into three groups of countries – France, Italy and Germany. The framework of dioceses, parishes, etc. was preserved, and these provided some continuity and strength in the uncertain and violent times that followed. It was the monasteries, however that were the real strength of

32 the Church during the ninth and tenth centuries when some of the worst popes in the history of the Church held office.

Implications for Today

The Church was established to spread Te Rangatiratanga on earth rather than to gain temporal or political power. Today, the two powers of Church and State are distinct from each other, each having its own sphere of competency.

Because the Church has a right to scrutinise events in society and interpret them in the light of the Gospel, its relationship with the State will not always be easy. It will challenge nations that are acting unjustly and encourage those countries that are struggling to do right in the face of opposition and oppression.

Links with the Student Text

Getting Started

Create an atmosphere for this topic by filling the classroom with plenty of resources that relate to the Middle Ages. Used well, these will add greatly to the students’ appreciation and enjoyment of the topic. Here are some suggestions:

• Music of the Middle Ages, especially Gregorian Chant. A variety of audio tapes and CDs are readily available. These include Adorate Deum: Gregorian Chant from the Proper of the Mass sung by Nova Schola Gregoriana (Naxos) and Hildegard: Heavenly Revelations sung by Oxford Camerata (Naxos). • , statues and other religious images from the period or derived from it. • Posters of cathedrals, churches, medieval towns, etc. • Maps relating to the period. • Picture books, story books. • Films such as Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves, The Navigator, The Hunchback of Notre Dame and Sun, Sister Moon can be useful resources. However, they need to be used wisely and scenes that are shown from them should be appropriate. There is seldom value in showing an entire film. • Segments from episodes of the television series Brother Cadfael are excellent “scene setters”. This series is now available on video.

Mindmap

Mindmaps are any kind of visual picture reflecting students’ knowledge. A useful way to introduce the topic is to get students to make a mindmap on the topic “The Middle Ages”. This is a way of establishing students’ prior knowledge about the period.

33 Ask students in pairs to brainstorm by drawing, writing and categorising all that they already know about this topic on A3 or similar sized paper. Let them make their own from scratch or provide some important concepts to help them organise their map.

At the end of a topic it’s valuable to get students to make a new mindmap and then to compare it with the map they made at the beginning of the topic. What do they notice in comparing the two maps?

Mindmaps are good for brainstorming what a student already knows about a topic, or for reviewing a topic, or for making a summary and studying for tests.

Here are some guidelines for mindmapping:

• Start with the topic or topic sentence in the centre of a large piece of paper and make the mindmap horizontally on the page • Add branches to hold key sub-topics • Add smaller branches to the big branches • Print all the words on the branches using upper and lower case • Use a medium thick pen • Use at least three different coloured pens or pencils • Vary the size of words according to their importance • Use arrows to show connections / relationships • Try to incorporate pictures, symbols, colours, shapes.

Key Themes in the Middle Ages

A discussion of the points listed on the following OHP may be a helpful way of introducing students to some of the important aspects of the Middle Ages which they will meet during the topic:

34

Some Important Themes of the Middle Ages

• Migrations of barbarian tribes reshaped the Roman world • Monasticism became a preserver of learning and Scripture and promoted missions and education • The papacy grew more powerful and individual popes for better and for worse shaped not just religion but the whole of society • The interests of the Church merged with those of the State • The Eastern and Western parts of the Church developed in isolation from each other and eventually separated • Islam overtook established Christian centres and was seen as a great threat to Christianity • Devotion to Mary and the saints increased and expressed itself in pilgrimages and new devotions • At times when the Church seemed to lose its sense of direction, the Holy Spirit inspired individuals and movements to renew Christian life

35 Task One

This task requires students to use the information in the box to write their own definition of the term “The Middle Ages” : between end Roman Empire beginning modern period seven hundred 800 1500

They could begin with the following starter:

The Middle Ages is the period . . .

The following is a possible answer with the words from the box in italics:

The Middle Ages is the period between the end of the Roman Empire and the beginning of the modern period in European history. They cover a period of about seven hundred years between around 800 and 1500.

Something to Discuss

This discussion asks students to reflect on the influence and power of the Church today:

• How important is Christianity in the lives of people today? • Does Christianity dominate any aspects of our culture?

Christianity came to dominate every aspect of people’s lives during the Middle Ages. It is difficult for students today to appreciate how powerfully the Church influenced not just religious matters but the personal life, family life, social life, politics, education, music, art, science, medicine, and law of the Middle Ages.

Students may reach the conclusion that compared with the Middle Ages the Church has a minimal impact on our culture and the lives of many people today.

The Church’s Impact on People’s Lives in the Middle Ages

All aspects of life during the Middle Ages were subject to the Christian God. The service of God, as determined and governed by the Church, was seen as the purpose of all human activity:

• God and the spiritual world were believed to directly determine the events of people’s daily existence • Angels, saints and devils were regarded as near neighbours • Heroes from the past, such as figures from the , were just as present as the kings and queens of their own country

36 • Calendars and the fixing of time were determined by the Church • The church or monastery bell marked the passing of time – there were no clocks • Bells called people to prayer at regular intervals throughout the day, especially for the Angelus at morning, noon and evening • The only holidays people had from work were Sundays and the important feasts in the Church’s year • People looked to the Church and theology, rather than to medicine and science, to heal illnesses and explain events in the natural world • Philosophy was a branch of theology rather than an independent discipline • Civil and state law evolved as a result of the Church developing its own complex legal system • The people’s main experience of formal music was Gregorian Chant which they heard in the monasteries and churches • Art was religious in nature and appeared mainly in the churches in the form of statues, stained glass windows, etc.

Workbook Activity: Timeline

Printed in the student workbook is a timeline that records some key details about a number of important people and events connected with the Church’s story in the Middle Ages.

The timeline provides a good introduction to and an overview of material that students will cover in the course of this topic. As they work through the topic and learn more about the Church in the Middle Ages students should:

• Add new information to the timeline. • Illustrate it.

Extension Activity (in Workbook)

Students should choose a person or event on the timeline to research in greater depth.

They should make use of the Internet or books from the library to find the information they need.

They could present their findings to the class or group in one of the following ways:

• As a talk. • In a song, rap or dance. • On a poster. • In a written report.

This activity would be an appropriate assessment task.

37 Something To Make

The popes and the kings of the Franks formed a partnership that helped both sides. This task requires students to make up a contract in the form of a scroll that sets out:

• What the popes will do for the kings and what the kings will do for the popes. • What both sides will get in return.

It would be useful for students to brainstorm first.

Students could work on this activity individually or in pairs. Here is an example of the text that could appear on the document:

I agree to support the kings of the Franks in expanding their territory. In return they will give me land in Italy.

Signed: The Pope

I agree to create a Christian state. In return the Pope will crown me emperor.

Signed: Charlemagne

The teacher will need to ensure that students have suitable paper and pens to create the scrolls. These, when completed, could be read out and displayed on the classroom wall.

NB Creating a scroll can take up a lot of time. If time is limited, the teacher should direct students to decide on the text of the contract but not present it on a scroll.

Task Two

This task requires students to match each term in the left hand column with its appropriate description in the right hand column. They should write down the numbers 1 to 10 and next to each put the correct letter of the alphabet.

Otherwise this task could be done as a group activity. The teacher should photocopy the table below and cut it into cards – one set for each group of students. Students are required to sort the cards into matching pairs. The activity could be run as a competition to see which group finishes first. It is also an appropriate activity for ESOL students.

38 The answers are as follows:

1. Gregory the Great D. He realised the importance of stopping the Church being controlled by rival kings and lords.

2. The Franks G. This people occupied the land we now call France.

3. Pepin F. He fought for territory in Italy and handed it over to the pope.

4. Stephen II J. He crowned Pepin the king of the Franks.

5. Charlemagne I. He built up a great kingdom that stretched across Europe.

6. Alcuin B. A monk from Yorkshire who helped Charlemagne set up schools.

7. Leo III A. He crowned Charlemagne as Emperor of the Romans.

8. Vikings C. They caused much damage when they invaded England and parts of France and Germany.

9. Islam H. The armies of this religion attacked the coasts of France and Italy.

10. Monasteries E. In a time of chaos these kept the spark of civilisation alive in Europe.

39

PART TWO: EAST AND WEST

Achievement Objective 2

Students will be able to explore similarities and differences between the Church in the East and in the West and identify factors that contributed to an eventual schism between the two.

Church Teachings

• For many centuries the churches of the East and the West, though they shared a common faith and sacramental life, developed in different directions that eventually resulted in a split or schism. • The separated churches of the East possess true hākarameta (sacraments), including Holy Orders and the Eucharist, honour Mary as Te Matua o Te Atua, and keep alive many rich spiritual traditions. • The separated churches of the East have their own valid disciplines and structures and possess great theological insight. • The Catholic Church desires full unity between the churches of the East and West. • The icon is a religious image, a sacrament, that makes Christ present among his people.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section of the topic students will:

• Identify similarities and differences between the Churches of the East and West

Teacher Background

East and West With the schism of 1054 the communion between the Church of Rome and the Church based in was finally broken. From that time until the 16th century, the Christian Church had only two large branches: the Western and the Eastern Churches.

By the fifth century the Western Church had already come under the rule of the Bishop of Rome, while the Eastern Churches – also known as the Orthodox Churches – were, for the most part, under the rule of the patriarchs who occupied the main sees of , Constantinople, Jerusalem and Antioch. One exception was the Assyrian Church of the East, which went its own way after the in 431. The other was a group of six ancient Churches known as the Oriental Orthodox Churches, which parted with other Christians after the in 451.

40 While culturally, politically and socially quite diverse, the Western and Eastern Churches were mostly able to maintain some form of communion during the first millennium. However, a definitive schism occurred in 1054 when the issue of papal authority, which had been the cause of longstanding tension between East and West, finally came to a head. The papal legate and the of Constantinople anathematised each other, causing a lasting schism between Greek and Latin Christendom.

This split between the Church of the East and the Church of the West developed over many centuries. In addition to disagreement over the authority and role of the pope, East and West also had different ways of speaking about the Holy Spirit – as shown in the controversy over the use of in the Creed. At the end of the seventh century the term filioque had been added to the Creed of Nicaea-Constantinople to indicate that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son. This was opposed by the Eastern Church, which preferred the expression per Filium to emphasise that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father through the Son.

Different languages – the Roman popes no longer knew Greek and the Eastern patriarchs knew no Latin – also added to the confusion. To the Greeks the Latins appeared uneducated and barbarous, while the Latins saw the Greeks as arrogant, pedantic and devious. Different liturgical rites, ceremonies, devotions, approaches to theology, systems of church law and ways of organising Church life had evolved over time.

In the Eastern Church . . . In the Western Church . . .

Greek is the usual language of the Latin becomes the official language Liturgy of the Liturgy

The bishop of Rome is honoured The bishop of Rome (the pope) has as the “first’ among bishops but is authority beyond that of other not regarded as having greater bishops authority than other bishops

Decisions that apply to the whole Decisions are made at ecumenical Church are made by the bishops councils but the pope has the when they meet at ecumenical authority to make decisions and act councils apart from the bishops

Priests are able to marry (but Over time, Church law prevented bishops must be single) priests from marrying

Leavened bread is used in the Unleavened bread is used in the Eucharist Eucharist

Icons are the most common Crucifixes and statues are the most religious images common religious images

41 Over the centuries since then various attempts were made at reconciliation but they never proved lasting. Nevertheless both branches share the same basic doctrines. The Eastern Orthodox Churches base their doctrines on the teachings of the first seven ecumenical councils of the Church held from the fourth to the eighth century at Nicaea (I and II), Ephesus, Chalcedon and Constantinople (I, II and III).

The Orthodox differ from the Roman Catholics in the way they formulate their teachings. For example, while holding to seven sacraments they do not sharply distinguish them from other sacramental actions. Again, they too believe the elements of bread and wine are changed into the real body and in the Eucharist, but do not insist on the term transubstantiation, which was developed in the West after the schism. And they are deeply devoted to the Virgin Mary as the Mother of Christ, but do not require belief in the dogma of her , another Western insight. But their main difference with the Roman Church is over the authority of the pope, to whom they give a primacy of honour. They demand celibacy only of their bishops, not their priests.

Today the Orthodox, or so-called Eastern Churches, form a communion of self-governing Churches, including the four ancient of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem, as well as five patriarchates of more recent origin: Russia, Romania, Serbia, Bulgaria and Georgia. Within this communion are found also the Orthodox Churches of Cyprus, Greece, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland and Albania.

There are also Eastern Churches in full communion with Rome: the Eastern Catholic Churches. They retain their respective traditions of liturgy, theology, spirituality and . These Churches are often grouped according to their liturgical traditions: the (the Bulgarian, Greek, , Italo-Albanian, Romanian, Ruthenian, Slovak, Ukrainian, Yugoslav and Hungarian Catholic Churches), the Alexandrian rite (the Coptic and Ethiopian Catholic Churches), the (the Syro-Malankara, Maronite and Syrian Catholic Churches), the Chaldean or East Syrian rite (the Chaldean and Syro-Malabar Catholic Churches), and the (the ).

Like the Western Churches, the Eastern Churches have gone through periods of renewal and decay, power and persecution. One of their greatest periods began with the missionary work of Saints Cyril and Methodius in the ninth century and led eventually to the conversion of Bulgaria, Serbia and Russia. The latest persecution took place under the Communists. Following the downfall of Communism in 1989 the Orthodox Church in Eastern Europe is experiencing another period of renewal.

Implications for Today

The split between the Greek and Latin Churches was the first of two major breaks in Christendom – the second would be the Protestant Reformation. In recent decades, leaders of Eastern and Western Churches have made

42 movements towards reconciliation, but bitterness still exists between the peoples of Orthodox and Catholic Christianity.

Links with the Student Text

Task Three

This task asks students what they would say, write or draw about the following features if they had to explain to a friend how an orthodox church is different from a Catholic church:

standing the sign of the cross veneration icons Royal Doors

Students should work in pairs and take turns to talk about the features. Otherwise they could share what they have written or drawn.

Here are some possible explanations based on material in the student resource book:

Standing The congregation stands for almost the entire service – often churches will be without seats and kneelers.

The Sign of the Cross Orthodox Christians make the sign of the cross from right to left. The thumb and the first two fingertips are pressed together; the last two fingertips are pressed down to the palm.

Veneration On entering a church the faithful venerate icons of Jesus, Mary and the saints by repeatedly crossing themselves and kissing the holy images.

Icons Sacred images of Karaiti, Mary or the saints.

Iconostasis A wall or screen of icons called the iconostasis separates the altar from the congregation. The Liturgy of the Word is celebrated in front of the iconostasis, but the Liturgy of the Eucharist takes place behind it. This adds to the sense of mystery.

Royal Doors There are usually three sets of doors in the iconostasis. The middle set are called “royal” or “holy” doors. It is through these that the priest brings Holy Communion to the congregation. For other parts of the service, such as the Liturgy of the Word, the two doors on either side are used.

43 Something to Find Out

Here students are asked to research the following points:

• Is there an Orthodox church near where they live? • What can they find out about it? • Is it possible to visit it or interview the priest?

A search in the phone book and on the Internet will reveal the location and contact details of Orthodox churches and their priests in New Zealand.

If it is possible, organise a class visit to the Orthodox church or ask the priest to visit the school. Beforehand, students should prepare questions that they would like to ask the priest.

44

PART THREE: MONASTERIES

Achievement Objective 3

Students will be able to recognise the contribution of monasticism to the Church and to society.

Church Teachings

• The desire to witness more closely to Christ and to live in greater holiness led to the emergence and development of religious life. • Religious life is centred on liturgy, karakia, work, community life, and the ideals of poverty, chastity and obedience (the evangelical counsels). • Monasticism is one of the living sources of the Church’s spiritual life. • Monasteries provide opportunities for participation in the Liturgy of the Hours and more intense personal prayer. • Monasteries were centres of culture that safeguarded and handed on learning during the Middle Ages. • The tradition of Gregorian Chant, the music of the Church’s liturgy, developed in the monasteries of the Middle Ages.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section of the topic students will:

• Identify and describe key features of a monastery. • Demonstrate an understanding of the daily life of a monk or of the Middle Ages and reflect on differences between that life and their own. • Recognise the contribution made by some famous monks and nuns of the Middle Ages to the life of the Church and society.

Teacher Background

Pope Gregory the Great (590-604) strongly encouraged the style of monasticism first developed by at his monasteries of Subiaco and Monte Cassino in Italy. Through his biography of Benedict, Pope Gregory promoted him as the model and father of monks.

Benedict’s Rule established key principles of monasticism which gave the movement its strength:

• Stability – to remain in one place rather than to wander freely. • Obedience – to follow the decisions of the abbot. • Renunciation – of property and marriage.

45 • Prayer – worship of God. • Manual work – agriculture, crafts, copying manuscripts both ancient and Christian.

In the centuries after Benedict, his style of monasticism spread rapidly through Western Europe. Over time, huge networks of monasteries evolved. These handed on old learning and created a new written culture. Throughout the Middle Ages the monks and nuns retained the monopoly on education.

Abbots of monasteries were often powerful lords of feudal estates. Most monasteries had large landholdings, usually given to them by lords or kings over long periods of time. Some and were appointed to their offices by kings. Under the feudal system the Church became the largest landowner in Europe – one monastery in Germany had enough land to support fifteen thousand manors.

An abbot of a large monastery with plenty of land had peasants who looked after most of the property. Monks spent their days praying, studying and educating – unlike the earlier days of monasticism, when monks themselves worked the field. In smaller monasteries, monks continued the tradition of prayer and work. In any case, the monastery had to be a self-sufficient unit, both to feed and clothe its members and to ensure its own protection.

When the papacy became weak it was the monasteries that led to its renewal. The monastery of Cluny in Burgundy was at the centre of a vast network of monasteries. In order to free itself from the control of often corrupt local bishops, who wanted to use Cluny’s great wealth for their own purposes, the monastery asked to be placed under the direct supervision of the pope. In return for this privilege, Cluny and the monasteries in her network were required to send an annual census to Rome. This provided considerable income for the papacy and at the same time ensured that the pope was supported by a system of monasteries throughout Europe.

Implications for Today The monasteries, especially in the form represented by Saint Benedict’s Rule, set the pattern for some of the most creative impulses in Christianity. They allowed learning to continue, the arts to flourish, and the faith to be passed on. Monastic ways were also adapted by apostolic religious communities that were founded in more recent times.

Links with the Student Text

Task Four

Students should study the drawing of the monastery that is in their student resource books before attempting this task.

They are required to match each of the twelve terms in the left hand column with its correct description in the right hand column. They should write down the numbers 1 to 12 and next to each put the correct letter of the alphabet.

46 The correct answers are as follows:

1. The monastery church E. The place of worship where the community gathered to pray and celebrate the Liturgy

2. The chapter house G. The administration building where the community met with the abbot or

3. The refectory (dining F. Here the community ate their meals room) while listening to spiritual reading, or in silence

4. The library and A. Here monks or nuns would spend long scriptorium hours studying and copying out precious manuscripts

5. The cloisters L. A square courtyard surrounded by covered walkways

6. Dormitories B. Where the monks or nuns slept

7. The lavatorium and the C. Washing facilities and toilets necessarium

8. The infirmary K. Where sick members of the community and outsiders were cared for

9. The cellarium and kitchen J. Here food was stored and meals prepared

10. The abbot or abbess’ D. The head of the monastery lived here house

11. The almonry and house of I. Food or money were given here to strangers those in need who called at the monastery

12. The guest house H. Accommodation for visitors to the monastery

Task Five

Here students have a choice of activities. Each activity, in its own way, encourages students to stand in the shoes of a monk or nun from the Middle Ages.

Warm students up for their chosen activity by getting them to brainstorm first.

47 Either: Students should make up some interview questions that you would like to ask a monk or nun from the Middle Ages.

When they have finished, students should get another class member or the teacher to answer their questions in role.

Or: Students should write a diary entry for a typical day in the life of a monk or nun of the Middle Ages.

Or: Using words or mime, students should present a scene from a day in the life of a monk or nun of the Middle Ages.

Something to Discuss

Here students are asked to discuss what major changes they would have to make to their own lives to be a monk or nun in the Middle Ages.

In the discussion, which could take place in groups or as a whole class activity, it may be useful to draw the students’ attention to the following issues of lifestyle:

• attitude to work • practical skills – farming, nursing, building, etc. • prayer • sleep • living conditions • clothing • food • family and friends • study and learning • attitude to authority • handwriting and artistic skills.

Teachers could take the discussion further by challenging students to consider whether there is still a need today for a monastic type of lifestyle.

Workbook Activity: Four Famous Monks and Nuns a) This task requires students to use their knowledge of Hildebrand, Bernard of Clairvaux, Hildegard of Bingen and Bridget of Sweden to make up a wordsquare. Students should use as many words as they can that describe them and their achievements. They should list the words they have used underneath the wordsquare. b) Students should then write a sentence about one of these famous monks or nuns that they find especially interesting.

48

PART FOUR: PILGRIMAGES

Achievement Objective 4

Students will be able to understand the significance of journeys – pilgrimages and crusades – in the life of the Church during the Middle Ages.

Church Teachings

• Christians have always gone on hīkoi tapu to sacred places, especially sites in the Holy Land and Rome, to celebrate their whakapono. • In the Middle Ages, when it became impossible for pilgrims to visit Jerusalem, a new network of pilgrimage sites spread across Europe. • Pilgrimages provide opportunities for the renewal of prayer and living the Christian life.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section of the topic students will:

• Recognise the opportunities and challenges presented by pilgrimages in the Middle Ages. • Offer advice to a pilgrim. • Plan a hīkoi tapu.

Teacher Background

Pilgrimage

Pilgrimages are symbols of the human journey from birth to death – and beyond to the fullness of life with Te Atua. Traditionally, Christians have described the journey of life as a pilgrimage towards the heavenly Jerusalem.

Hīkoi tapu have always held an important place in the life of the Church. In the course of history, Christians have celebrated their faith by walking to places associated with the life, death and or to sites that mark important moments in the history of the Church. Shrines honouring the Mother of God and that keep alive the example of the saints have long been popular destinations. Many factors have motivated Christians to go on pilgrimages but genuine pilgrims have always regarded their physical journey as a process of conversion and an opportunity to grow closer to God. The Church has always regarded hīkoi tapu, in all their aspects, as occasions of grace.

The history of Christian pilgrimage began early, when Christians started to visit the tombs of martyrs who had given their lives for the faith under Roman

49 persecution. In 170 Melito, the bishop of Sardis, made one of the first recorded pilgrimages to the tomb of Christ. However, it wasn’t until persecution ceased and Christianity became legal in the fourth century, that pilgrims began to journey in great numbers to the sacred sites in the Holy Land.

After 638 the Arabic conquest of Jerusalem made pilgrimage to Christian sites in the Holy Land more difficult and new destinations in the West were established. Rome, the site of the martyrdom of Peter and Paul and the seat of the successor of Peter, became the most popular place for pilgrims to visit. Another goal was the tomb of St. James in Compostella. Marian shrines including the Holy House of Loreto and Jasna Gora in Czestochowa, the great medieval monasteries, and towns that kept alive the memory of great saints, like Tours, Canterbury or Padua, formed a network of pilgrimage sites throughout Europe.

In the Middle Ages the major pilgrimage routes had great social importance. They helped to integrate Christendom after the fall of the Roman Empire in the West by bringing the distant corners of the Christian world together. They also assisted the development of commerce and encouraged the building of the great architectural wonders – the massive cathedrals – that were needed to accommodate the pilgrims on their journeys.

As the cult of saints became increasingly popular during the Middle Ages, many towns found it desirable to have their own martyrs whose relics would attract pilgrims. Abuses inevitably occurred, but generally speaking pilgrimages nourished spirituality, increased faith and stimulated generosity among Christians.

Links with the Student Text

Getting Started

Pilgrimages are still popular today.

One way of introducing this section of the topic is with a brainstorm. The attached map and brief descriptions of contemporary pilgrimage sites could be used to stimulate this and / or a discussion.

50

51 Today’s Popular Pilgrimage Sites

In addition to Rome, Jerusalem and Bethlehem, the following are among the most popular sites for Christian pilgrimage in the world today:

Assisi This medieval hillside town in Italy was the home of Saint Francis. The Basilica of St Francis houses Francis’ tomb while the Cathedral of St Rufinus, dating back to 1140, contains the font where St Francis and St Clare were baptised. The Church of Saint Clare (Santa Chiara) displays the famous crucifix venerated by St Francis. San Damiano is the church that Francis rebuilt after he heard the voice of Christ telling him: “Go and repair my Church, which you see, is falling down”. Other sites include the Basilica of St Mary of the Angels where Francis lived for most of his life and the Portiuncula, the nucleus of the first Franciscan monastery.

Fatima In 1917 when Europe was at war, Lucia de Santos, a nine year old peasant girl, and her two cousins, Francisco and Jacinta, experienced a visitation from “a Lady in white” while they were tending their sheep. The Lady told them that she was from heaven, that she wanted to meet with them on the thirteenth day of each month for six months, and that in time she would reveal who she was. She asked them to pray the Rosary for the end of the war.

Crowds began to gather and by the thirteenth of October over fifty thousand people were present when the Lady identified herself as “Our Lady of the Rosary”. A miracle where the sun “danced” in the heavens was also reported. Three “messages” resulted from the apparitions at Fatima – the practice of penance, the recitation of the Rosary, and devotion to the Immaculate Heart of Mary.

Although approved by the Church, the events surrounding Fatima are private revelations. Catholics are not required to give assent to them.

Garabandal This town high in the remote Cantabrian hills in northern Spain is the site of the widely reported apparitions of Our Lady of Mount Carmel between 1961 and 1965 to four young village girls. During the time of the apparitions Mary supposedly gave two messages to the world asking for conversion through penance, sacrifice and prayer.

Guadalupe The apparitions were reported to have taken place in 1531 at Tepeyac, a poor area on the outskirts of Mexico City, and the site consecrated to the Mother Goddess of the Aztecs. There, Our Lady of Guadalupe first spoke to Juan Diego and then to his dying uncle Juan Bernardino (whom she healed). Her image then miraculously appeared on Juan Diego’s cloak, which he presented to the bishop and others present. On the cloak, which is venerated to this day in a specially built shrine, Our Lady of Guadalupe appears as a young Aztec woman. It is claimed that within six years of the apparitions nine million

52 Aztecs were baptised, largely due to the of Our Lady of Guadalupe.

Today, Our Lady of Guadalupe is venerated as the patron saint of all the Americas. Many pilgrims flock annually to her shrine.

Knock In August 1879, a group of people from the town of Knock near Galway in Ireland noticed an unusually bright light and saw what they thought were moving statues. Drawing closer, they recognised the Virgin Mary in the company of St Joseph and St John the Evangelist. The figures did not speak but remained in prayer for two hours. News of the apparition soon spread throughout Ireland and soon thousands of pilgrims were journeying to Knock. In 1979 Pope John Paul II visited the site of the apparition, bringing Vatican approval. Today more than 1.5 million pilgrims from all over the world travel to Knock each year.

Lourdes On the morning of 11 February 1858, a young French peasant, Bernadette Soubirous was collecting firewood by a cave (grotto) when she experienced a vision of the Virgin Mary. In all, Bernadette experienced eighteen apparitions. Among the messages she received from Mary was a call for prayer and penance as well as a direct request for a chapel to be built so that people could come to the Grotto of Lourdes in .

Today five million visitors from around the world travel to Lourdes each year. For many, Lourdes has been a place of abundant gifts. Pilgrims are invited to come with an open heart and receive these gifts of miraculous water, reconciliation, healing, friendship and renewal.

Medjugorje “I have come to tell the world that God exists . . . that peace is necessary for the salvation of the world. Humankind must be reconciled with God and one another”.

Since June 1981 when six children from the village of Medjugorje in the former Yugoslavia reported that Our Lady had spoken these words to them, Medjugorje has become one of the world’s most acclaimed places of pilgrimage. The visionaries explain that Mary identifies herself as Queen of Peace and that her message is peace between God and humanity.

Oberammergau A village in Bavaria where, since 1634, the villagers have performed a passion play every ten years in the summer to express their gratitude for the ending of a plague in 1633.

Taize Founded by Roger Schutz in 1940, this ecumenical community in France works to foster unity among all Christian denominations. People from all over the world, especially many young adults, come to Taize to take part in a

53 common weekly programme of prayer, meetings, meals and discussion groups. The celebration of the Liturgy of the Hours three times a day is the centre of the community’s life.

There may be a member of the or school community who has been on a pilgrimage and who is willing to share their experience with the class or groups of students.

The theme of Christian pilgrimage was influential on the literature of the Middle Ages. Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, which focuses on a group of story- telling pilgrims travelling to the shrine of Saint Thomas à Becket at Canterbury is the most famous of all literary accounts of a pilgrimage – and a very colourful work. Teachers may find it worthwhile to read sections from the “General Prologue” to stimulate the interest of their classes in the topic.

Board Game

This game “A Pilgrimage in the Middle Ages” raises students’ awareness of the blessings and challenges that pilgrims faced as they went on their journey.

Students will need a dice and counters to play. Go through the rules with students before they begin.

Task Six

This activity asks students to draw up a list of guidelines for pilgrims in the Middle Ages that will help them ensure that their pilgrimage is safe and happy. The game “A Pilgrimage in the Middle Ages” prepares students for this task.

Here are some suggestions. The first two items are listed in the student resource book:

Advice for Pilgrims

. Pray for blessings on your journey . Encourage and help your travelling companions . Give generously to any poor that you meet . Be grateful for accommodation . Avoid getting drunk . Take time to pray at shrines along the way . Beware of robbers and thieves . Sing songs of praise to Mary as you walk . Do not buy relics – they are probably fake . Ask Te Atua to forgive your sins . Warn your companions when people try to rip them off

54 Extension

Either: Here students are asked to make up a play based on some aspect of pilgrimage. Suggest that they could choose one of the items from the board game or the above list as the basis for their presentation. Whether students work alone, in pairs or in small groups will depend on the nature of their presentations.

Or: This activity requires students to work in a group to organise a pilgrimage around places of special significance at school, their parish or their neighbourhood.

• They decide what places they will visit – and must have good reasons for including them on their itinerary. • They produce a plan of the pilgrimage’s route. • They write a brief commentary to be said at each place. • They select a theme song or other suitable music for the pilgrimage. They may compose their own if they wish to. • They choose a prayer or write one to be said during the pilgrimage. • They design a banner for the pilgrims to carry. • They advertise the pilgrimage on a poster or brochure. • They lead a group of pilgrims around the pilgrimage sites.

Depending on the nature of the group students could each take responsibility for a particular activity or the whole group may choose to work more intensively together on two or three of them.

The teacher will need to establish a period of time within which the activity must be completed and presented. The resources required for the activities will also need to be provided, including any background information about important sites around the school, parish or neighbourhood that the pilgrimage should visit.

55

PART FIVE: CRUSADES

Achievement Objective 4

Students will be able to understand the significance of journeys – hīkoi tapu and crusades – in the life of the Church during the Middle Ages.

Church Teachings

• The Crusades were a form of pilgrimage where the desire for worldly power dominated spiritual concerns and widened divisions between religions and cultures.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section of the topic students will:

• Identify positive and negative aspects of the Crusades and promote them as either a good or bad idea. • Reflect on the need for healing the lasting damage caused by the Crusades.

Teacher Background

The Crusades Between 1095 and 1291 waves of armies of Christian crusaders left Western Europe and travelled eastward to Jerusalem to free the Holy Land from the forces of Islam whom they believed were opposed to the interests of the Church and western European society. These crusades were to have wide- ranging effects on both Europe and Christianity.

Since the fall of the Roman Empire, Western Europe had been isolated from the East. The crusading movement brought it once again into direct contact with the great trade routes and the wider world. Paper, the compass, medicines, spices, new crops and advances in mathematics were some of the benefits that reached Europe. Diseases like leprosy and the bubonic plague also came to the West in the same way.

The Crusaders believed that they were fighting a defensive war in direct response to Muslim aggression in Christian lands. At the time of Islam’s birth in the in the seventh century, the Christian religion dominated the entire Mediterranean. After Muhammad’s death, Islam expanded rapidly. Palestine, Syria, and – once the most heavily Christian areas in the world – quickly fell to the warriors of Islam. By the eighth century, Muslim armies had conquered all of Christian North Africa and Spain. In the eleventh century, the Seljuk Turks conquered Asia Minor (modern Turkey), which had been Christian since the time of Saint Paul. The Eastern Empire, known to

56 modern historians as the , was reduced to little more than Greece. In desperation, the emperor in Constantinople sent word to the Christians of Western Europe asking them to aid their brothers and sisters in the East.

The birth of the Crusades was a response to more than four centuries of conquest in which Muslims had already captured two-thirds of the old Christian world. At some point, Christianity as a faith and a culture had to defend itself or be subsumed by Islam. The Crusades were that defence.

At the Council of Clermont in 1095, Pope Urban II called upon the knights of Christendom to push back the conquests of Islam. The response was tremendous. Thousands of warriors took the vow of the cross and prepared for war.

The crusading knights were generally wealthy men with plenty of their own land in Europe. Nevertheless, they willingly gave up everything to undertake what they believed was a holy mission. Crusading was not cheap. Even rich lords could easily impoverish themselves and their families by joining a Crusade. Many who took part in the Crusades did so not for material gain but for spiritual rewards. They were keenly aware of their sinfulness and eager to undertake the hardships of the Crusade as a of charity and love. During the Crusades, a few people got rich from plunder, but the vast majority returned with nothing.

Pope Urban II gave the Crusaders two goals, both of which would remain central to the eastern Crusades for centuries.

• To rescue the Christians of the East – the Crusade was an errand of mercy to right a terrible wrong. • The liberation of Jerusalem and the other places made holy by the life of Christ.

Medieval Crusaders saw themselves as pilgrims, performing acts of righteousness on their way to the Holy Sepulchre. They did not regard the re- conquest of Jerusalem as colonialism but as an act of restoration and an open declaration of one’s love of God.

The central goal of the Crusades was never forced conversion of the Muslim world. From the perspective of medieval Christians, Muslims were the enemies of Christ and his Church. It was the Crusaders’ task to defeat and defend against them. Muslims who lived in Crusader-won territories were generally allowed to retain their property and livelihood, and always their religion. Throughout the history of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, Muslim inhabitants always far outnumbered the Christians. It was not until the thirteenth century that the began conversion efforts among Muslims. But these were mostly unsuccessful and finally abandoned.

57 However, the Crusades were wars despite the piety and good intentions. Like all warfare, the violence was brutal. There were mishaps, blunders, and crimes. During the early days of the First Crusade in 1095, a band of Crusaders made its way down the Rhine, robbing and murdering all the Jews they could find. Without success, the local bishops attempted to stop the carnage. In the eyes of these warriors, the Jews, like the Muslims, were the enemies of Christ – plundering and killing them was no vice. In fact the Crusaders believed it was a righteous deed, since the Jews’ money could be used to fund the Crusade to Jerusalem. Many Jews perished during the Crusades, but the purpose of the Crusades was not to kill Jews. Quite the contrary: Popes, bishops, and preachers made it clear that the Jews of Europe were to be left unmolested.

The First Crusade was badly organised. There was no leader, no chain of command, no supply lines, no detailed strategy. It was simply thousands of warriors marching deep into enemy territory, committed to a common cause. Many of them died, either in battle or through disease or starvation. It was a rough campaign, one that seemed always on the brink of disaster. Yet it was somehow successful. By 1098, the Crusaders had restored Nicaea and Antioch to Christian rule. In July 1099, they conquered Jerusalem and began to build a Christian state in Palestine. It seemed that the tide of history, which had given success to the Muslims, was now turning in favour of the Christians.

But this was not the case. In five centuries of crusading, it was only the First Crusade that had any success in challenging the military progress of Islam. The crusades that followed were a series of disasters that forced Christians across Europe to accept not only the continued growth of Muslim power but the certainty that God was punishing the West for its sins. Lay piety movements sprouted up throughout Europe, all rooted in the desire to purify Christian society so that it might be worthy of victory in the East.

Crusading in the late twelfth century, therefore, became a total war effort. Every person, no matter how weak or poor, was called to help. Warriors were asked to sacrifice their wealth and, if need be, their lives for the defence of the Christian East. On the home front, all Christians were called to support the Crusades through prayer, fasting, and alms. Yet still the Muslims grew in strength. Saladin, the great unifier, had forged the Muslim Near East into a single entity, while preaching jihad against the Christians. In 1187 at the Battle of Hattin, his forces destroyed the combined armies of the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem and captured what was regarded as the precious relic of the True Cross. Defenceless, the Christian cities began surrendering one by one, culminating in the surrender of Jerusalem on October 2. Only a tiny handful of ports held out.

The Crusades of the 13th century were larger, better funded, and better organised. But they too failed. During the (1201-1204) the Crusaders attacked, captured, and brutally sacked Constantinople, the greatest Christian city in the world. This tragic event prevented any reconciliation between Greek Orthodox and – the wounds of

58 this division remain to this day despite the bridge building attempts of recent popes and patriarchs.

The remainder of the thirteenth century’s Crusades did little better. By 1291, the Muslim forces had succeeded in killing or ejecting the last of the Crusaders, thus erasing the Crusader kingdom from the map. Despite numerous attempts and many more plans, Christian forces were never again able to gain a foothold in the region until the nineteenth century.

Implications for Today Though initiated with good intent, the Crusades caused great and lasting damage to relations between Christians and Muslims, and between Eastern and Western Christians. They are a reminder that we must always consider the possible long-term effects of war, not just the short-term gains of victory. We should seek peaceful ways to resolve our differences instead of war.

Links with the Student Text

Brainstorm

Students could work in small groups to brainstorm ideas for two lists:

• The reasons why the Crusades were a good idea. • The reasons why the Crusades were a bad idea.

Task Seven

Following on from the brainstorm and working in the same small group, students are required to plan and carry out an advertising campaign that either promotes the Crusades as a good idea or opposes them as a bad idea.

Students should include some of the following activities:

• A thirty second TV commercial which you video or perform for the class • A radio jingle which you sing for the class • A newspaper advertisement • Stickers, badges and bumper stickers • Posters for the walls of the classroom or school • Campaign plans to persuade specific target groups • A debate with another group that takes the opposite point of view from your group.

Depending on the nature of the group, students could each take responsibility for a particular activity or the whole group may choose to work more intensively together on two or three of them.

The teacher will need to establish a period of time within which the activity must be completed and presented. The resources required for the activities will also need to be provided – video camera, audio recorder, paper, pens, cardboard, scissors, glue, etc.

59 Task Eight

This task requires students to write their own response to the newspaper article 900 Years Later – An Apology that is printed in the student resource book.

Encourage students to address one or more of the following ideas that are presented in the article:

• The divisions caused by the Crusades are still with us • The people of today shouldn’t ignore the wrongs of the past • An apology sends a powerful message • Reconciliation leads to healing • Love and peace overcome hatred and prejudice.

Draw students’ attention to the following quotes that appear in their resource books. They may help students with their response to the article:

Love your enemies, do good to those who hate you, bless those who curse you, pray for those who treat you badly. (Luke 6:27-28)

The past cannot be rewritten, each one of us can take a step toward laying a new foundation for future generations. As Christians we can say that we are sorry for the past. Let us pray for a healing of wounds between Jew, Christians and Muslims. (A speaker on the Reconciliation Walk)

60

PART SIX: DEVOTION TO MARY

Achievement Objective 5

Students will be able to recognise the development of Marian devotion and the construction of the great Gothic cathedrals as expressions of genuine Christian spirituality.

Church Teachings

• Mary, the mother of Jesus, is acclaimed by the Church in the East and the West as Te Matua o Te Atua. • The Church’s devotion to Mary is intrinsic to Christian worship and encourages adoration of Te Atua. • In the West, the Rosary is the most common devotion to Mary. • The Rosary developed as a popular substitute for the Liturgy of the Hours.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section of the topic students will:

• Explain why the Church honours Mary. • Describe the origins of the Hail Mary and the background to the Rosary. • Explore one of the mysteries of the Rosary.

Teacher Background

Devotion to the Virgin Mary The practice of venerating Mary, the mother of Hehu (Jesus), developed first in the Eastern Church. Following the Council of Ephesus (431), where the bishops ruled that Mary was not simply the mother of Christ but the mother of God, devotion to Mary strengthened.

In the West, veneration of Mary took hold in the second half of the first millennium and reached its climax in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, largely through the influence of Bernard of Clairvaux (1153) whose “In praise of the Virgin Mary” confirmed medieval Christians in their childlike trust in the powerful help of Mary, virgin mother and .

At this time the image of Mary as of God’s grace to unworthy sinners came to the fore in the West. The idea that Mary had a maternal influence over God, that she could turn away Christ’s just anger and obtain mercy for sinners had already been accepted in the East.

61 Mary was called the aqueduct along which the flows to earth, “mediator with the Mediator”, Mother of mercy, and refuge of sinners. She was approachable because of her maternal aroha (love). The doctrines of the Immaculate Conception and Assumption gained greater acceptance. People expressed their devotion through pilgrimages, veneration of Mary’s image, dramatising stories of her miracles and apparitions, and a wealth of new prayers.

“The Little Office of Our Lady” was recommended for use by lay people and the “Hail Mary” became one of the essential prayers to be learned by all the faithful, along with the Lord’s Prayer and the Apostles Creed. Saturday was dedicated to Mary, as Sunday was to Karaiti. A number of Marian antiphons and hymns were composed during the eleventh and twelfth centuries including Ave Regina Caelorum (Hail, Queen of Heaven) and Salve Regina (Hail, Holy Queen).

The Rosary The word rosary refers to the beads that Catholics use to "count" prayers, to the actual prayers that are said, and to the events that are remembered when praying with the beads.

With the spread of Monasticism there developed a strict schedule of daily prayer called the Divine Office which obliged monks and nuns to gather and sing psalms and hymns on at least seven occasions during a twenty-four hour period. The rule of Saint Benedict required that all 150 psalms be recited over the course of a week. Naturally, this practice never caught on among laymen and women who had much work to do from morning to night.

However, many people desired a systematic prayer life that included structured prayer at morning and evening. Those who could not read, often said short prayers in their own language in place of the Latin readings that were required of priests and monks. By the eleventh century, the custom of saying 150 Our Fathers as a substitute for the psalms was widespread among devout laity. These 150 Our Fathers were divided into three sets of fifty – as were the psalms. The beads that were used to count them were called “paternosters”.

By the twelfth century, as Marian devotion increased, Hail Marys began to be used as well as, or instead of, the Our Fathers. The Hail Mary was composed from verses of Luke’s Gospel – the words of Elizabeth at the Visitation were added to the Angel’s greeting at the Annunciation to form the core of this most popular of Marian prayers.

Beginning in the thirteenth century, the string of beads was often reduced to fifty for morning, midday, and evening recitation. These fifty were divided into tens (or decades) by a bead called the paternoster. In this way the Lord’s Prayer came to be interspersed among the Hail Marys.

62 Thomas of Cantimpre, around 1250, seems to be the first to call this prayer a rosary – rosarium, a rose garden. Gradually, each decade became a meditation on a particular event in the lives of Jesus and Mary.

These meditations are called mysteries – there are three groups of them each containing five meditations.

The Joyful Mysteries 1. The Annunciation 2. The Visitation 3. The Birth of Jesus 4. The Presentation of Jesus in the Temple 5. The Finding of Jesus in the Temple

The Sorrowful Mysteries 1. The Agony in the Garden 2. The Scourging of Jesus at the Pillar 3. The Crowning of Jesus with Thorns 4. Jesus Carries his Cross 5. The Crucifixion

The Glorious Mysteries 1. The Resurrection 2. The Ascension 3. The Descent of the Holy Spirit 4. The Assumption of Our Lady 5. The Crowning of Mary as Queen of Heaven

The Hail Holy Queen (Salve Regina) The Hail Holy Queen (or Salve Regina in Latin ) was made popular and given its current form by Bernard of Clairvaux and the Abbey of Cluny in the 12th century. From that time, it has enjoyed wide use. It is often said at the end of the Rosary.

Implications for Today and the Mysteries of Light The most popular forms of Marian devotion today are still the Hail Mary and the Rosary – prayers that originated in the Middle Ages. However, fresh ways of praying these familiar prayers, including meditation on a new set of mysteries, the Mysteries of Light, renew their appeal in our own time.

The new rosary themes introduced by Pope John Paul II in his apostolic letter, Rosarium Virginis Mariae (2002) focus on the events of Christ’s public life:

The five Mysteries of Light are: 1. Christ's baptism in the Jordan River 2. Christ's self-revelation at the marriage of Cana 3. Christ's announcement of the kingdom of God with the invitation to conversion 4. Christ's Transfiguration, when he revealed his glory to his Apostles

63 5. The institution of the Eucharist at the Last Supper as the sacramental expression of the paschal mystery

In his document, the Pope asked that the Mysteries of Light be recited especially on Thursdays.

Links with the Student Text

Getting Started An appropriate way of introducing students to this section of the topic, which focuses on devotion to Mary in the Middle Ages, is by playing a waiata (song), from our own era, that honours Mary. “Hail Mary: Gentle Woman” by Carey Landry is an obvious choice and one which is readily available on CD and audio tape.

Hail Mary: Gentle Woman Carey Landry

(Copyright © 1975 by New Dawn Music, PO Box 13248, Portland, OR 97213-0248.)

Hail Mary, full of grace, the Lord is with you. Blessed are you among women, and blest is the fruit of your womb, Jesus. Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners now, and at the hour of death. Amen.

Refrain: Gentle woman, quiet light morning star, so strong and bright, gentle Mother, peaceful dove, teach us wisdom; teach us love.

Verse 1. You were chosen by the Father; you were chosen for the Son. You were chosen from all women and for women, shining one.

Verse 2. Blessed are you among women, blest in turn, all women, too. Blessed they with peaceful spirits. Blessed they with gentle hearts.

"Used with permission Word of Life International" Licence number 6218

a) As they listen to the song students should jot down the various qualities of Mary that the song presents – her strength, peace, gentleness, love, quietness, light, wisdom, brightness, etc.

64 b) They should also name or draw some of the ways that Mary is pictured in the song – morning star, dove, Mother, woman. c) Individually, in pairs or small groups students could decide on those qualities or images of Mary that attract men, women and children to her today.

“Ka Waiata” by Richard Puanaki is also a very appropriate resource for this part of the topic:

Ka Waiata Ka waiata ki a Maria Sing to Mary Hine i whakaae favoured woman Whakameatia mai who consented to be Hei whare tangata Home of the people Hine purotu Woman of delight Hine ngākau Woman of heart Hine rangimārie Woman of peace Ko te whaea Mother Ko te whaea Mother o te ao of the world

Task Nine

Here students are asked to look up Luke 1:28 and Luke 1:42 to identify the words of the angel Gabriel and Elizabeth that the Hail Mary is based on. The answers are as follows:

Luke 1:28 – the angel Gabriel to Mary • “Rejoice, you who enjoy God’s favour! The Lord is with you.

Luke 1:42 – Elizabeth to Mary • Of all women you are the most blessed, and blessed is the fruit of your womb.

Task Ten

This task asks students to choose one of the mysteries of the Rosary and to read at least one of the Gospel passage(s) that it is based on. Students should then:

Either: Produce a poster that expresses the mystery with images and text.

65 Or: Write a poem or karakia based on the mystery.

Or: Dramatise the mystery using words or mime.

Extension Activity

The Church encourages us to be creative in our praying of the Rosary. One way we can do this is by using the Rosary to reflect on God’s presence in our lives.

This extension activity asks students to choose five events from their own lives as mysteries to reflect on and pray about.

Praying by Hand: Rediscovering the Rosary as a Way of Prayer by Basil Pennington (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1995) presents some fresh and creative ways of praying the Rosary in addition to exploring the development of the Rosary and its special place in the history of Marian devotion.

For example, Pennington suggests that the Rosary could be used as a prayer for social justice by focusing each of the five decades on one of the following themes:

1. Jesus Feeds the Hungry (John 6:1-15) 2. Jesus Heals the Sick (Mark 1:32-34) 3. Jesus Respects Women (John 8:3-11) 4. Jesus Reaches Out and Touches Outcasts (Mark 1:40-45) 5. Jesus Honours the Despised (Luke 10:29-37).

66

PART SEVEN: CATHEDRALS AND UNIVERSITIES

Achievement Objective 5

Students will be able to recognise the development of Marian devotion and the construction of the great Gothic cathedrals as expressions of genuine Christian spirituality.

Church Teachings

• Religious art expresses the infinite beauty of Te Atua. • The Gothic cathedrals express the faith of the people of the Middle Ages and communicate the mystery and wonder of God. • Through faith and reason men and women come to know and love God and discover the truth about themselves. • Thomas Aquinas contributed to the development of human understanding by building on the works of Jewish, Arabic and Greek philosophers to show the harmony that exists between faith and reason.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section of the topic students will:

• Identify characteristics of Gothic cathedrals and find examples of these features in buildings they are familiar with. • Colour and design a stained glass window. • Compare the universities of the Middle Ages to our own.

Teacher Background

Medieval Cathedrals Around the year 1000, cathedrals began to arise across Europe. Between 1050 and 1350 in France alone, over 500 cathedrals or large churches and 1,000 parish churches were built. It is estimated that there was a church or chapel for every 200 people. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, more stone was quarried in France for building churches than had been used in all the buildings of ancient Egypt.

Two very distinct types of cathedral – the Romanesque and the Gothic – were built during this time.

Romanesque Cathedrals Descended in form from the ancient Roman basilica, Romanesque cathedrals employed massive pillars with rounded arches to hold up stone roofs. They had few windows and a horizontal, solid appearance. Such churches created

67 a feeling of solidity and repose. Tapestries along the walls and gilding and jewels on statues and , brightened the dark interiors.

Gothic Cathedrals By the middle of the twelfth century, a new style of church – later labelled “Gothic” – began to appear across Europe. In an age when the vast majority of people were illiterate, the Gothic cathedrals and churches became a kind of Bible that revealed a spiritual world to the educated and uneducated alike.

The intention of the soaring was to lead the eye upward to heaven and the soul away from the things of earth. The walls of the Gothic cathedrals were thinner and lighter than Romanesque structures. External "flying buttresses" supported the walls, and the stonework seemed to lose its massive weightiness. Stained glass windows, which began to be manufactured in the twelfth century, illuminated the interior with coloured light. The style of pointed arched windows was adopted from Arabia as it was thought that demons found it more difficult to rest among sharp surfaces.

The building of the cathedral was a community affair and a matter of civic pride. Cities competed with each other to build churches with the tallest towers and spires. Notre Dame de Paris soared to 114 feet, Chartres to 123 feet and Amiens to 138 feet. Beauvois tried for 157 feet, but the vault collapsed and the people ran out of money trying to complete it. Each church had its wealthy patrons, but ordinary citizens contributed sheep, poultry, cheeses, animal skins and vegetables towards the building of their cathedral. While the cathedral was under construction an entire village of workmen would be established at the site. Roads would be constructed to quarries and rivers were sometimes diverted to provide transportation for the heavy materials.

Most cathedrals took over a century to build, with several generations becoming part of the project. Cologne Cathedral, considered by some the most perfect specimen of Gothic architecture, took the longest to build. The foundation stone was laid in 1248. By 1437 one of its towers was finished to one-third of its present height, but at the time of the Reformation its roof was still covered with boards. When the original plans of the cathedral were discovered in the nineteenth century, the completion of the cathedral became a national undertaking. The cathedral was completed in 1880, over 640 years after construction first began.

The cathedrals themselves were a focal point of community life. The market was usually near the cathedral and townspeople often conducted business inside the church. At Chartres, the labour exchange was in the transepts while the crypt sheltered pilgrims and the sick. Plays were often staged on the cathedral steps.

The primary purpose of the cathedral was worship. Historian Philip Schaff wrote: "The great cathedrals became a daily , bearing testimony to the presence of God and the resurrection of Jesus Christ".

68 The cathedral lifted people's thoughts towards spiritual things. The sunlight shining through the stained glass reminded them of the glory of heaven. The strong foundations, massive columns, and buttresses represented the stability of God's throne and his great mana.

The very form of the cathedral, with its long nave crossed by the transept before the altar, was in the shape of a cross. The Church was the Body of Christ and the physical church building was a reminder of that spiritual reality – the altar represented the head, the transept the arms and hands, and the nave and aisle the rest of the body. The long length of the nave was also a reminder of long-suffering which survives hardship; the breadth was Christian love; and the height was a hope of future reward. Even the church's mortar had a symbolic meaning – the lime (fervent love), sand (earthly toil), and water (the Spirit, which unites the other two ingredients).

The altar of the church usually faced east, towards Jerusalem and the rising sun – the symbol of Te Aranga (the Resurrection). The main entrance was on the cathedral’s west side. The carvings at this entrance all had symbolic value.

Statues of saints, both Scriptural and local, not only decorated the church, but also added meaning to it. Often a vivid portrayal of Christ at the warned of the eternal Hell that awaited those outside the Church.

Inside, the stained glass windows, sculptures, frescoes, and paintings all contained instructive scenes from Scripture and church history. Symbols were often used in these portrayals. Fire referred to martyrdom or religious fervour; a lily symbolised chastity; the owl, a bird of darkness, was Satan's messenger; and the lamb was Christ our Sacrifice. Sometimes the allegories might be quite complex, such as parallel windows of types and anti-type. A window depicting Adam leaving paradise might be opposite one of the parable of the Good Samaritan. People reflecting on the windows would see the link between the man going down from Jerusalem and Adam leaving Paradise. The man fell among thieves, who represented the . The priest and the Levite, who stood for the law, provided no help, while the Samaritan was a type of Christ bringing healing and redemption. The elaborate decoration of the cathedrals spoke of the wealth of God's grace and foreshadowed the glories of the New Jerusalem.

All the important events of life took place at the medieval church – baptism, confirmation, marriage and burial in the church grounds. However, worship was ceremonial and the common people were onlookers rather than participants. The priest performed the ceremony of the Mass at the altar, which was elevated and separated from the people standing in the nave. A rood screen often separated the priest and the altar from the congregation. A choir sang the Gregorian chants and polyphonic music. The people watched the rituals of the increasingly powerful and wealthy clergy.

69 Many hundreds of cathedrals remain in Europe today – a reminder of a period when the Church was the most powerful authority and the house of God the most important building in the community.

Universities An important event of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries was the rise of a merchant class, a social and economic group who made their living buying and selling goods, rather than by making things or growing food. A rising merchant class along with the growth of towns and cities resulted in a greater interest in the outside world and a demand for education.

During the Middle Ages many of the cathedrals in the towns founded their own schools. By about 1200 there were more schools attached to cathedrals than there were monastery schools, which tended to be in country areas.

In Italy and France, teachers and students at the cathedral schools grouped together to study some of the classical subjects such as rhetoric, logic, literature, and mathematics, as well as philosophy, medicine, and law. Such groups came to be known as universities. Those wishing to teach had to earn a licence, and students were awarded degrees that recognised the steps they had reached in their studies.

The first European university was founded in Bologna, Italy in 1119. Universities were established in Siena in 1203 and Vincenza in 1204. By the end of the 13th century, universities had started in Paris, Bologna, Padua, Ghent, Oxford, and Cambridge. The new centres of learning were major sites for the institution of a new relationship to books, to learning, and to the Word of God. Their spread created an unprecedented demand for books – both religious and non-religious texts – and a greater willingness to analyse and debate the meaning of the written word.

The Church encouraged the development of the universities because most of their students were expected to study theology and philosophy as preparation for becoming priests. The Church also recognised that knowledge gained in any field of learning would enhance people’s understanding and appreciation of God’s creation.

In the Middle Ages theology was not considered to be one discipline among many. Rather, it was termed the queen of the sciences and regarded as the integrating factor in the holistic vision of reality that the medievals tried to achieve. A jumble of systems would not have made much sense to them.

An important function of the universities was communicating knowledge from past centuries, especially Greek philosophy. Muslim scholars made an important contribution to this process by translating the Greek texts of philosophers such as Aristotle into Arabic. These writings were then translated from Arabic into Latin – the language of instruction at the universities. Muslim scholars also made a great contribution to learning in Europe in the fields of mathematics, medicine, law, and the natural sciences.

70 Over time the various universities developed reputations for expertise in different aspects of learning. The University of Paris, probably the most famous of the early universities, concentrated on the study of theology and philosophy, while the University of Bologna, in central Italy, focused on medicine and law.

Thomas Aquinas Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), a simple Dominican professor all his life, was the most influential theologian of the Middle Ages.

Building on the work of Albertus Magnus – the naturalist and expert on Aristotle at the University of Paris – Thomas established an approach to theology that integrated Scripture and Catholic thought with the philosophy of Aristotle.

By harmonising reason and faith, natural and revealed truths, and philosophy and theology, Thomas created a new system of Catholic thought. Traditionalists initially condemned Thomas’ approach, but his writings including the Summa Contra Gentiles and the Summa Theologiae, were to become the dominant influence on up to the time of the Second Vatican Council. Thomas was also a great supporter of the pope and of the concept of a centralist papacy.

Implications for Today The Church’s ongoing commitment to art and architecture, to liberal education and workers’ rights can be traced back to the creative impulse that built and established the great cathedrals and universities of the Middles Ages. The influence of Thomas Aquinas within the Church is still considerable.

Links with the Student Text

Task Eleven a) This task asks students to list all the different features of Gothic architecture. These include:

• Spires • Stained glass windows • Flying buttresses • Floor plans in the shape of a cross • Lancet windows • Rose windows • Tracery windows. b) Students are asked to find examples of Gothic features in churches or other buildings they are familiar with. They should draw them if they wish.

Remind students that none of the buildings in Aotearoa are old enough to be from the Gothic period but many contain features of this style of

71 building. Spires, stained glass, and the various window shapes are probably the most easily identifiable of these.

Workbook Activity: Stained Glass

This workbook activity presents students with an outline of the Virgin and Child taken from a stained glass window in Chartres Cathedral. Students are asked to colour it in so that it “shines like heaven” – an effect that the makers of the stained glass tried to create. Remind students that blue, traditionally, is the colour associated with Mary.

Extension Activity

Here students are asked to design an original stained glass window for a church that they know. It should be based on an incident in the life of Christ, Mary or some other saint. Otherwise they could illustrate an event from Scripture. The design should be presented on poster paper. The teacher will need to ensure that the necessary resources are available.

Make sure that students understand that the window design needs to show the strips of lead that hold together the small pieces of coloured glass.

Task Twelve

This activity focuses on the courses studied at the universities that were established in the Middle Ages and invites students to make comparisons with universities today.

Students should work in a pair or group and will need a dictionary for b). a) Here students are asked to name those university courses from the Middle Ages that are listed which they recognise:

rhetoric logic literature mathematics philosophy theology medicine law

Answers will vary. b) Students are required to use a dictionary to find out what the courses are about. Here are brief descriptions taken from a standard, non-specialist dictionary:

Rhetoric – the art of using speech or writing to persuade or influence. Logic – the branch of philosophy that analyses patterns of reasoning. Literature – the body of written work valued by a particular culture. Mathematics – the science and study of numbers. Philosophy – the academic study of knowledge, thought and the meaning of life. Theology – the systematic study of religions and religious beliefs.

72 Medicine – the science of diagnosing, preventing or curing disease. Law – the system of rules regulating what may or may not be done by members of society. c) Students are asked how many of the above courses are still studied at university today. Some may recognise that all of the above subjects, with the exception of rhetoric, are still offered in New Zealand universities. d) Students are asked to identify what other courses people can study at university today. Answers will vary because of the huge range offered.

Emphasise with students that it is this widening of range (not only in regard to courses but in terms of the students studying there) that makes modern universities different from those of the Middle Ages.

Something to Discuss

Some Church leaders thought it would be dangerous for ordinary people to read the Bible for themselves. Students are asked to discuss why they thought this. Some relevant points include:

• It challenged the way things had always been done. • Only the Church had the authority to interpret the Bible. • It was the priest’s job to explain scripture and the people’s place to listen. • The people would not understand the Bible properly and become confused. • They would start to argue with the priests. • They would start demanding other rights and changes in the Church.

73

PART EIGHT: POPES AND REFORMERS

Achievement Objective 6

Students will be able to develop an understanding of the role of the pope and of reformers within the Church and society of the Middle Ages.

Church Teachings

• Saint Peter’s successor, the bishop of Rome or pope, exercises unique authority within the Church. • The pope leads the college of bishops, the successors of the apostles, in governing and carrying out the mission of Christ’s Church on earth. • The pope is a sign of unity in the Church. • The Church is always in need of renewal. • Te Wairua Tapu constantly renews the life of the Church. • Saints have always been the source and origin of renewal in the most difficult moments in the Church's history.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section of the topic students will:

• Recognise that the pope’s special authority in the Church has its origins in the words of Hehu to Saint Peter. • Identify key features of the papacy in the Middle Ages. • Understand how reformers such as Dominic, Francis and Catherine of Siena renewed the life of the Church in the Middle Ages.

Teacher Background

There is a saying that the Church is in constant need of reform and that it is all the time renewing itself.

During the Middle Ages there was much about the Church that cried out for reform – most obviously, the papacy which became a great source of scandal.

During the ninth and tenth centuries, there were few outstanding popes but many who were unable to cope with the forces of evil that ranged against them – a number in fact were murdered. At one stage the papacy fell into the hands of a Roman family who used it to further their own ambitions by appointing popes who can be counted among the worst in the history of the Church. Papal reigns such as those of Stephen VI, Sergius II and John XII were unfortunate for the Catholics of their time and their stories make unhappy reading today.

74 Cluny The initiative for renewal of the papacy first came from the monastery of Cluny in Burgundy – the centre of a vast network of monasteries. In order to free itself from the control of often-corrupt local bishops, who wanted to use its great wealth for their own purposes, Cluny asked to be placed under the direct supervision of the pope. In return for this privilege, Cluny and the monasteries in her network had to send an annual census to Rome. This provided considerable income for the papacy and at the same time ensured that the pope was supported by a network of monasteries throughout Europe.

In the eleventh century three rival and corrupt popes reigned simultaneously in Rome. In 1046, the German king Henry III had all three deposed and nominated a new candidate who was elected and reigned as Pope Clement II. Clement was followed by a series of good popes, including Pope Leo IX (1049-54), who in the space of five years reformed the Roman clergy and made the cardinals, the representatives of the Roman city churches, into a kind of papal senate. He also appointed highly intelligent and well-motivated representatives of his own to this senate. These include Humbert of Silva Candida and Hildebrand who greatly strengthened the power and the prestige of the papacy.

Humbert championed the so-called Roman principle – the idea that the papacy was the source of all law in the world and the supreme authority which could judge all and not itself be judged by any.

Gregory VII Hildebrand, who in 1073 became Pope Gregory VII, attempted to free the Church and the papacy from the influence and control of secular rulers. Not only did Gregory declare the pope to be the sole and unrestricted ruler of the Church – above all clergy, bishops, local churches and councils – but also supreme lord of the Christian world to whom all earthly rulers and emperors were to be subject. He opposed simony (the buying and selling of Church offices), clerical marriage and lay investiture (kings and lords appointing bishops in the territories they ruled). Gregory went so far as to excommunicate the most important ruler in Europe, Emperor Henry IV of Germany, when he continued to appoint bishops against the pope’s orders. The situation was only resolved after Henry, barefoot and wearing the robes of a penitent, stood for three days in the snow outside the castle of Canossa and begged the pope for forgiveness.

Innocent III The secular and imperial ambitions of the papacy were most fully achieved during the reign of Pope Innocent III (1198-1216). Five features characteristic of papal rule in the Middles Ages that had been emerging in the previous centuries were consolidated during Innocent’s time as pope:

Centralisation In the early centuries the Church understood itself as a fellowship ( or communio) that gathered around the Bishop of Rome, the successor of Peter. After Gregory VII and Innocent II the Church

75 presented itself as a body where faith, laws, discipline and organisation were completely focused on the pope. The pope was now an absolute monarch who had supreme rule within the Church. The Church stressed its own claim to be Mother and Head of all Churches.

Legalisation During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church developed its own vast and complex legal system independent of the state. This system of canon law, which governed every aspect of Church life and the lives of individual Christians, was totally centred on the pope, the absolute ruler. The popes of the twelfth century issued more legal decisions than all their predecessors put together. In addition, thousands of clergy were kept occupied in Rome creating and implementing this system that operated throughout Europe.

Politicisation From the Middle Ages on the Church presented itself as completely independent of secular rulers who, in the papal view, were subordinate to the pope. However, through the papacy, the Church continued to intervene in worldly affairs, directly and indirectly. By the time of Innocent III, Rome was the most important and busiest centre of European politics. In a sense Innocent really did rule over the Christian world as the supreme judge and lord.

Militarisation By the Middle Ages the Church had developed a theory that, under certain circumstances, legitimated the use of violence to achieve spiritual ends. Wars of conversion, wars against pagans, wars against heretics and even wars against fellow Christians were fought on the basis of this theory. The Crusades – championed by the popes – are, to contemporary eyes, the greatest abuse allowed by the .

Clericalisation As monasticism grew in importance and influence during the Middle Ages, the monastic state of celibacy was adopted by more and more clergy of the Western Church, including those who worked in the parishes. Under Gregory VII all priests were required to unconditionally renounce marriage. Any priestly activities carried out by married priests were declared invalid and laity were told to boycott the ministries of married clergy. Witch hunts of priests’ wives occurred in some places and after the Second Lateran Council (1139) priests’ wives were officially defined as concubines. Priests’ children officially became the property of the Church.

The law of celibacy contributed to the separation of the clergy from the people. Priests, as well as assuming a higher social status, were set apart from the Christian people by their unmarried state, which was regarded as a higher level of moral ‘perfection’.

76 New Forms of Religious Life New forms of religious life, especially the Dominican and the Franciscan , supported the cause of the popes. The mobility of the friars – who were also centralised and international – enabled them to spread the message of Jesus throughout an increasingly urbanised Europe.

The following principles were the basis of the friars’ approach to their mission, which renewed the life of the Church not by challenging the papacy but by supporting it:

Poverty – a life with absolutely no possessions not only for individual members of the brotherhood but also for the community as a whole.

Humility – a life that renounced power and influence, where patience and joy characterised all situations.

Simplicity – a life of discipleship to Christ where all aspects of creation (animals, plants, people, natural forces etc.) are to relate as brothers and sisters.

The Dominicans and the Franciscans were known as mendicant or “begging” orders because, originally at least, they refused to own farms for food or large monasteries for housing and depended on what people gave them to survive. The friars stayed on the move, teaching and preaching mostly in the towns.

Dominic de Guzman Dominic de Guzman (1170-1221) founded the Dominicans, also known as the Order of Preachers. As a young priest, he had been sent to convert the Albigensians – a group based at Albi in the south of France who had formed an alternative ‘pure’ church in opposition to the Catholic Church which it believed was sinful and corrupt. Frustrated by the lack of support for his efforts, Dominic gathered together a group of men who were willing to dedicate themselves to preaching.

Eventually the Dominicans lived in communal houses. They encouraged learning, believing that through scholarship they would be better able to teach the truth of the Gospel and the wisdom of Church Tradition. Dominicans became some of the great university teachers of the Middle Ages – Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas among them.

Francis of Assisi (1181-1226) founder of the Order of Friars Minor, also called the Franciscans, is one of the most popular of all the saints in the Church.

After twice experiencing visions of Christ, Francis rejected a life of wealth and pleasure – his father was a rich silk merchant – and decided to live as a poor man. Francis wandered the countryside speaking of God, repairing ruined churches and caring for the sick and those in need, including people with leprosy.

77 Through his words and actions, Francis brought Christ to men and women. He also attracted followers who wished to live the same simple lifestyle that he did. Within ten years, five thousand Franciscan friars were spread throughout Italy.

Francis’ rejection of wealth – which he saw as a source of corruption for the Christian – aroused the opposition of a number of influential church officials. However, Pope Innocent III supported Francis’ Rule with its ideals of simple living and complete trust in God because of the loyalty of Francis and his friars to the pope.

The Avignon Papacy By the end of the thirteenth century the papacy that had been so powerful under Innocent III was greatly weakened. Pope Boniface VIII (1294-1303) although he made great claims to earthly power ended up being arrested and imprisoned by forces of the French king.

Under Clement V (1305-1314) and the French popes that followed him, the papal court was based for around seventy years at Avignon in France where it was dependent on the French crown. The many papal officials, the financial administration, the requirements of papal ceremonial, a new palace and the purchase of lands in Avignon were all very expensive. Church taxes gathered throughout Europe were used to pay for the Avignon papacy. As the papacy increasingly lost its religious and moral leadership opposition to the popes grew, especially among the universities, colleges, schools and influential writers.

The Great In 1377 Pope Gregory XI urged by Catherine of Siena and Birgitta of Sweden moved back to Rome. In the years following his death the papacy deteriorated further with two different men claiming to be pope. This was the start of the Great Western Schism which lasted from 1378 to 1417. There were now two colleges of Cardinals, two curias and two financial systems. At one stage the situation was still more scandalous with three men making claims to the papal throne. Unity was finally restored to the Church by the Council of Constance (1414-1418) which elected Martin V as pope and ended the Great Western Schism.

By the end of the fourteenth century more and more people throughout Europe were calling for reform of the Church.

Catherine of Siena Catherine of Siena (1347-1380) was one of a number of nuns, including Hildegard of Bingen, Birgitta of Sweden and later Teresa of Avila, who were active in Church politics and attained an unprecedented charismatic authority within the Church during the Middle Ages. Catherine corresponded with many of the influential people of her time and was unafraid to tell popes, queens and kings how to behave. She was spontaneous, and fearless in the face of death.

78 Born at Siena, Italy, Catherine, from an early age, sensed the troubled world around her and wanted to help. She was aware of the impact of the Black Death, famine and civil war on European society and of damage that the Great Western Schism was doing to the Church.

When she was about sixteen years old, Catherine’s parents reluctantly permitted her to enter the where she became active in serving Siena’s poor and sick, including victims of the plague. Catherine was also asked to mediate in disputes between different Italian cities, including one between Florence and the pope.

During her life as a religious, Catherine had a number of mystical experiences. At the age of thirty, while at prayer, Catherine received the instruction that she was to go to Avignon and tell the pope to return to Italy.

Wanting Pope Gregory XI to leave his residency in Avignon and return to Rome, and knowing that he was afraid of being poisoned, Catherine wrote to him: “Be not a timorous child, but manly . . .” she spoke to him as a loving daughter would. In other parts of her letters to the Popes she used an affectionate pet name for them: Babbo, which means Daddy.

Following Catherine’s urgings, which included a meeting at Avignon, Gregory XI brought the papacy back to Rome.

Catherine, in fact, didn't learn how to write until the end of her life, but dictated her letters, a collection of prayers and book about her mystical experiences to secretaries who wrote her words down.

Catherine’s letters were bold and direct. For example, during the time of the Great Western Schism she once wrote to three Italian cardinals who were supporting the anti-pope: “What made you do this? You are flowers who shed no perfume, but stench that makes the whole world reek”. Pope Paul VI referred to her “charism of exhortation” which prompted her to be forthright with those who were in opposition to the pope.

To Giovanna, the Queen of Naples, who also supported the anti-pope and was accused of murdering her husband, Catherine wrote: “You know that you do ill, but like a sick and passionate woman, you let yourself be guided by your passions”. Catherine risked death by sending such words to the authorities of her time. But she was not afraid. “I trust in the Lord Jesus Christ, not in myself” was one of her favourite prayers.

Catherine's impact on her society was so profound that Europe was unable to forget her. Only eighty-one years after her death, she was canonised by Pope Pius II. Even now, Rome recalls her actions. For example, Pope John Paul II recently honoured her “impassioned liveliness” and “freedom of initiative,” when he marked the 25th anniversary of her being named one of the first women Doctors of the Church by Pope Paul VI in 1970.

79 Implications for Today

The mendicant orders have made enormous contributions to the Church. The Dominican tradition of scholarship is evident in the thought of Thomas Aquinas who influences Church teaching to this day. Francis’ renewal of poverty and simplicity in the Middle Ages is imitated by many contemporary Christians who seek to challenge the consumerism of today’s society.

Despite corruption at many levels of the Church in the Late Middle Ages a great number of ordinary people led good and holy lives. Figures such as Catherine of Siena and dedicated parish priests preached Te Rongopai, tended sick people, and lived lives based on the Gospel. Their example encourages us to follow Karaiti in our lives.

Links with the Student Text

Task Thirteen

Catholics regard the pope as the successor of Saint Peter. This special position that he has within the Catholic Church can be traced back to the authority that Jesus first gave to Saint Peter.

Students are asked to read three Gospel passages in their and for each passage to write one sentence saying what Jesus tells Peter. The answers appear in the grid below:

Scripture Passage Jesus’ Words to Peter

a) Matthew 16:18 You are Peter and on this rock I will build my community

b) Luke 22:32 You in turn must strengthen your brothers and sisters

c) John 21:15-17 Feed my lambs ... Look after my sheep

Something to Think About

Here students are asked to consider whether it is necessary for popes to have worldly power to be faithful successors of Saint Peter.

Draw their attention to what Jesus tells Peter in the Scripture passages that students considered in the previous activity.

80 Task Fourteen

Here students are provided with answers but the questions they go with are missing. Students are required to invent the questions based on their understanding of Dominic, Francis and new forms of religious life.

Here are the “answers” students are given:

a) Answer: Mendicant. b) Answer: They took to the roads and spread the message of Jesus across Europe. c) Answer: Poverty, humility and simplicity. d) Answer: The Order of Preachers. e) Answer: Visions of Christ. f) Answer: Pope Innocent III. g) Answer: Thomas Aquinas. h) Answer: A ‘pure’ church in opposition to the Catholic Church.

They are provided with the following words as possible starters for their questions:

Who? What? When? Where? Why? How?

Workbook Activity: St Catherine of Siena

The storyboard in the student workbook tells the life of Catherine of Siena with pictures and words. a) Some of the pictures do not have words to go with them. Students need to match the descriptions provided with the pictures that do not have words. They are required to write the letter of the alphabet for the description in the space below the picture.

The following are the correct matchings:

A. (When she was twenty-eight, Catherine was asked to go to Pisa to preach on loyalty to the Church and the Pope…) goes with picture 5.

B. (Problems broke out in the city of Florence. Catherine was asked to go there and act as mediator…) goes with picture 7.

C. (Because she couldn’t read or write she dictated letters to a secretary. They were sent to state and church leaders including the pope…) goes with picture 4.

81 D. (Until she was twenty, Catherine lived at home. She often went to the church or a grotto to pray…) goes with picture 1. b) Students are asked to draw their own pictures to go with the description for frames three and eleven. Illustrations will vary.

Something to Think About

Catherine of Siena was famous as a peacemaker. Here students are asked to think of someone whom they recognise as a peacemaker at school or in their parish or community.

This is a way of encouraging students to identify saint-like qualities within themselves.

Something to Find Out

• Here students are asked to find out what they can about the Black Death, its impact on society and the Church. • Encourage them to reflect on how it is like / unlike plagues in our world. The comparison with Aids is a useful one to make.

Students should use the library or the Internet as a source of information.

The following information may be useful:

The Black Death

The 'Black Death' of 1347-50, one of the worst pandemics of plague in human history, was really three related diseases:

• bubonic plague, • septicaemic plague, • pneumonic or pulmonary plague.

The first two plagues were carried by fleas hosted by the black rat; the third, airborne variety was especially fast and lethal. In its most common bubonic form, a boil-like nodule or bubo would grow in the victim's groin or armpit, together with dark blotches on the skin from internal haemorrhage. Three or four days of intolerable pain preceded certain death if the bubo did not burst beforehand.

Medieval medicine did not understand how the plague was transmitted. Doctors were helpless to prevent its spread. Crowded tenements and poor sanitation, especially in the towns, provided excellent encouragement for the rats. The result was death on a massive scale. Boccaccio wrote that 100,000 died in Florence alone. Eight hundred corpses a day had to be buried in Paris.

82 The pandemic, which began in central Asia, spread with frightening speed. It was first reported in Europe in the summer of 1346 at the Crimea. By 1348 it struck Venice and other Adriatic cities, before moving on to Pisa, Florence, and central Italy. By the summer it was in Paris, and by the end of the year it had crossed the English Channel. 1349 saw it move northwards across the British Isles, eastwards across Germany, and south-eastwards into the Balkans. In 1350 it entered Scotland, Denmark, Sweden and Russia.

Popular reactions to the plague varied from panic and wild debauchery to courageous duty. Many people fled. Others, losing the sense of restraint, indulged in orgies of drink and lechery. The clergy often suffered greatly as a result of tending their flock. In some places parish churches were empty because of the impact of the plague. Many people believed that God was punishing humankind for its sins.

Calculating the losses is difficult, but generally speaking, the towns were hit more severely than the countryside, the poor more than the rich, the young and fit more than the old and infirm. No pope or king was killed. Estimates suggest overall losses of one-third of the population of Europe – that is around 30 million people.

The Black Death helped create a more mobile, and less dependent, labour force. Because there was an increased demand for labour – to rebuild society – and fewer people to do the work, wages rose with the rising demand. The money economy was expanded; old social barriers started to break down.

Although the Church was weakened by the deaths of monks, nuns, and priests, religious devotion among the people increased. Charitable organisations flourished and intense piety came into fashion. However, many people felt that God was angry with the world. In Germany, huge companies of flagellants flourished and scapegoats were sought. In some places lepers were picked on; elsewhere the Jews were charged with poisoning the water. In many places Jews were rounded up, tortured, and executed. In Strasbourg two thousand Jews were massacred, in Mainz around 12,000. Many Jews fled to Poland, which became the principal place of sanctuary for Jews in Europe.

Many students will be familiar with the children’s rhyme “Ring-a-Ring-of Roses”:

Ring-a-ring-of-roses, A pocket full of posies, Atishoo-Atishoo, We all fall down.

It is widely believed that it has its origins at the time of the Black Death. The “ring” refers to the shape of the sores that appear on the bodies and around the mouths of plague victims, who subsequently sneeze and fall down dead.

83 GLOSSARY OF GENERAL TERMS

The entries in this glossary are for key words or terms contained in the text, and other useful definitions that provide additional background to the topic.

The references after each term, e.g. N.2766 are to paragraphs in the Catechism of the Catholic Church.

There is a separate glossary of Maori terms.

Abbess The of a group of twelve or more nuns. During the Middle Ages, abbesses exercised considerable power and influence beyond their abbeys. They were often of noble rank and sat in parliaments and councils, recognising no authority but that of the pope. At times they governed double monasteries of monks and nuns.

Abbey An autonomous monastery of at least twelve religious, governed by an abbot or abbess. They were usually established on arable land because they were intended to be self-supporting centres of prayer, productivity and community life. During the Middle Ages they were also centres of learning, culture and social progress where monks established schools, copied and illuminated manuscripts, and improved farming methods. They developed the first hospitals in the West because of their care of the sick on pilgrimage.

Abbot The leader of a male monastic community.

Adoration (N.1078) The highest reverence which is to be offered only to God, our creator, redeemer, and sanctifier, who alone should be “worshipped and glorified”. Believers adore God through various images, such as the cross. They also adore Christ present in the Eucharist.

Albigensians A movement which flourished in southern France and northern Italy from the mid-twelfth to the fourteenth century. It taught that all material things, including the human body, were bad. The Albigensians developed their own church organisation and structure as an alternative to the Catholic Church. They distinguished in their own membership between the Pure or the Perfect, and those who were less spiritually advanced. Only perfect souls could hope to transcend the cycle of death and reincarnation. The Albigensians challenged those monks and clergy who were living an easy life and neglecting the preaching of the Gospel. In doing so they gained much support among the poor. However, they took the good impulse for renewal to extremes, teaching that marriage as well as the body was evil. Some taught

84 that suicide was justified because it freed the human spirit from the evils of the body. The Dominicans preached against the Albigensians in the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries but it was only after the Albigensian Crusade and the that their influence was weakened.

Almonry The building where food or money would be distributed to those in need who called at the monastery.

Anathema From the Greek, meaning “accursed” or “separated from the fold”. It is a formula for excommunication that was used by both the Patriarch of Constantinople and the Pope’s representative when the East-West schism occurred in 1054.

Annunciation The proclamation to Mary by the angel Gabriel that she would be the mother of Jesus (see Luke 1:26-32). The Annunciation is celebrated as a feast by the Church on 25 March, nine months before the celebration of the birth of Jesus. The event is also commemorated in one of the joyful mysteries of the Rosary.

Assumption (N. 966, 974) This is the dogma that the Blessed Virgin Mary was taken (assumed) body and soul into heaven at the end of her earthly life. It was promulgated by Pope Pius XII in 1950, and is the only dogma proclaimed since the decree on in 1870. Mary’s Assumption is a sharing in the Resurrection of her Son and an anticipation of the resurrection of others. The Assumption is celebrated liturgically by a Feast Day on 15 August. Aotearoa New Zealand has been placed under the patronage of Mary of the Assumption.

Authority (N.888) Influence over, or right to give commands, enforce laws, judge conduct, etc. Religious authority is a power to influence belief or conduct, but without coercion or threat of harm. Authority in the Catholic Church is based on that of Jesus himself and his commission to his disciples (Matt 28:18-20) as well as on the promise of the "Spirit of Truth" (Jn 16:12-15) whom Jesus would send to guide the Church.

Avignon Papacy A city and archdiocese in south eastern France which was the seat of the papacy from 1309 to 1377. first moved the papacy to Avignon when it became too dangerous for the popes to remain in Rome. Pope Gregory XI transferred the papal court back to Rome in 1378. The Avignon papacy greatly increased Church spending and resulted in a much- needed overhaul of the Church’s financial and administrative systems.

Benedictine / St Benedict St Benedict (c. 480-547) of Nursia in central Italy is generally regarded as the founder of Western Monasticism. After spending time as a , Benedict founded his own monastery at Monte Cassino near Naples. Benedict wrote a

85 Rule for the ordering of the lives of his monks and the Rule of St Benedict eventually became the single most influential guide for monastic life in the Catholic Church. Today there are several hundred monasteries or houses of Benedictine monks and religious women. Some live lives of strict enclosure while others work outside the monastery. All follow such features of St Benedict’s Rule as; life in community, sharing of goods, lectio divina (see entry) and communal praying of the liturgy.

Black Death The name given to a plague which in the fourteenth century killed a third of the population of Europe, including many of the monks and nuns.

Catholic (N.830-856) The word catholic in the original Greek meant “universal” or “general”. First used of the Church by St (A.D. 35-107), it was applied to the Christian faith believed ‘everywhere, always and by all.’ Later the term Catholic was used to distinguish orthodox believers from various heretical groups. After the Eastern Schism of 1054 A.D. Catholic was used to distinguish those who recognised the primacy of the Pope from those in the Eastern Church which came to be called Orthodox. After the Reformation of the 16th Century, Catholic also distinguished those loyal to the Pope from the Reformers or Protestants.

Christians such as the Orthodox and some parts of the Anglican communion who profess an Apostolic succession of Bishops and priests and a continual tradition of faith and worship also refer to themselves as Catholic. The term Roman Catholic is thus sometimes used to distinguish the Church which recognises the primacy of the Bishop of Rome, the Pope.

Celibacy From the Latin caelibatus meaning ‘single life’, celibacy is the state of being unmarried. Since the 3rd Century, following the example of Christ, some Christians have felt called to take a vow of celibacy in order to live a life of greater dedication to God. Today, the forgoing of the pleasure of marriage and children is seen not so much in terms of renunciation, as in providing a greater freedom to love and serve God and others.

Cellarium A storage area for food, usually close to the monastery kitchen.

Chapter House The administration building of the monastery where the abbot or abbess had their office and met with the community.

Choir monks During the Middle Ages, these monks, usually ordained, devoted their time to worship and study while lay brothers provided the manual labour that supported the physical needs of the monasteries.

86 Cistercian Monk The were founded as an order of monks in the monastic tradition of St Benedict. Their name comes from the Latin version of Citeaux, near Lyon in France, where their first monastery was established in 1098. The Cistercians developed a simplified form of Benedictine life which eventually included houses of nuns as well as monks. Today there are two orders: the Cistercians of the Strict Observance (commonly called ) and the Cistercians of the Common Observance.

Clerestory A small window placed well above eye-level for the sole purpose of letting light into the interior spaces of the church.

Cloister The areas of a monastery reserved exclusively for the monks or nuns of that community. The term also refers to a square courtyard surrounded by covered walkways where the monks or nuns would walk and relax.

Council of Ephesus The third ecumenical council of the Church (431). Here Mary was formally given the title of “God-bearer“ or “Mother of God” to show that she carried the Son of God in her womb and gave him his human identity. This was in response to the Nestorian which maintained that in Christ there are two persons and that Mary is mother of the human person, not the Mother of God. The Council of Ephesus rejected this position and affirmed that through Mary the Son of God became flesh. In doing so, it was asserting that in the one person of Christ there is both a divine and a human nature.

Crusades A series of wars fought under the banner of Christ for the recovery of or in defence of Christian lands. They began in the eleventh century with Christian campaigns against Muslim expansion in Spain and Sicily. In 1095 Pope Urban II called the nobles of the West to join in the First Crusade, partly in response to the Eastern Emperor’s plea for defence against the Turks. However, the liberation of Jerusalem and the Holy Lands was the main goal.

Crusades continued for the next two hundred years – some would say that the idea of the crusade never really disappeared. However, during the later Middle Ages political and economic conditions made them less popular.

Culture The word has several meanings. As used in Catholic documents concerning education it usually refers to the totality of a society’s inherited way of life. It includes such things as traditions, customs, attitudes and institutions which usually have roots in the society or group’s history.

Devotion (N.971) From the Latin devotio meaning ‘the state or act of being devoted’, in the singular this word usually refers to the affective or emotional dimension of faith. It can also refer to forms of non-liturgical prayer. In the Catholic

87 tradition prayers such as the Rosary or the Stations of the Cross are commonly referred to as ‘devotions’. The honour shown to Mary and the saints is referred to as devotion and is distinguished from adoration or worship which is directed to the Trinity alone.

Devotional Prayer These are non-liturgical prayers that promote piety or devotion to God. The Rosary and the Stations of the Cross are devotional prayers.

Divine Relating to or characterising God. So Divine Worship means worship of God.

Dominic St. Dominic de Guzman (c. 1170-1221) was the Spanish founder of the Order of Preachers, better known as Dominicans. Dominic intended his friars, through the example of simple living and by eloquent preaching, to counter the spread of the Albigensian heresy in Southern France and generally draw people to Christ. He also founded houses of nuns. Dominic was canonised in 1234. Although he no doubt encouraged devotion to Mary through the Rosary, scholars no longer accept the view that Dominic invented the devotion which precedes him by several centuries.

Early Church This is an imprecise term for the first three to five hundred years in the life of the Church. During the early period following its birth around 30 AD, the young Church gradually overcame persecutors, established structures and , spread its message beyond Palestine, developed doctrines and fought various . At first the Greek ‘fathers’ and monks were particularly influential but following the conversion of the Emperor Constantine (337 AD) the Church, led by the Popes gradually succeeded the Roman Empire as the dominant influence in the ‘West’.

Ecumenical or General Council (N.884) A council is an official gathering of Church leaders and representatives that assists in the process of decision-making within the Church. Ecumenical or General Councils are worldwide gatherings of bishops exercising their collegial authority in union with and led by the pope. At the present time in the Church's history an ecumenical council is called by the pope.

Flying Buttresses These held up the high walls and vaulted ceilings of Gothic architecture. Flying buttresses have a straight upper surface and a curved lower surface.

Francis of Assisi One of the greatest and best-loved saints, Francis di Bernadone was born in Assisi in central Italy in 1181. Founder of the Friars Minor, usually called ‘Franciscans’, Francis was noted for his compassion, his devotion to prayer and to ‘Lady Poverty’ and for his love for all creation. He died in 1226 and was canonised in 1228. He is the patron Saint of Italy and of the environment. His feast day is 4 October.

88 Franks A Germanic people who settled along the east bank of the Rhine and, from the late third century, invaded Gaul, most of which they eventually (by 511) occupied. Clovis (c. 481-511) united all the Franks under his own rule with his capital at Paris. Baptised in the late 490s, he was the only Catholic king in the West, in the eyes of many the protector of the orthodox. In his kingdom Franks and Romans, united under a single episcopacy, mingled more freely. From 639 the Merovingian dynasty began to be supplanted by the Carolingians, the two most notable of whom were Charles Martel, who checked Arab ambitions on Europe east of Spain at the battle of Poitiers (732), and Charlemagne, crowned emperor of the West by the pope on Christmas Day, 800.

Friars From the French frere meaning “brother”. This term is applied to the members of the mendicant or begging orders, including the Dominicans and Franciscans, which arose in the thirteenth century. They were distinguished from the traditional monastic orders by corporate as well as individual poverty, by their involvement in pastoral ministry, and by their centralised international brotherhood which allowed them to move about according to need.

Gothic An architectural style that developed in the Middle Ages which was characterised by pointed arches, vaulted ceilings, flying buttresses and stained glass. Through the use of light and geometry it sought to convey symbolically the beauty of the heavenly city of Jerusalem as described in the Book of Revelation and St John’s understanding of Christ as light. Gothic cathedrals and churches were light and airy. They lifted the heart and spirits of worshippers to God. The cathedrals at Chartres (started 1145) and Amiens (started 1220) became the models for churches throughout Europe.

Gregorian An adjective referring to one of the sixteen popes named Gregory, especially Gregory I (the Great, 590-604) or Gregory VII, St. (1073-85). Thus we have references to Gregorian chant (a type of plain chant named after Gregory I) or the Gregorian Calendar, the modern calendar named for Pope Gregory XIII during whose pontificate it was introduced into Catholic countries (1582).

Guest House That part of the monastery where visitors were accommodated.

Hagia Sophia A Greek title meaning “Holy Wisdom”. It is also the name of the Greek Orthodox church of Saint Sophia in Constantinople (Istanbul, Turkey). The construction of the present church of Saint Sophia began around 537. It is the largest surviving church from antiquity and, at the time, one of the largest structures ever built. It is considered one of the greatest buildings in the history of architecture and established the “Byzantine style”. After the fall of

89 Constantinople to the Turks in 1453 the building was turned into a mosque. It is now a museum.

Hail Mary (N.2676-78) A famous and popular Catholic prayer to the Virgin Mary. It is based upon words from Luke’s Gospel spoken to Mary by the angel and by her cousin Elizabeth at the time of Mary’s visit to Elizabeth. ‘Hail Mary’ is a translation of the original Latin title of the prayer – ‘Ave Maria’. In its present form it dates from the sixteenth century though its origins lie several centuries earlier. The Hail Mary forms part of other well-known devotions such as the Rosary and the Angelus.

Hildegard of Bingen Hildegard (1098-1179) was one of the most remarkably talented women of the Middle Ages. She founded a Benedictine convent near Bingen on the River Rhine and was famous as a visionary mystic, a painter, composer and musician and for her writings on saints, theology and medicine, among other things.

Icon An icon is a religious image or picture. The term refers particularly to those paintings of Christ, the Virgin Mary or the saints used in the worship of the Eastern Churches.

Iconostasis A screen covered with icons which in the Orthodox tradition separates the sanctuary from the rest of the church. Access to the sanctuary is provided by three doors, the central or “Royal Doors” through which the priest brings Holy Communion to the congregation and the “’s doors” on either side of the Royal Doors. On the iconostasis, to the right of the Royal Doors there is always an icon of Christ; and to the left, one of the Mother of God bearing the Christ Child. Over the doors is usually depicted the Last Supper or the communion of the apostles. Other images vary, depending on the space available.

Immaculate Conception The dogma defined by Pope Pius IX in 1854 which holds that the Blessed Virgin Mary was free from sin from the very first moment of her existence. This belief became popular in the Middle Ages when Marian devotion was strong. It is not to be confused with the virgin birth.

Incarnation (N.456-483) The word incarnation is derived from the Latin and means literally to ‘enflesh’ or ‘to make flesh’. The term Incarnation is used in to refer to the moment when God became a human being at the conception of Jesus in the womb of his mother Mary. As the puts it, ‘by the power of the Holy Spirit, he became incarnate of the Virgin Mary, and was made man.’ It is also used to refer to the continuing reality of Jesus Christ, truly God and truly human. Thus the Incarnation is a central dogma of Christianity

90 concerning the mystery of Jesus Christ as one divine person possessing both a human and a divine nature.

The Incarnation is central to our salvation. Through Jesus Christ, truly God and truly human, we can know the love of God and share in the life of God – eternal life.

Infirmary The place where sick members of a monastic community and outsiders were cared for.

Islam An Arabic word that means “submission” to God’s will. The world religion that recognises Muhammad (570-632) as God’s last prophet in a line that started with Abraham and continued through Jesus. Muhammad blamed the Jews for refusing to accept Jesus and the Christians for adopting polytheism through their teaching on the Trinity. Islam’s absolute monotheism denies that God (Allah) has a Son. Jesus is honoured as a prophet who only seemed to die on the cross.

Islam involves five chief obligations: 1) the confession of God’s unity and of Muhammad as God’s last messenger or prophet; 2) ritual prayer five times a day; 3) wealth sharing to support the poor; 4) fasting during the whole month of Ramadan from sunrise to sunset; 5) pilgrimage to Mecca, at least once in a lifetime.

The Second Vatican Council emphasised that Christians and Muslims are both heirs of Abraham’s faith who live in expectation of the judgement.

Lancet A tall, thin stained glass window with a pointed top.

Lavatorium and Necessarium The block where the monastery’s washing facilities and toilets were located.

Lay Brother / Sister The term “lay” refers to the unordained state. A lay brother is a member of a male religious community who is not ordained. In the Middle Ages, and later, lay brothers had less education than other members of the monastic community. They provided the manual labour and provided for the monks of the choir whose time was devoted to worship and study. Communities of religious women also included lay sisters.

Leavened / Unleavened bread Leavened bread is baked with a rising agent such as yeast while unleavened bread is baked without it. The consecration of unleavened bread in the Eucharistic celebration of the Western Church recalls the Jewish exile, when bread was made in haste without leavening. New meaning was given to this unleavened bread at the Last Supper, when Jesus blessed, broke and gave

91 the Passover bread to his disciples as his own body. The Orthodox Churches consecrate leavened bread during the Eucharist.

Lectio Divina (N.1177) A meditative reading of sacred Scripture, or other spiritual works, leading to prayer.

Litany A form of prayer consisting of a series of petitions or invocations each followed by a response. have been part of Christian tradition from very early times. The or ‘Lord Have Mercy’ with the interchange between priest and people is an example of a brief . The Litany of the Saints, recited at the Easter Vigil, is another well-known example of a litany: Holy Mary Mother of God Pray for Us. Saint Michael Pray for Us. Holy Angels of God Pray for Us. Saint Pray for Us.

Liturgical Prayer This is the prayer included in the Liturgy, the official public worship of the Church especially the celebration of the Eucharist, the celebration of the Sacraments and the Liturgy of the Hours (also called the Divine Office).

Liturgy (N.1066-1074) From the Greek leitourgia meaning public work or public service, this term in Christian tradition came to mean the official public worship of the Church. In the liturgy all the faithful are caught up with Christ in his priestly office in celebration of his saving work. Although applied primarily to the celebration of the Eucharist, the term liturgy includes other official rites and prayers of the Church.

The Second Vatican Council in a famous phrase referred to the liturgy as “the summit toward which the activity of the Church is directed; it is also the font from which all her power flows” (Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy 10).

Liturgy of the Hours The public prayer of the Church for praising God and sanctifying the day (also called the Divine Office). Although based on the recitation of the 150 psalms, the Liturgy of the Hours has been organised in different ways over the centuries. At present, it consists of an Office of Readings, Morning and Evening Prayer, Daytime Prayer and Night Prayer.

During the Middle Ages, the number of hours became set at the following: , , , , , , , and None. The central act of each hour was the chanting of psalms (as many as twelve psalms during Lauds). Vespers, Compline and Lauds each came to be associated with a proper gospel canticle: the Magnificat, Nunc Dimittis, and Benedictus respectively. The Te Deum was sung at Matins on high feast days. Most hours were preceded by a hymn. Between the psalms and the reading from Scripture (or the writings of a saint), some of the most elaborate and difficult of the Gregorian chants, the responsories, were sung.

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Because the Liturgy of the Hours was long, difficult and sung in Latin, it became impossible for the laity to participate. It became a specialised activity for monks and nuns or the canons and choirs, i.e., clergy attached to the cathedral specifically for the purpose of maintaining the daily prayer. See entry on Prayer of the Church.

Lourdes A town in South-West France famous for its Marian shrine. In 1858 the Blessed Virgin Mary is said to have appeared several times to Bernadette Soubirous who was canonised as St Bernadette of Lourdes in 1933. Since 1858 the spring of Lourdes has been the site of miraculous healings and Lourdes has become one of Europe’s principal pilgrimage centres.

Martyrs (N.2473-74) The word martyr comes from a Greek word meaning witness. It refers to someone who has given up their life for their faith. The first was St Stephen whose martyrdom is recorded in the . At various times throughout the history of the church Christians have been persecuted and some have died as martyrs. Many of these have been canonised as Saints.

Meditation (N.2705-08) This form of mental prayer is generally reflective. The person engaged in meditation thinks about the presence and action of God. Meditation may involve reading scripture or other works, icons or various other techniques to aid reflection on God. In the Catholic tradition meditation is usually distinguished from contemplation which involves love rather than thought.

Mercy (N.1829, 2447) Mercy is essentially an attribute of God and therefore an essential aspect of the way we live Christian Charity. It is an active compassion towards someone in unfortunate circumstances. In Christian tradition acts to show mercy are classed as corporal (bodily) or spiritual . Mercy is one of the fruits of the Holy Spirit.

Middle Ages This was a term first used by devout Christians who saw themselves living in the interval between Christ’s first and Second Coming. Later, in the fifteenth century, scholars began to talk of the “Middle Age” as the interval between the decline of the old Greek and Roman cultures and the revival of classical culture in their own time. For them the ancient world stood for high civilisation and the Middle Age represented a time of barbarism, chaos and religious bigotry. The unifying feature of the Middle Ages is organised Christianity. The vacuum left by the decline of the Roman Empire was filled by the growing awareness of Christianity, not just as a religious faith but as a social and political force.

93 There is no clear boundary marking the end of the ancient world and the start of the Middle Ages has been fixed at any number of points from the conversion of Constantine onwards. The end of the period has been fixed at anywhere between 1453 and 1517 – the latter date being the year the Reformation was said to have begun with Martin Luther posting his theses on the church door at Wittenberg.

Historians see the Middle Ages as falling into three distinct periods:

• The period from the fifth to the eleventh century – sometimes called the “Dark Ages” because of the chaos and destruction that accompanied the breakdown of the Roman world. • The twelfth century – often described as a period of renaissance or cultural rebirth. • The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries – the “high” Middle Ages that marked the peak of medieval civilisation.

However, while such distinctions can be applied to Western Europe they are inadequate descriptions of what happened in the East where the Roman Empire survived until 1453 and no renaissance was ever experienced.

Muslims (see Islam) Followers of the Prophet Muhammad and the religion of Islam.

Mysteries of the Rosary (see Rosary)

Orthodox Christianity From the Greek ortho doxa meaning “right praise” or “right belief”. The term is used of the Eastern churches (Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox) that acknowledge the honorary primacy of Constantinople but are not in union with Rome.

Orthodoxy describes the original churches established by the apostles, and the later churches founded from them, in the Eastern half of the Roman Empire and in other Eastern territories: , , Persia, Mesopotamia, Georgia. The term was first applied to the churches of the Orthodox patriarchates of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, and the Orthodox churches derived from them – those churches who accepted the Council of Chalcedon (451). Later it became customary to also describe the Armenian, Coptic, Syrian and Ethiopian churches as Orthodox. The majority of Christians in what was the Eastern Empire (present-day Albania, Armenia, Belarus, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Georgia, Greece, Macedonia, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Syria, Turkey, Ukraine), and in most of the Middle East, belong to Orthodox churches.

Papacy The papacy is the office and jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome (the pope). Because of the tradition that Peter and Paul (the two main leaders of the apostolic Church) were martyred in the imperial city of Rome, the bishop of the local church of Rome is regarded as the possessor of a specific authority

94 associated with the mission and well-being of the whole Church. This mission implies a specific of jurisdiction for the oversight of all the other bishops and the churches these bishops serve as vicars of Christ (cf. Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, n.27). Over the centuries, the relations between the bishop of the principal Episcopal See and the other bishops have not been without tensions and even conflicts. Although for some Christians the papacy remains an important stumbling block on the way to full visible unity of the disciples of Christ, it is regarded by Catholics as a gift from God and essential to the structure of the Church.

The Roman papacy changed considerably from its simple beginnings in the first centuries and the monarchical form it assumed during the Middle Ages when it exercised worldly power. Such changes have been linked to the evolution of the whole Church and its relation to the whole of human history. Sometimes many tasks assumed by the Bishop of Rome were the consequence of political and social conditions as, for instance, the government of the so-called . At times external pressures obscured the authentic nature of the papacy. One of the main challenges of the papacy is to judge all tasks in the light of the Gospel in order to avoid transforming ecclesiastical jurisdiction into political power. It is clear that during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries the papacy has been led, because of political circumstances as well as a commitment to renewal, to give up most of its worldly power.

Palestine Palestine is one of the names for the “Holy Land” or the “Bible Lands”. The name is a Greek corruption of “Philistia”, the Land of the Philistines who occupied the coastal strip of the “Promised Land” at the time the Israelites moved into the “land of Canaan” after the Exodus from Egypt. By the time of Jesus the area between the Jordan valley and the Mediterranean Sea was generally referred to as Palestine. It was slightly more extensive than the modern State of Israel.

Parish Normally a parish is a territorial division of a diocese with its own church and its own pastor. The word parish has its origins in a Greek word meaning neighbour.

Sometimes non-territorial parishes may be formed to meet particular cultural or other needs.

Patriarch A title for the highest ranking bishop of an autonomous church or federation of local dioceses, with effective jurisdiction over all its bishops. The title, which was Jewish in origin, came to be applied to the principal bishops of a region. In 451 Emperor Justinian I determined the five chief patriarchal sees as Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, and in the East the title became restricted to those sees. There are six Eastern Catholic churches with a patriarchal structure (Armenian, Chaldean, Coptic, Maronite, Melkite, West Syrian) where the patriarch is subordinate to the pope.

95 Penance Prayer or work performed to express sorrow for sin. In the or Reconciliation penance is performed at the direction of the priest after receiving the Sacrament.

Penitent (N.1450-60) A penitent is someone who acknowledges their sinfulness. Liturgically penitents are those participating in the Rite of Reconciliation.

Pilgrim / Pilgrimage A pilgrim is someone who makes a journey for religious reasons. A pilgrimage is such a journey. Hindus make pilgrimages to their sacred sites such as the River Ganges, and Muslims make pilgrimages to Mecca. Pilgrimages to the Holy Land have been popular in Christianity since early in the history of the Church. In mediaeval times many other sites of pilgrimage developed, e.g. to the shrine of St James at Santiago de Compostella in Spain, or to that of St Thomas à Becket in Canterbury. In more recent centuries Marian shrines such as those at Fatima and Lourdes have developed. The Church is often regarded as a pilgrim people on a journey through life towards the heavenly Jerusalem.

Porch of Solomon Attached to the original temple of Solomon was "the porch of judgement" where King Solomon would make judgements and exercise justice.

In the Temple of Herod, the porch or portico was located on the east side of the outer court and rested on a massive retaining wall (which can still be seen in part at the present Temple wall area). According to Josephus this was the area of the original temple that survived and was still standing in Jesus' day: "Its fineness, to such as had not seen it, was incredible; and to such as had seen it was greatly amazing". It was in these cloisters that the Levites resided and it was here that the doctors of the law met to hear and answer questions.

Prayer of the Church Formerly known as the Divine Office, this official prayer of the Church is in a book called ‘The Liturgy of the Hours’ by which name it is also known. The intention of the Liturgy of the Hours is to provide for priests and lay people, a means to ‘pray constantly’. It sets down a pattern of prayers, hymns, psalms, scripture and other readings for Morning and Evening Prayer and for other times of the day.

Psalms (N.2585-2589) The Psalms are a collection of 150 Israelite lyrics, poems and prayers found in the Wisdom Books of the Old Testament. They represent the work of several centuries and some may be the work of King David to whom many are ascribed. The Book of Psalms (or Psalter) is the ‘masterwork of prayer in the Old Testament. The Psalms contain many forms of prayer, such as lamentation and thanksgiving, but all in praise of God. The Psalms are part of

96 the liturgy and for centuries have been among the best-loved prayers of Christians.

Refectory The dining room where the monastic community ate their meals, while listening to spiritual reading, or in silence.

Relics From the Latin word reliquiae meaning ‘remains’, relics are parts of the bodies of canonised saints or objects associated with them, such as their clothing. The custom of venerating relics developed in the early Church along with the veneration of the saints themselves. Relics are often contained in a special vessel called a reliquary. They are also set into altars.

Reverence An attitude of respect towards holy places, things or persons.

Rome / Roman Empire The city-state of Rome on the Italian peninsula emerged as the dominant power in the Mediterranean area after defeating its rival Carthage in 146 B.C. At first governed as a Republic, Rome became an Empire in 27 B.C. It was during the reign of the first Emperor, Augustus Caesar, that Jesus was born. Palestine had become part of the Roman Empire in 63 B.C. Most Jews regarded the Romans as oppressive rulers and there was much unrest. In 70 A.D. a Roman army destroyed Jerusalem, killing many Jews and driving many into exile.

Rosary (N. 2678, 2708) This is the most popular of all Catholic devotional prayers. Its name comes from the Latin ‘rosarium’ meaning a collection of devotional texts. Its origins are lost in the past though the Dominican Friars did much to popularise the prayer in the Middle Ages. Its present form dates from the 16th Century. The Rosary consists in the recitation of fifteen ‘decades’ (sets of ten) of the Hail Mary each introduced by the Lord’s Prayer and concluded with a . Each decade is accompanied by a meditation on some aspect of the life of Christ or the Virgin Mary. Traditionally, these have been divided into three groups of five known as the Joyful, Sorrowful and Glorious Mysteries. In 2002, Pope John Paul II introduced a new set of mysteries – the Mysteries of Light – which focus on the public life of Christ. Usually only one of these sets is recited at a time. To assist the memory, the prayers are usually counted on a string of beads.

Rose Window A circular stained glass window usually constructed above the entry to a church.

Saints (N.825, N.956) Sometimes, as in St Paul’s letters, the term saints is applied to all those saved by Christ, living or dead. But generally speaking, saints are those people who have died and are now with God. In some usages, saints are all those in

97 Heaven. At other times the term refers particularly to those canonised by the Church – that is those who have been, after investigation of the holiness of their lives, officially declared to be in Heaven, as models and intercessors for believers.

Schism From the Greek “division”, a schism is a separation into opposed groups. have harmed the life and unity of the Church but are not to be confused with heresy, which is the wilful rejection of revealed truths. Schismatics offend against love by breaking off communion with other members of the Church. Schisms are not usually caused by disputes over doctrine but by disagreements over matters of authority and church order.

The most serious schism in Christianity has been that between the Catholic West and the Orthodox East which formally dates from 1054. Despite the reconciliation between Rome and Constantinople expressed in ceremonies held by Pope Paul VI and Athenagoras I, the patriarch of Constantinople, in 1965 the schism has not been fully healed.

The Great Western Schism (1378-1417) was a period of crisis within the Church that occurred when two then three rival popes claimed papal authority. It was ended by the Council of Constance (1417) which elected Martin V as pope.

Second Coming From the Greek parousia meaning “arrival” or “coming”. The expectation among Christians of a return of the exalted Jesus. In 1 Thessalonians, Paul uses apocalyptic imagery to indicate that Christians who have died will rise to greet the Lord at his coming (1 Thess 4:13-18). At the Parousia, Jesus will appear in glory (e.g. Mark 13:26). That day will see Christ revealed as judge; the wicked will be destroyed (2 Thess 1:7-10) and the righteous vindicated (Rev 20:4-6). That an imminent return of the exalted Jesus was eagerly awaited by the early Christians is evident in the expectant prayer Maran atha, "Come, Lord" (1 Cor 16:22; see also Rev 22:20) and in Paul's instructions to remain in one's present state since the "time has grown short" (1 Cor 7:25- 31).

The belief in an imminent Parousia and the hope that God would triumph over civil powers gave rise to the notion of an earthly millennial reign of Jesus, based on Rev 20:4-6. Such millenarian beliefs continued with varying intensity through the early centuries of Christianity. With the rule of Constantine in the fourth century, an emperor sympathetic to Christianity, greater emphasis is placed on the historic successes of the Church. Such concerns, together with the increasingly evident delay in Jesus' return, effectively quashed active hope in an imminent Parousia, although anticipation of Jesus returning as heavenly judge continued and is enshrined in early credal statements.

98 Scriptorium The workroom in monasteries where manuscripts were written and decorated. Often near the library, the scriptorium was positioned so that it would admit the maximum amount of light.

Tracery A popular Gothic window composed of two lancets topped by a rose window and crowned with a pointed arch.

Veneration A devotional practice where the faithful bow, genuflect or kiss, a holy image such as a crucifix or icon as a sign of respect.

Vernacular From the Latin word meaning “native”. The term refers to the indigenous language of a particular country, region, or culture. When a community uses its own language in the Liturgy, rather than a so-called dead language such as Latin, it is said to be using the vernacular.

Vikings From the eighth century onwards, as a result of overpopulation in Scandinavia, the Vikings or “Northmen” ravaged the northern coasts of Europe for more than 200 years. Their men took to longships for plunder, trade, mercenary service, and adventure.

From c.700 parties of Vikings would raid isolated settlements in the British Isles or Frisia before sailing home at the end of each season. From the middle of the ninth century, huge Viking camps were set up to act as bases for more protracted campaigns of pillage against northern France. They captured ports such as Rouen and Nantes, whilst sailing off to Portugal (844), to the Balearic Islands, even to Provence and Tuscany (859-62). In 851 they invaded England, fanning out through the eastern half of the country. From 866 the 'Danelaw' was established from Northumbria to East Anglia. The struggle between the Anglo-Saxons and the Danes dominated the next 150 years of England's history.

The Norwegian Vikings concentrated on the outer islands. They occupied the Orkneys and Shetlands in the eighth century, the Faroes, the Hebrides, and eastern Ireland in the ninth. Their major colony, Iceland, was settled from 874. Dublin was founded in 988. They discovered Greenland; and in all probability, under Eric the Red, they sailed on to North America, which they called Vinland. The Swedish Vikings operated throughout the Baltic.

Visitation The meeting between Mary and Elizabeth described in Luke 1:39-56. Mary, having learned that both she and her aged cousin have conceived, visited Elizabeth and stayed with her for three months. On her arrival Mary sang the song of praise known as the Magnificat. The feast of the Visitation is celebrated on 31 May. The event is also commemorated in one of the joyful mysteries of the Rosary.

99 GLOSSARY OF MĀORI TERMS

This glossary gives explanation of Māori terms which are italicised in the text.

Pronunciation – correct pronunciation of Māori comes only with practice in listening to and speaking the language. The English phonetic equivalents provided under each Māori word are intended to give help, for teachers who need it, in providing reasonably accurate examples for students. If in doubt please seek assistance from someone practised in correct pronunciation of Te Reo Māori.

´ indicates stressed syllable

Aroha (úh-raw-huh) In general, means love and/or compassion. Note that the word is used in two senses:

1. A joyful relationship involving the expression of goodwill and the doing of good, empathy.

2. Sympathy, compassion towards those who are unhappy or suffering.

Atua (úh-too-uh) The Māori word Atua has been used to describe God in the Christian sense since missionary times. Before the coming of Christianity, Māori used the word atua to describe many kinds of spiritual beings (in the way we now use the word “spirit”) and also unusual events. Only the priestly and aristocratic classes of Māori society (ariki, rangatira and tohunga) had access to knowledge of the Supreme Being, Io, also known as Io-matua, Io-matua-i-te- kore, Io-te-wananga, etc. It seems that many, but not all, tribes had this belief in Io before missionary times. Māori use several words to refer to God in the Christian sense:

Te Atua – God, the Supreme Being

Ihowa – Jehovah

Te Ariki – Lord, more correctly used of Jesus

Te Matua – the father (literally, parent)

Io – a term used for God in some, but not all Māori circles. (Te Atua is acceptable in all circles.)

Hākarameta (háh-kuh-ruh-meh-tuh) Sacrament.

100 Hehu Karaiti (héh-hoo kuh-rúh-ee-tee) Jesus Christ.

Hīkoi Tapu (hée-kaw-ee túh-poo) Pilgrimage or sacred journey.

Hohou Rongo (háw-haw-oo ráw-ngaw) The restoring of tapu and mana, by a process of reconciliation which involves acknowledging violations, accepting responsibility and giving redress.

When written with initial capital letters, Hohou Rongo, refers to the Sacrament of Penance or Reconciliation.

Karakia (kúh-ruh-kee-uh) Prayer, ritual.

Mana (múh-nuh) Spiritual power and authority. Its sources are both divine and human, namely, God, one’s ancestors and one’s achievements in life. Mana comes to people in three ways: mana tangata, from people, mana whenua, from the land, and mana atua, from the spiritual powers.

Please note: when mana refers to Mana of God it is written as Mana.

Noa (náw-uh) Free from tapu restrictions, which have been lifted by ceremony or ritual. This form of noa is positive, it is the freedom to go on with life after being released from restricting factors, e.g after a pōwhiri or welcoming ceremony; on leaving a cemetery; after a reconciliation; etc. Noa can also be negative: a state of weakness and powerlessness which affects both people who have suffered violation or abuse and also those who have caused violation or abuse.

Rongopai (ráw-ngaw-puh-ee) Gospel or Good News. Nga Rongopai (plural). Te Rongopai (singular).

Tangata Whenua (túng-uh-tuh féh-noo-uh) Indigenous people of the land, or their descendants. Local people, home people, people of a marae are usually spoken of as hunga kāinga, iwi kāinga or tangata kāinga, not tangata whenua.

Taonga (túh-aw-nguh) A taonga is a treasure – something greatly valued. It may be something physical such as a carved building or an artefact, or it may be something intangible or spiritual such as a language – te Reo Maori.

Tapu (túh-poo) This word is used in three senses:

1) restrictions or prohibitions which safeguard the dignity and survival of people and things

101 2) the value, dignity, or worth of someone or something, eg the holiness of God, human dignity, the value of the environment

3) the intrinsic being or essence of someone or something, eg tapu i Te Atua is the intrinsic being of God, the divine nature.

Please note: when tapu refers to the Tapu of God it is written as Tapu.

Te Ao Wairua (teh úh-aw wúh-i-roo-uh) The spiritual world.

Te Aranga (teh úh-ruh-nguh) The Resurrection.

Te Matua (teh múh-too-uh) This means father or parent. It is the word used for father in the Lord’s Prayer in Māori. Matua wahine means mother in the Hail Mary. Matua tane means father. Note that mātua with a long vowel, is the plural of the word.

Te Matua o Te Atua (teh múh-too-uh aw teh úh-too-uh) In the Hail Mary this means Mother of God.

Te Rangatiratanga (teh ruh-nguh-tée-ruh-tuh-nguh) The reign of God.

Te Tiriti O Waitangi (teh tée-ree-tee aw wúh-ee-tuh-ngee) The Treaty of Waitangi.

Te Wā (teh wáh) A period of time in which a series of events, affecting people and their lives, takes place, which enable people to reach goals, or moments of achievement.

Te Wairua Tapu (teh wúh-ee-roo-uh túh-poo) The Holy Spirit.

Waiata (wúh-ee-uh-tuh) Song or hymn.

Whakapono (fúh-kuh-paw-naw) Faith.

Whānau (fáh-nuh-oo) Extended Family.

102 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

FIRST EDITION (1991)

This booklet was part of a series prepared by the members of a Writing Party:

David Hawke fsc (Auckland) Rita Haase (Auckland) Anne Ward rsj (Hamilton) Barbara Henley rndm (Palmerston North) Gary Finlay (Wellington) Mervyn Duffy sm (Wellington) Marcellin Wilson rsm (Wellington) Charles Shaw (Christchurch) Edwige Fava (Dunedin)

SYLLABUS CO-ORDINATOR: Gary Finlay (NCRS, Wellington)

EDITORS: Gary Finlay (NCRS, Wellington) Elizabeth M Russell sjc (NCRS, Auckland)

THEOLOGICAL CONSULTORS: † John Mackey DD Paul Williamson sm, S.T.D., M.A. (Hons)

TYPIST: Kath Rowland (NCRS, Auckland)

SECOND EDITION (2002)

CO-ORDINATOR/EDITOR: Charles Shaw

THEOLOGICAL CONSULTOR: Mons Vincent Hunt

LITURGICAL CONSULTOR: Rev Anthony Harrison

CONTACT FOR MAORI CONSULTATION: Rev Bernard Dennehy

NCRS: Gary Finlay, Director Joan Parker rndm, Editing Marilyn Roberts, Secretary

103 Titles of the Topics in Year 10

STRANDS Human Experience 10A Scripture and Tradition 10B, 10G Church History 10D Theology 10H Sacrament and Worship 10C, 10F Social Justice 10E RELIGIOUS EDUCATION PROGRAMME

FOR CATHOLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN AOTEAROA NEW ZEALAND

The Church‘s Story – The Middle Ages

10D TEACHER GUIDE

CEP1014