Copyright © Museum Tusculanums Press Head-Hunting in Europe Montenegrin Heroes, Turkish Barbarians and Western Observers Bozidar Jezernik Jezernik, Bozidar 2001: Head-Hunting in Europe. Montenegrin Heroes, Turkish Barbarians and Western Observers. – Ethnologia Europaea 31: 21–36. From the 19th century onwards, Western travellers paid full attention to the custom of cutting-off human heads in the Balkans which they perceived as a clear- cut line between civilised and barbarian forms of existence. The image of the Balkans and its people in these travel reports was seasoned with a liberal measure of partiality and biases, for it was not unimportant at all who did it. Montenegrins head-cutters were heroes, “Turkish” head-cutters were the barbarians. On the other hand, the vivid interest by Westerners showed for the “barbarous custom” in the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries indicate that in the West the barbarian “Other” had been but repressed rather than completely eliminated. Prof. Dr. Bozidar Jezernik, Department of Ethnology and Cultural Anthropology, University of Ljubljana, Zavetiska 5, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia. E-mail: [email protected] Until the beginning of the 20th century the the Priest-Prince. Our guides, however, pointed Balkans was a promised land for hunters of to it with exultation. They had all, as it was the bizarre phenomena. The cutting off heads, as duty of the warlike inhabitants of the Black one British anthropologist put it, was common Mountains, taken part in raids upon the Mus- in Turkey and could be performed without fear sulmans and in the border wars, which were of scandal (Durham 1905: 148). From the 19th constantly taking place, and had their stories to century onwards, Western travellers paid full relate of slaughtered Turks and bloody spoils, attention to this custom treating the sight of such as those exposed on the round tower” such trophies in the Balkans as a clear-cut line (Layard 1903: I, 128). between civilised and barbarian existence. The custom reminded them, as a German author During his stay in Cetinje Sir Layard visited put it, “of the naivety of the Homeric age” the vladika of Montenegro whose fort was dec- (Hertzberg 1853: 19). At the beginning of the orated with Turkish heads. To contrast this 20th century the custom was considered proof custom with civilisation more clearly, he de- that in the Balkans “but a century ago much of scribed how the vladika had procured a billiard- the population was as wild as the Red Indians table (a symbol of civilisation) from Trieste and of the same date” (Durham 1920: 26). Sir La- that they played together several times. yard, for instance, famous in later life for his discovering of Nineveh, described the following “On one occasion whilst we were so engaged, a picture from Cetinje in 1839: loud noise of shouting and of firing of guns was heard from without. It proceeded from a party of “(A) number of gory heads with their long tufts Montenegrin warriors who had returned from a of hair waving in the wind, the trophies of a successful raid into Turkish territory of Scu- recent raid upon the neighbouring Turks. It was tari, and, accompanied by a crowd of idlers, a hideous and disgusting sight which first greet- were making a triumphal entry into the village. ed the traveller on his arrival at the residence of They carried in a cloth, held up between them, EthnologiaEthnologia Europaea Europaea vol. 31: vol. 2; 31: e-journal. 1. 2004. 2004. ISBN 87 635 0136 8 21 Copyright © Museum Tusculanums Press several heads which they had severed from the comrades cut off his head” (Bronevsky 1818: I, bodies of their victims. Amongst these were 267–268). those apparently of mere children. Covered with gore, they were a hideous and ghastly Some years later, a French staff-major of the spectacle. They were duly deposited at the feet Second Division of the Illyrian Army (French) of the Prince, and then added to those which at Dubrovnik visited Montenegro. He watched were displayed on the round tower near the this custom with less compassion and saw more convent” (Layard 1903: I, 132). details. According to him the Montenegrins cut off the heads of captured robbers and Muslims. But it seems that the West had a short memory In his accounts, he informs his readers about a and indeed had forgotten its own practises a few journey he took with a group of Montenegrins, generations earlier “when it, too, was young.” In during which they encounter a group of Mus- the early centuries of the modern era, for in- lims. The Montenegrins darted forward and the stance, London Bridge attracted tourists with “Turks” retired abruptly in great disorder, leav- its criminals’ heads stuck on to the points of ing one of their party dead and two wounded. spears (Maczak 1995: 223). In England, the The latter were immediately seized and decap- custom of displaying severed heads was re- itated; their heads were brought in triumph to tained until the second half of the 18th century, the French officer. This spectacle was not a when passers-by paid six pennies for the privi- pleasant one for the officer. It caused him, he lege of viewing them. wrote, “many painful sensations” and made him “I saw the heads when they were brought up “more than once regret having undertaken this to be boiled,” wrote a seventeenth-century pris- journey” (Sommieres 1820: 24). Yet it was not so oner in Newgate. unpleasant that he changed his plans of visit- ing and seeing as much of this strange land as “The Hangman fetched them in a dirty dust possible. During his journey, he came across basket, out of some by-place; and, setting them further examples of this practise. He saw the down among the felons, he and they made sport greatest number of severed heads during his with them. They took them by the hair, flouting, stay in the monastery of St Vasil. In every jeering, and laughing at them; and then, giving direction at a distance of two or three leagues, them some ill-names, boxed them on the ears he saw the “horrible spectacle” of vast numbers and cheeks. Which done, the Hangman put of Turkish heads fixed upon staves standing them into his kettle, and parboiled them with upon the hills (Sommieres 1820: 35). Bay-Salt and Cummin-Seed – that to keep them In the spring of 1838 king of Saxony, Frederic from putrefaction, and this to keep off the fowls August, visited Vladika Peter II of Montenegro from seizing them” (Hibbert 1966: 43). during his botanical tour. Frederick August was less delicate than the French staff-major and expressed his wish to see “a souvenir of valour The First Reports of the Montenegrins” namely the embalmed A detailed report about the custom of cutting off head of Mahmud Pasha of Shköder. The Mon- and displaying heads was written by a Russian tenegrins had been incorporated into the pash- naval officer who visited Montenegro in the aluk of Mahmud Pasha according to the peace th first decade of the 19 century. He looked upon treaty between Emperor Leopold II and the the people of Montenegro as brave and reliable Sublime Porte in 1791, but refused obedience allies of Russia in its wars against Turkey. The and tribute. This led the pasha to attack Mon- custom of taking heads, in his eyes, was con- tenegro with fire and sword in 1796. During the vincing proof of Montenegrin heroism: war Vladika Peter Petroviç I found himself in the middle of the clash, holding a cross in one “A Montenegrin never sues for mercy and when- hand and a spade in the other to animate his ever one of them is severely wounded, and it is people against the invaders. His people were impossible to save him from the enemy, his own victorious and slaughtered many enemies. They EthnologiaEthnologia Europaea Europaea vol. 31: vol. 2; 31: e-journal. 1. 2004. 2004. 22 ISBN 87 635 0136 8 Copyright © Museum Tusculanums Press even seized the pasha himself, cut off his head, bouring territories. This practise provided Mon- and preserved it as a token of their deed. The tenegrin society which did not have hereditary head was preserved in the monastery of Cetinje, rank with a system of social prestige (Karadziç together with his sword and turban, where it 1837: 29, 35, 53; Hertzberg 1853: 19; Krasinski was “religiously kept” in a special nut-wood 1853: 50; Pelerin 1860: 27; Neale 1861: 186; chest of fine work (Biasoletto 1841: 95–96). Frilley and Wlahovitj 1876: 437, 450; Andrejka When Sir Gardner Wilkinson visited Mon- 1904: 344; Durham 1928: 172; Nenadoviç 1975: tenegro in 1844 he saw a round tower above 41). Cetinje decorated with Turkish heads. He in- According to accounts up to the 20th century spected the tower down to the smallest detail: old men enjoyed telling tales of the heads they and their friends had taken. In a monastery “On a rock, immediately above the convent, is a near Danilovgrad, a local doctor and young round tower, pierced with embrasures, but with- monk proudly showed a British anthropologist out cannon; on which I counted the heads of the tomb of Bajo Radoviç. His weapons and twenty Turks, fixed upon stakes, round the medals were carved upon it and his epitaph parapet, the trophies of Montenegrin victory; stated that he fell in the battle with the Turks and below, scattered upon the rock, were the in 1876 after hewing off fifteen Turkish heads. fragments of other skulls, which had fallen to As the doctor explained, when King Nikola rode pieces by time; a strange spectacle in a Chris- by, he reined his horse, lifted his cap and prayed: tian country, in Europe, and in the immediately “God give thee salvation, Bajo.