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A “Lasting Solution”: the Eastern Question and British Imperialism, 1875-1878

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A “Lasting Solution”: the Eastern Question and British Imperialism, 1875-1878 A “Lasting Solution”: The Eastern Question and British Imperialism, 1875-1878 A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA BY Leslie Rogne Schumacher IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Anna Clark, Ph.D. July 2012 © Leslie Rogne Schumacher 2012 Acknowledgements Acknowledgements often mention the trouble of making sure every person who helped the author is named and thanked. For me the problem is not so much the identity of those who have aided me, but rather making sure I thank everyone properly. At the risk of a cliché, I would say that this might be the single hardest part of the dissertation process in that appropriate gratitude cannot be cloaked, as much academic writing is, by vague or pedantic language. A thank-you deserves to be said as clearly as possible. This thesis would not have been possible without regular support, cajoling, and at times even gentle coercion from my family. My mother, Dr. Leah Rogne, herself a veteran of the war against the dissertation, spoke to me with the combination of empathy and deference that comes with having fought through the wounds and setbacks of a Ph.D. program to final triumph. She taught me that writing a dissertation is a glorious, unique intellectual endeavor that invariably comes in the form of a long, often painful slog of general busywork. The realization that there is no conflict between these two aspects of serious academic writing was key to maintaining my progress, despite my desires at times to pack it all in and quit. I would not be what I am without her. My father, Fred, is a gentle, caring man who would never make anyone do something they did not want to do. For this reason, his words to me as a frustrated 22 year-old looking for sympathy (namely by suggesting I quit writing my undergraduate honors thesis) stood out to me time and again throughout the last six years of graduate school: “No,” he had said. “You can’t quit. Because you’ll always wonder, no matter what you do in life, whether you could have actually done it.” The shock I felt at his uncompromising attitude underscored the important lesson we all must learn that, in i undertaking a difficult project, quitting is a failure of character. For this and his limitless kindness I say thanks. My brother, Janos, and my grandmother, Katherine, provided me with time away from the dissertation and the general academic space, in two very different but equally important ways. My brother helped me with the clear eyes and mind of an intelligent, well-read non-academic, who never hesitated to point out when I was (and am) full of hot air or rambling discursively. Reclining at his house with his wife, Beth, and two daughters, Amara and Sonja, I appreciated Janos’ always-generous portions of alcohol and cheap cigars, which made for a comfortable setting to complain and pontificate. My grandmother’s fine interest in European history and the stories of her world travels in the 1930s constantly reminded me to make sure my dissertation told the kind of stories she would like to read. I hope it can also serve as a story of my own—a thank-you for all she has done for me in mind and spirit over the years. My undergraduate adviser, colleague, and friend Dr. John Mazis provided me with a stable presence throughout my graduate education. His combination of keen insight, acerbic wit, and cutting criticism never failed to keep me on track, as I always knew that underneath it all is a man of great compassion and integrity. He always believed in me, and this was an essential touchstone I used whenever things looked bleak or I felt self-indulgently low. I look forward to the many conversations, laughs, and beers we will share in the coming years. My adviser, Dr. Anna Clark, has been and continues to be a figure whom I respect and admire. Her zeal for and commitment to my project combined with her sober and critical commentary on it taught me that it is not enough to know what you want to do, ii you have to learn how to do it right or else you do a disservice to the material and your historical subjects. Her confidence in my abilities, her sympathy with my frustrations, and her amazing ability to intuit my concerns and cut to the chase made my graduate education so much smoother and manageable than my frantic, fevered brain often perceived it to be. I could not have asked for a better adviser, taskmaster, and friend these past six years. The rest of my committee, Drs. Theofanis Stavrou, Giancarlo Casale, Michael Hancher, and Andy Elfenbein contributed to this project greatly, each in their own individual ways. Dr. Casale’s lucid criticism and humorous conversation made for many enjoyable discussions and debates. Dr. Hancher’s unfailingly keen eye on matters ranging from philosophy, to academic debate, to historical fact, to the finer points of grammar and style have always humbled me, but his manner is so kind and considerate as to never have made me feel small or unworthy for my often embarrassing mistakes—a wonderful educator and person. Likewise, Dr. Elfenbein’s ability to, in the space of one comment, apprehend my purposes, make a hard-hitting critique, and propose a solution endlessly impresses me, pushing me to do better and do my damndest to impress him. Dr. Stavrou deserves a special thanks. We are linked by academic lineage through Dr. Mazis, who likewise studied at the University of Minnesota. Moreover, Dr. Stavrou is indirectly responsible for my fiancé, Kaja Tally, and I meeting one another: at an event he organized, she and I were two of the few students who thought a Friday evening was the perfect time to go to a lecture on Greece and EU. It was a match made in heaven, with Dr. Stavrou as unwitting cupid. Dr. Stavrou and his wife, Freda, are the generous benefactors of The Theofanis G. Stavrou Fellowship for the Study of Eastern iii Orthodox History and Culture, which was set up to fund students working in this field during the final stages of dissertation writing. As the first recipient of this fellowship, I am happy to report that it worked exactly for its intended purpose. My thanks go out to the staff at the Institute for Historical Research at the University of London, the British Library, and, especially, the UK National Archives at Kew for their aid in the three trips it took to do my archival research. The IHR offered a friendly face and an interesting collection of rare books; it was the hub around which I turned in my months in London. My short time at the British Library introduced me to their seemingly limitless collection of personal papers, which I hope to spend my life sifting through. The National Archives was a near-perfect place to study, with a friendly, helpful, and efficient staff and a wonderful setup for doing research, with both quick glances at some documents and weeks-long study of others nicely accommodated. It should be a model for all other archives, and its building and environs (especially The Railway pub, Kew’s chip shops, and the M&S around the corner) has become like a second home to me. Other people helped me in less direct, but significant ways. Dr. Tunç Aybak of Middlesex University gave me important feedback on several of the themes behind the dissertation. Dr. Susie Steinbach of Hamline University read several of my preliminary papers and made useful comments. Dr. Robert Darnton, Dr. Paul Beran, and John Palfrey of Harvard University offered a welcoming and stimulating environment during my semester there. My friends Jan Pieter Beetz of Exeter University and Simon Hill of Liverpool John Moores University helped me stay enthusiastic throughout the long process of the dissertation with endlessly brilliant questions and comments. My friends iv in the program, especially Justin Biel, Robert Gilmer, and Ed Snyder, helped make my years at Minnesota one of the best, most memorable times of my life. My friends Jesse Vanderwerf, Lindsey Hoskins, Arie Kroeger, and Christopher Haberman kept me aware of the world outside academia, making sure I came up for air from time to time. Kaja’s mother, Basia, generously opened her home to me again and again, while Kaja’s father, Nick, was as liberal with his glasses of wine and whiskey as he was with his shrewd and entertaining commentary on academia. Finally, I have saved the best for last. My greatest thanks go to, as Dr. Stavrou calls her, “my beloved.” Kaja was there the entire time. She never stopped supporting me, she never had any doubt I would finish. She was, and is, my center and my rock. This study would have been impossible without her love, kindness, and provisions of food and drink on late, late nights in front of the computer. This dissertation is my gift to you, Kaja, because without you it would not exist. v Dedication To Kaja, for all her patience, caring, and love. vi Abstract From the late eighteenth century until the 1920s, one of the preeminent international issues in Europe was the so-called “Eastern Question,” a term that refers to the events and dynamics related to the decline of the Ottoman Empire’s political and economic power. European states were concerned about the Eastern Question because the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire held the potential to destabilize existing international relationships, which European leaders feared would lead to economic calamity, political strife, and war.
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