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THINK TWICE, PLAY NICE 3 Acknowledgements To Martins Linauts, PhD, PT for his role as project chair and advisor. and To Reed Hodson, principal at Highland Elementary School, for his help and dedication to the project. THINK TWICE, PLAY NICE 4 Purpose Statement The purpose of this project was to create an anti-bullying program kit to enable faculty and staff at Highland Elementary School to decrease social bullying by encouraging positive social behaviors, teaching interpersonal skills, and facilitating appropriate group play at school. Literature Review Recently in the media, bullying has been a popular topic of discussion and clearly there needs to be a way to decrease bullying in schools. With the story of Phoebe Prince and others, who were students that committed suicide due to social bullying, there is an awareness that social bullying has impacted students more than previously assumed (Kennedy, 2010). The goal of this literature review is to understand the definition of bullying, how social exclusion and bullying has impacted students, student and teacher perspectives of the seriousness of bullying, characteristics of bullies and victims, and the effectiveness of school-wide anti-bullying programs. Through this paper, bullying will be explored by discussing what bullying is, its impact on students, and ways in which occupational therapy might contribute to minimizing social bullying in schools. What is Bullying? To effectively decrease bullying in schools, it is important to know the definition of what bullying is and also what it is not. The term “bullying” was first defined in 1993 by Olweus, who was a pioneering psychologist in bullying prevention, and stated, “A student is being bullied or victimized when he or she is exposed, repeatedly and over time, to negative action on the part of one or more other students” (as cited in Dake, Price, & Telljohann, 2003, p. 173). Bullying is THINK TWICE, PLAY NICE 5 most commonly defined with the following three characteristics: aggressive, an imbalance of power, and repetitive (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 2012). Behaviors such as playful teasing, a one-time fight, or play fighting should not be considered bullying because they are not continuing behaviors (Sullivan, 2000). Not only is it important to know the definition of bullying, but it is also necessary to know the different types of bullying, and where bullying is most likely to occur. Rigby (1996) suggests that bullying takes place in four settings (in highest to lowest frequency): the playground, the classroom, on the way home from school, and/or on the way to school. There are different types of bullying that can include but are not limited to: physical abuse, verbal abuse, social exclusion, and cyber-bullying (Violence Prevention Works, 2011). While physical and verbal bullying are outwardly damaging, the impact of social bullying on children is inwardly damaging but minimally recognized. Social Exclusion as a Form of Bullying Social bullying or social exclusion is a form of bullying that is often misunderstood or seen as harmless. Examples of social bullying include gossiping, rumors, ignoring, or excluding someone in a group activity (Craig, Pepler, & Atlas, 2000). Social bullying can damage students’ sense of self-esteem, increase their likelihood of anxiety and/or depression, and even lead to suicidal ideation (Dake, Price, & Telljohann, 2003). Wheeler (2004) expresses the concern of social bullying/exclusion: Peer support or rejection is a powerful social force. Socially accepted children have high self-esteem and self-confidence; enjoy the company of others; and have mutual loyalty, respect, trust, and support. Children who are rejected by THINK TWICE, PLAY NICE 6 peers are often disliked and ignored. Rejected children are perceived to be aggressive in peer interaction and demonstrate inappropriate social responses (p. 32L). To children, it is important to be socially accepted by their peers, and in some cases, they will do anything to belong to a group, even if it means continuing social bullying. Bullying behaviors can be influenced by group norms, motivating those who belong to the group to continue bullying to fit in (Duffy & Nesdale, 2009). A study conducted by Duffy and Nesdale (2009) sought to understand how peer group, social identity, and children’s bullying behaviors are interrelated. The researchers based their study on a concept known as social learning theory, which seeks to learn how social behaviors are learned within a social context. Duffy and Nesdale (2009) explain that individuals seek to belong to a group because it increases their positive social identity and that individuals may seek membership in a group that is considered more superior than other groups. The study concluded that social learning theory was apparent and stated, “Children belonging to groups with a norm for bullying were also found to display more bullying behaviors than those who belonged to groups with an anti-bullying norm” (Duffy & Nesdale, 2009, p. 133). There is reason to believe that children are influenced by their peers, because there is an inherent need to fit in or be part of a group. Further research is needed to conclude why groups with a norm for bullying perpetuate the bullying behaviors and whether the group members comprehend how bullying may impact their victim(s). The Bully, the Bullied, and the Bystanders A child’s social identity can be impacted by social bullying, and it is important to be aware of what ages and grades are more likely to experience bullying. Current research seeks to THINK TWICE, PLAY NICE 7 understand the prevalence of victimization within each stage of school. In a study conducted in the United States, researchers detailed the prevalence of victimization and found that elementary schools reported the highest prevalence of victimization at 19%, with middle schools and high schools reporting lower percentages of victimization (Dake, Price, & Telljohann, 2003). Elementary age students are more at risk to be involved in bullying either as a victim, bully, bully/victim, or as a bystander (Craig, Pepler, & Atlas, 2000). It is important to recognize how peers intervene when bullying is present on the playground, because research has shown that bullying behaviors are twice as frequent on the playground as in the classroom (Craig et al., 2000). Hawkins, Pepler, and Craig (2001) used a naturalistic observation study spanning 3 years to observe how peers intervene in bullying situations at two Toronto elementary schools. Participants in this study were children ranging from ages 6 to 12. The goal of their study was to describe the frequency and duration, the type, and the effectiveness of peer interventions during bullying incidents. Hawkins et al. (2001) found that “Peers were observed to intervene in 19% of the 306 bullying episodes” (Hawkins et al., 2001, p. 520). In a continuation of the study, it was noted that there were a few gender differences; boys were more likely than girls to be present during an observed bullying situation (Hawkins & Pepler, 2009). Boys were more likely to intervene than girls and did so in an aggressive or verbal way towards the bully. Hawkins et al. (2001) concluded from their observations that “Peer interventions were effective in stopping bullying within ten seconds over two-thirds of the time” (Hawkins et al., 2001, p. 522). To effectively decrease bullying school-wide, it is important to acknowledge the complexities of peer groups. If taught appropriate intervention methods for bullying situations, peer groups could THINK TWICE, PLAY NICE 8 help prevent future bullying on the playground. If bullying is not prevented, there can be serious impacts to a student’s emotional, physical, and mental health. How the Bullying Cycle Impacts Students In the past decade, suicide among youth has been observed as a rising statistic. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC] (2011) reported that, “For youth between the ages of 10 and 24, suicide is the third leading cause of death.” Marr and Field (2001) first coined the term “bullycide” in their book titled Bullycide: Death at Playtime. It is a term that has taken on serious meaning as more bullying-related deaths have taken place. In the Collins English Dictionary (2012), “bullycide” is defined as, “the act or an instance of killing oneself intentionally as a result of bullying.” Recently, child suicide resulting from bullying has greatly impacted the public’s view on the topic. In early 2010, the suicide of Phoebe Prince hit the headlines and created a shockwave of reactions throughout the world (Kennedy, 2010). Phoebe was a victim of social exclusion and bullying at her Massachusetts high school and her story has expressed to the world the pains of bullying. Her story has also brought to light many other students who have also committed suicide due to bullying, including Jared High in 1998, Ryan Halligan in 2003, Megan Meier in 2006, Eric Mohat in 2007, Carl Walker-Hoover in 2009, and Alexis Skye Pilkington in 2010 (The Week, 2010). It is crucial to recognize how bullying negatively impacts a student’s emotional, physical, and mental well-being in order to prevent students from feeling like suicide is the only option to escape from bullying. Understanding the correlations between bullying behaviors and suicide is needed for professionals working directly with the student population. Klomek, Sourander, and Gould THINK TWICE, PLAY NICE 9 (2010) sought to review longitudinal research to determine if suicide and bullying could be linked. In their cross-sectional results, they found that students who were bullied were more likely to be at risk for suicidal ideation and that victimization could lead to suicide depending on the sex of the victim, boys being the most likely to commit suicide (Klomek et. al., 2010). Bullying has the potential to impact a victim’s emotional, physical, and mental well- being, and research has been conducted to identify the impacts bullying can have on its victims.

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