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Female Rule in the Indian Ocean World (1300-1900)

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Female Rule in the Indian Ocean World (1300-1900) http://www.diva-portal.org This is the published version of a paper published in Journal of world history. Citation for the original published paper (version of record): Eklöf Amirell, S. (2015) Female Rule in the Indian Ocean World (1300-1900). Journal of world history, 26(3): 443-489 https://doi.org/10.1353/jwh.2015.0023 Access to the published version may require subscription. N.B. When citing this work, cite the original published paper. Permanent link to this version: http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:lnu:diva-60877 Female Rule in the Indian Ocean World (1300–1900) Stefan Amirell Journal of World History, Volume 26, Number 3, September 2015, pp. 443-489 (Article) Published by University of Hawai'i Press DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/jwh.2015.0023 For additional information about this article https://muse.jhu.edu/article/620809 Access provided by Lunds universitet (31 Jan 2017 09:17 GMT) Female Rule in the In dian Ocean World (1300–1900)* stefan amirell Lund University Introduction The In dian Ocean——here un der stood as the mar i time and lit to ral zones stretching from the east coast of Africa to the Malay Archi­ pelago of Southeast Asia—has the longest his tory of economic in te­ gration, intercultural contact, and commu ni ca tion of the world’s great oceans. Maritime commerce flourished along the northern shores of the ocean well be fore the be gin ning of the Common Era, and Aus tro ne sian mi grants trav eled across the ocean to set tle in Madagascar, prob a bly in sev eral waves from the mid dle of the first mil len nium c.e. to the mid­ dle of the sec ond mil lenni um. Long be fore the ar rival by sea of the first Eu rope ans at the end of the fifteenth centu ry , the Indian Ocean trad ing net work brought cul tural and re li gious im pulses back and forth over the ocean and along its coasts. Many signif i cant aspects of this great inter change have been explored by his to ri ans of the region, and the rise of global and entangled history in later years has led to a greater ap pre ci a tion of the var i ous types of sim i lar i ties, con tacts, and mu tual in flu ences across the ocean.1 *I thank Hans Hägerdal and Svante Norrhem for valu able comments and sug ges tions on the text. Research for this ar ticle was financed by a grant from the Swed ish Research Council. 1 There is an ex ten sive lit er a ture on trade and other types of in ter ac tion across the Indian Ocean in the premo dern era. See Kirti N. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilisation in the In dian Ocean: An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1985) for an in flu en tial syn the sis, and Markus P. M. Vink, “In dian Ocean Studies and the ‘New Thalassology,’ Journal of Global History 2 (2007): 41–62, for a rel a tively recent histo rio graph i cal survey . See also Jennifer L. Gaynoer, “Ages of Sail, Ocean Basins, and Southeast Asia,” Journal of World History 24 (2013): 309–33, for a re cent con tri bu tion. Journal of World History, Vol. 26, No. 3 © 2016 by University of Hawai‘i Press 443 444 journal of world history, september 2015 One con spic u ous fea ture, how ev er, has hith erto not been ex plored sys tem at ically for the Indian Ocean World as a whole: the rela tively great num ber of queens reg nant through out the pre co lo nial pe ri od. Regardless of whether we turn to court chron i cles, gene al o gies of rul ing dy nas ties, in dig e nous oral tra di tions, or ac counts by for eign ob serv ers, in clud ing Ar ab , Chi nese, and Eu ro pean vis i tors, we find nu mer ous ref­ erences to rul ing queens on the shores and is lands of the In dian Ocean between the fourteenth and nineteenth centu ry . Several im por tant stud ies of fe male rule in in di vid ual pol i ties or regions around the Indian Ocean rim have been published over the last few decades, but in the context of the history of the Indian Ocean World as a whole, female rule as a general phenom e non has hitherto not been the ob ject of any sys tematic study. As such, the current state­ of­the­art regarding fe male sov er eignty in the In dian Ocean World re flects the gen eral ne glect of gen der in world his tor i cal schol ar ship, notwith stand ing frequent calls for more gender analy sis of global his­ tor i cal pro cess es.2 The con trast is strik ing in com par i son with the cur­ rent schol ar ship re gard ing fe male sov er eignty in Europe in me di e val and early mod ern times, which has been ex plored by nu mer ous schol ars in re cent de cades.3 For the pres ent study, ref er ences to 277 women rul ers in the In dian Ocean World from the four teenth to the nineteenth cen tury have been col lected from the lit er a ture and published sources (see Ap pen dix). The list has been delimited only to women who, as far as we can tell, ruled in their own name—that is, not as, for ex am ple, re gents for a mi nor or ab sent male rul er. It seems reason able, how ev er, to as sume that more rul ing queens may be found, par tic u larly by scru ti niz ing un pub lished ma te rial and oral sources and that moreover , there were many more of whom no re cords have been pre served. The 277 queens listed in the 2 E.g., Patrick Manning, Navigating World History: Historians Create a Global Past (Hound­ mills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 208–11; Merry Wiesner­Hanks, “World History and the History of Women, Gender, and Sexuality,” Journal of World History 18 (2007): 53–67; Marnie Hughes­Warrington, “Genders,” in The Oxford Handbook of World History, ed. Jerry H. Bentley, 195–209 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011). 3 For a his to rio graphic sur vey, see Judith P. Zinsser and Bonnie S. Anderson, “Women in Early and Modern Europe: A Transnational Approach,” in Women’s History in Global Perspective, ed. Bonnie G. Smith, 3:111–44 (Urbana: University of Il li nois Press, 2005). For some of the more impor tant re cent con tri bu tions of broader scope, see Anne J. Cruz and Mihoko Suzuki, eds., The Rule of Women in Early Modern Europe (Urbana: University of Il li nois Press, 2009); William Monter, The Rise of Female Kings in Europe, 1300–1800 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2012); Theresa Earenfight, Queenship in Medi- eval Europe (Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013). Amirell: Female Rule in the Indian Ocean World (1300­1800) 445 ap pen dix should thus be seen as reflecting the ab so lute min i mum num­ ber of ruling queens in the Indian Ocean World. It is not pos si ble to make mean ing ful sta tis ti cal com par i sons be tween re gions in world his tory with regard to the num ber or share of fe male rul ers since the available­­ fig ures, among other things, depend on the avail­­able source, the def i ni tion of who is a sov er eign queen or ruler , and the number of states or state­like poli ties in each region. A bird’s eye’s view of the world be tween 1300 and 1900 nev er the less reveals some in terest ing patterns. No wom an, for ex ample, seems to have exer cised sover eign power over a sov ereign state in the Middle East and North Africa between 1300 and 1900, although a few nota ble women ex er cised con sid er able power as re gents, for ex am ple dur ing the so­called cen tury of women in the sev en teenth­cen tury Ot to man Em pire.4 East Asia saw only two fe male sov er eigns—both of them fig ure head Jap a nese em per ors (tennō)—dur ing this pe ri od, al though royal women oc ca sion­ ally were de facto influ en tial.5 Female rule seems to have been somewhat more fre quent in sub­Saharan Africa, Central Asia, and main land South Asia, but the avail­­able sources are, with a few ex cep tions, scarce, as they are for pre­Co lum bian America. Possibly with the excep tion of the sparsely popu lated re gion of Oceania (par tic u larly Polynesia), the only re gion apart from the In dian Ocean World in which female rule was rel a tively fre quent is Europe. Although there were only about thirty female sov er eigns in Europe be tween 1300 and 1900—in clud ing sev eral strong­willed and well­ known personalities such as Isabella I of Spain, Elizabeth I of Eng­ land, Christina of Sweden, and Catherine II of Russia—there were, in ad di tion, at least 170 women who, at one time or anoth er, ruled over more or less auton o mous fiefs.6 Many of these poli ties were at least as ad vanced as the small Indian Ocean states in terms of power , size, and com plex i ty.
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