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Britain, the Albanian Question and the Demise of the Ottoman Empire 1876-1914

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Britain, the Albanian Question and the Demise of the Ottoman Empire 1876-1914 Daut Dauti Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Leeds Faculty of Arts, Humanities and Cultures - School of History January 2018 1 The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. The right of Daut Dauti to be identified as Author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. 2 Acknowledgments I am indebted to many friends and family members who encouraged me to undertake this research. Grateful thanks are due to my supervisors, Professor Holger Afflerbach and Dr. Nir Arielli, who were a constant source of advice. I wish also to thank my wife, Bukurije Dauti, for accompanying me to different archives and helping to type and classify documents. Without their help, this dissertation would not have been possible. 3 Abstract This thesis is based on a wide range of primary and secondary sources and explores British policy towards the development of the Albanian national movement and the parallel demise of the Ottoman Empire. It pursues three major objectives. Firstly, it argues that during the period under discussion (1876-1914) Britain had only a limited involvement in the Albanian Question because of a lack of any major interest in Albania. This changed only during the various political crises and wars in the Balkans. In the context of such events, the British aimed to maintain the status quo in the region and secure their interests in the Mediterranean and Aegean seas, mainly by preserving Ottoman rule. There was a significant difference between Liberal, Gladstonian views towards the Balkans and Albania, and Conservative views, which were mainly created by Disraeli. British Liberalism had a long-standing influence on the way the Ottomans and the Albanians were viewed and showed partiality towards Christians in the region. The Albanians did not fit neatly into this Liberal framework, namely due to their multi-religiosity and a certain liberal partiality towards Christians. Secondly, this thesis argues that although Albanian nationalism was born in the early nineteenth century, it only grew significantly after 1878 as a result of the changes that were introduced by the San Stefano Treaty and the Congress of Berlin. Given the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, Albanian nationalist leaders believed that the Porte could not offer Albania sufficient protection against the territorial desires of neighbouring Balkan states like Greece, Montenegro and Serbia. Albanians therefore hoped to win British support and protection against the aggressive designs of their neighbours. The third major objective is to analyse the role of the Albanian insurrections in 1908, 1909, 1911 and 1912, and other important events in the lead-up to the fall of the Ottoman Empire. This thesis argues that Albania achieved independence due to a number of interlinking factors: as a result of Albanian nationalism, as a consequence of the Balkan 4 Wars, as a result of the fall of the Ottoman Empire and lastly also as a consequence of British involvement, as shown during the conference of London in 1912 where an Albanian national state was finally created. 5 Table of Contents Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….…10 Chapter I Creating the image of Albania Introduction …………………….………………………………………………………………….…………....... 20 The Balkans ………………………………………………………………………………………..………………… 22 The murky picture of unknown Albania………………..………………..……..….…..…………….. 26 The Travellers’ Albania……………..………..................……………………………………...…………. 29 From Gothicism to Gladstonian Liberalism ………………………………….……..…….…………. 36 Conclusion ……………………………………………….………………………………………..….….…………. 49 Chapter II The Congress of Berlin and the Albanian Question in the Governments of Disraeli and Gladstone 1878-1881 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………..….…… 51 The international context - from San Stefano to the Congress of Berlin ………….…… 53 The Albanian League and the Congress of Berlin ……………………..………………….….…… 56 Perceptions in Britain of the Albanians as a nationality …………..……………………..……. 61 Disraeli and Gladstone on the Eastern and Albanian Questions ….………………….……. 69 Difficulties in implementing the Treaty: The border disputes with 6 Montenegro and Greece ……………………………………………………………………………..……..…. 72 The Change in British Foreign Policy and the Conference of Berlin ……………….…….. 77 Key Actors and Their Stance Regarding British Policy ……………………………………..……. 81 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………………….…………….……. 88 Chapter III The Post-Berlin Period: British Liberalism and the Balkans Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………….…….. 91 British Foreign Policy and the Albanian Question 1883 – 1903 ……………….……….…. 93 The Balkan Committee’s Liberal Approach and Autonomy for Macedonia .………… 96 The Powers’ failure in Macedonia …………………………………………………………………..… 105 The success and failure of the Balkan Committee …………………………….……….…..…. 108 Conclusion ……………,………………………………………………………………………………….….…… 112 Chapter IV The Albanian national movement and the Young Turk Revolution 1899 – 1908 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 114 British Foreign Policy and the Albanian Question 1903 – 1908 ………………...….……. 116 Creating and implementing a nationalist plan ………..……………………….…………………. 123 Nationalist, local and conservative leaders …………..……………………………………………. 126 The birth of the Young Turks ……………………………………….………..……..…………….……… 133 The Young Turk Revolution: an Albanian tale of three cities …………….………………… 135 Conclusion ………………………………………….……………………………..……….………..….…….….. 143 7 Chapter V Language, Nationalism and Counter-Revolution, 1908-1910 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 145 British policy towards the Young Turks, 1908 – 1910 ………..……………………………….. 147 Unifying the language and the nation ……………………………………..…………………………. 157 Counter-Revolution: Albanian nationalism vs Young Turkish nationalism…………… 167 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………………..…………….. 178 Chapter VI Albania’s last efforts for autonomy and independence, 1911-1912 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 180 The insurrection of 1911 ………………………………………………………………………………….. 182 Changes in British and Austro-Hungarian policy ……………………………………………….. 187 From Autonomy to Independence ……………………………………………………………………. 197 The First Balkan War and Independence ………………………………………………….………. 205 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………………………...……….. 215 Chapter VII Edith Durham: The Balkans for the Balkan People Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 217 A Gladstonian view on the Balkans and placing Albanians among the Balkan people……………………………………………………………………………………………………..……….…. 219 8 The Balkan Wars and the rejection of the principle of nationality …………..….………. 233 The debate about two principles ………………………………………………………………………… 244 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 247 Chapter VIII Aubrey Herbert, the Albanian Committee and Albanian Statehood Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………….……… 249 Aubrey Herbert’s developing interest in the Albanian national cause ……….………. 252 The Albanian Committee …………………….…………………………………….…………..………….. 258 Edward Grey, the British position on Albania and the London Conference of Ambassadors ………………………………………………………………………………………………….….….….. 266 The Quest for a Monarch of Albania ……………………………………………………..…………… 273 Albania: A Failed Project ……………………………………….……………………………….…..……… 279 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………….…………………………..…..………. 285 Conclusion ……………………….……………………………………………………………..……....……….. 288 Appendixes ………………………………………………………….………….……….……………..….…….. 295 Appendix 1 ………………………………………………………………………………….……..….…..…….. 296 Appendix 2 ……………………………………………………………………………………..….……..……… 297 Appendix 3 ………………………………………………………………………………………..…….……….. 298 Bibliography …………………………………………..………..……………………….………….…..………. 299 9 Britain, the Albanian Question and the Demise of the Ottoman Empire 1876-1914 The Albanians passionately wanted a prince or Mpret [King]. The Great Powers promised to give them one. They wanted an Englishman because they believed that England, alone of the Great Powers, had no interests at stake in the Balkans. - Margaret Fitzherbert.1 Introduction In May 1913 the work of the London Conference of Ambassadors was still ongoing, but one important decision had already been taken: the independence of Albania. This decision gave rise to speculations about the choice of a sovereign for Albania and many European royal names were mentioned as potential candidates for the Albanian throne. At that time, a delegation of the Albanian Provisional Government had arrived in London, aiming to influence the decision-making process of the Conference and to win the support of the British public and government. Ismail Bey Qemali, also known as Ismail Kemal (1847-1919), the head of the Provisional Government and of the delegation, asked the British diplomat and politician Aubrey Herbert (1880-1923) how he would respond if the throne of Albania was to be offered to him. ‘Of course, the Prime [Minister] and all the rest of them have been ragging about it for an age, but I don’t know if I should have their support if it really comes along’, wrote Herbert.2 Herbert
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